• Classification of materials:

• Steels:
– Steel is a alloy of iron and carbon

A. Plain carbon steel:

• A plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and it is
malleable.
• Carbon steels are different from cast iron as regards the
percentage of carbon.
• Carbon steels contain from 0.05to 1.5% carbon whereas cast
iron possesses from 1.8 to 4.3% carbon.
• Caron steels can be classified as
1. Low carbon steel
2. Medium carbon steel
3. High carbon steel.
1. Mild steel:
– Mild steel or low carbon steels and contains up to 0.30% carbon.
it may classified as follows.

i. Dead mild steel – C 0.05 to 0.15%

– It is used for making steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws, pipe nail and
chain
– It has tensile strength of 390 N/mm2 and a hardness of about 115
BHN.

ii. Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.20% carbon has a tensile strength of 420
N/mm2 and hardness 125 BHN.
it is used for making camshafts, sheets and strips for fan blades, welded
tubing, forging, drag lines etc.

iii. Mild steel containing 0.20 to 0.30% carbon has a tensile strength of 555
N/mm2 and a hardness of 140 BHN.
it is used for making valves, gears, crank shafts, connecting rods, railway
axles, fish plates, small forgings etc.
2. Medium carbon steel:
– Medium carbon steel contain carbon from 0.30 to 0.70%
– Steel that containing 0.35 to 0.45% carbon have a tensile strength of about 750
N/mm2 . They are use for making.

1. Connecting rods 2. Wire and rods 3. Spring clips 4. Gear shaft

5. Key stock 6. Shift and brake levers 7. Axles 8. forging. etc

– Steel that containing 0.45 to 0.55% carbon have a tensile strength of about
1000 N/mm2 and are used for making parts those are to be subjected to shock
and heavy reversals of stress such as
1. Railway coach axles 2. Axles 3. Crank shafts
4. Crank pins on heavy machines 5. Spline shafts. etc

– Steels containing 0.6 to 0.7% carbon have a tensile strength of 1230 N/mm2
and a hardness of 400-450 BHN. Such steels are used for making.
1. Drop forgings die 2. Set screws 3. Die blocks 4. Clutch disc
5. Plate punches 6. Valve spring 7. Cushion rings 8. Thrust washer etc
3. High carbon steel:
– High carbon steels contain carbon from 0.7 to 1.5 %
– Steel containing 0.7 to 0.8% carbon have a tensile strength of about 1400
N/mm2 and a hardness of 450-500 BHN. These steels are used for making.

1. Cold chisels 2. Pneumatic drill bits 3. Wheels for railway service

4. Wrenches 5. Jaws for vises 6. Wire for structural work
7. Shear blades 8. Hacksaws 9. Automatic clutch disc etc.

– Steels containing 0.8 to 0.9 % carbon have a tensile strength of about 60

N/mm2 and a hardness of 500 to 600 BHN. Such steels are used for making.

1. Rock drills 2. Punch and dies 3. Railway rails 4. Clutch discs

5. Circular saws 6. Leaf spring 7. Machine chisels 8. Music wires etc.

– Steels that containing 0.90 to 1.00% carbon (high carbon tool steels) have a
tensile strength of 580 N/mm2 and a hardness of 550-600 BHN. Such steels are
used for making.

1. Punches and dies 2. Seed disc 3. Spring (leaf and coil)

4. Pins 5. Keys 6. Shear blades etc.
– Steel that containing 1.0 to 1.1% carbon are used for making.
1. Railway springs 2. Mandrels
3. Machine tools 4. Taps etc.

– Steel that containing 1.1 to 1.2% carbon are used for making.
1. Taps 2. Twist drills
3. Thread metal dies 4. Knives etc.

– Steel that containing 1.2 to 1.3% carbon are used for making.
1. Files 2. Reamers
3. Metal cutting tools etc.

– Steel that containing 1.3 to 1.5% carbon are used for making.
1. Wire drawing dies 2. Paper knives
3. Metal cutting saws 4. Tools for turning chilled iron etc.
• Alloy steels:
– Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum of the range given for
the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of the follower limits
Mn 1.65 % Si 0.60% Cu 0.60%
– In which a definite rang or a definite maximum quantity of any of the following
elements is specified or required within the recognized field of constructional
alloy steels. Al, B, Cr, Up to 3.99% Co, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V or any other alloying
elements aided to obtain a desired alloying effect.
– Given below is the composition of a typical alloy steel.
C 0.2 – 0.4% Mn 0.5 – 1.0%
Si 0.3 – 0.6% Ni 0.4 – 0.7%
Cr 0.4 – 0.6% Mo 0.15 – 0.3%
Fe Balance
– Alloying elements after the properties of steel and put in to a slightly different
class from carbon steel.
• Advantage Disadvantage of alloy steel:
– The important advantages and disadvantages in the choice of alloy steel from the
general point of view in relation to plain carbon steel are listed in the following.

Advantage:
– Greater hardenability.
– Less distortion and cracking
– Greater stress relief at given hardness
– Less grain growth
– Higher elastic ration and endurance strength
– Greater high temperature strength
– Batter machinability at high hardness
– Greater ductility at high strength.

Disadvantage:
– That may be encountered:
– Cost
– Special handling
– Tendency toward austenite retention
– Temper brittleness in certain grades.
• Purpose of alloying:
• The purpose of alloying steels are:
– Strengthening of the ferrite.
– Improved corrosion resistance.
– Better hardenability
– Grain size control
– Greater strength
– Improved machine ability
– Improved high or low temperature stability
– Improved ductility
– Improved toughness
– Better wear resistance.
• Effect of alloying elements:
• Carbon:
– Carbon content is steel affects:
– Hardness
– Tensile strength
– Machine ability
– Melting point

• Nickel:
– Increases toughness and resistance to impact
– Lessens distortion in quenching
– Lowers the critical temperature of steel and widens the range of successful
heat treat indent
– Strengthens steels.
– Renders high – chromium iron alloy austenitic.
– Does not unite with carbon.
• Chromium:
– Joint with carbon to form chromium carbide, thus adds to depth harden ability
with improved resistance to abrasion and wear.

• Silicon:
– Improves oxidation resistance
– Strengthens low alloy steels
– Acts as a deoxidizes.

• Titanium:
– Prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels during long
heating.
– Prevent formation of austenite in high chromium steels.
– Reduces martens tic hardness and harden ability in medium chromium steels.

• Molybdenum:
– Promotes harden ability of steels
– Makes steel fine grained.
– Makes steel unusually tough at variousness level.
 – Counteracts tendency towards temper brittleness
– Raises tensile and creep strength at high temperatures.
– Enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steel
– Forms abrasion resisting particles.

• Vanadium:
– Promotes fine grains in steel
– Increases hardenability
– Imparts strength and toughness to heat-treated steel\
– It is a powerful carbide former
– Stabilizes cementite and improves the structure of the chill.

• Tungsten:
– Increases hardness (and also red hardness)
– Promotes fine grain
– Resists heat
– Promotes strength at elevated temperature.
• Manganese:
– Contributes markedly to strength and hardness
– Counteracts brittleness from sulphur.
– Lowers both ductility and weldability if it is presents in high percentage with
high carbon content in steel.

• Copper:
– Increases resistance to atmospheric corrosion
– Acts as a strengthening agent.

• Boron:
– Increases hardenability or depth to which steel will harden when quenched.

• Aluminum:
– Acts as a de-oxidizer
– Produced fine austenitic grain size
– If present in an amount of about 1% it helps promoting nitriding.
• Cobalt:
– Contributes to red-hardness by hardening Ferrite.
– Improves mechanical properties such as tensile strength, fatigue strength and
hardness.
– Refines the graphite and pearlite.
– Is a mild stabilizer of carbides.
– Improves heat resistance.
– Retard the transformation of austenite and thus increase hardenability and
freedom from cracking and distortion.
• STAINLESS STEELS:
• Concept:
– When 11.5% or more chromium is added to iron a fine film of chromium oxide
forms spontaneously on the surfaces exposed to air. The film acts as a barrier
to retard further oxidation rust or corrosion. As this steel cannot be stained
easily it is called strain less steel.
– All stainless steels can be grouped in to three metallurgical classes.
(a) Austenitic (b) Ferritc (c) Martensitc
– Based on their microstructures. Each of the classes has different welding
requirements.

• Austenitic stainless steels:

1. They possess austenitic structure at room temperature.
2. They possesses the highest corrosion resistance of all the stainless steels.
3. They possess greatest strength and scale resistance at high temperature.
4. They retain ductility at temperatures approaching absolute zero.
5. They are non – magnetic so that they can be easily identified with a magnet.
6. They have the following composition.
G 0.03 – 0.25% Mn 2 to 10%
Si 1 to 2% Cr 16 to 26%
Ni 3.5 to 22% P and S Normal.
Mo and Ti in some cases
 7. They may find uses in
• Aircraft industry
• Chemical processing
• Food processing
• Household items
• Dairy industry

• Ferritic stainless steels:

1. They possess a micro-structure which is primarily ferritic.
2. Ferritic Stainless steels have a low carbon to chromium ratio. This
eliminates the effect of the rmal transformation and prevents
hardening by heat treatment.
3. These steels are magnetic and have good ductility
4. Such steels do not work harden to any appreciable degree.
5. Ferritic steels are more corrosion resistance than martensitc steels.
6. Ferritic steels develop their maximum softness ductility and corrosion
resistance in the annular
7. Ferritic stainless steels have the following chemical composition.
C 0.08 to 0.20% Si 1%
Mn 1 to 1.5% Cr 11 to 27%
• Martensitic stainless steels:
1. Martensitic stainless steels are identified by their martens tic microstructure
in the hardened condition.
2. Because of the higher carbon – Chromium ratio martensitic stainless steels
are the only types harden able by heat treatment.
3. These steels are magnetic in all conditions and possess the best thermal
conductivity of the stainless types.
4. Hardness, ductility and ability to held on edge are characteristics of
martensitic steels.
5. Martensitic stainless steels can be cold worked without difficulty especially
with low carbon content, can be machined satisfactory have good toughness,
show good corrosion resistance to weather and to some chemicals and are
easily hot worked.
6. Martensitic stainless steels have the following composition.
C 0.15 to 1.2% Si 1%
Mn 1% Cr 11.5 to 18%

– The structure condition known as austenite is favorable to the production of a

tough and ductile weld, capable of with standing considerable stress without
fracture. Hence, fore corrosion resistance and for a high degree of heat
resistance austenitic stainless steels are used in welded assemblies in
preference to ferritic or martensitic stainless steels.
• Tool steel:
– Tool and die steels may be defined as special steels which have
been developed to form, cut or otherwise change the shape of
material into a finished or semi -finished products.

– Properties of tool steels:

• Slight change of form during hardning.
• Little risk of cracking during hardning.
• Good toughness
• Good wear resistance
• Very good machinability
• A definite cooling rate during hardning
• A definite hardning temperature.
• Resistance to softening on heating (red hardness)

– Red hardness:
In reference to high-speed steel and other cutting tool materials, the
property of being hard enough to cut metals even when heated to a dull-
red color.
• Application of tool steels:
– Taps, drills, reamers, etc.
– General tool and die application
– Die work
– Tools for hot forging machine, hot trimming tools.
– Pneumatic tools, punches.
• Molybdenum steel:
– Molybdenum steel contains
C 0.26% Mo 0.76%
– Molybdenum steel, when heat-treated, produces a structure steel
which has increased elastic limit without correspondingly
decreased ductility.
– Molybdenum improve hot hardness and strength of steel.
– Molybdenum steels are less effected by temper brittleness.
– It is use for making:
1. Air craft landing gear
2. Fuselege
3. Coil and leaf spring
4. Pressure vessels
5. Transmission gear. etc
• Chromium steel:
– Chrome steel contains
C 0.36% Cr 0.57%
– Chromium intensifies the effect of rapid cooling on steel.
Therefore chromium is used only in steels which are to be heat-
treated.
– Chromium forms carbide and thus gives high hardness and good
wear resistance. In addition, chromium increases tensile strength
and corrosion resistance of low alloy steels.

% of Cr in steel uses
8% electrical purposes
15% springs, ball and roller bearings.
• Manganese steel:
– Manganese low alloy steels are characterized by:
Mn 1.6 to 1.9% C 0.18 to 0.48%
Si 0.2 to 0.35% S and P <= 0.040% each.
– Manganese increase hardness and tensile strength. A secondary
effect is an increased resistance to abrasion. The steels also
withstands the shock test excellently.
– Manganese steels are used for making.
• Power shovel buckets
• Grinding and crushing machinery
• Railway tracks, etc.