COMPUTER

INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING
(L–SCHEME)

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

Principal
Sri Renugambal Polytechnic College,
Polur – 606 907.
(Computer Integrated Manufacturing)

Copy right © : Publishers

No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval
system, transmitted or reproduced in any way, including but not
limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic or other record,
without prior agreement and written permission of the publisher.

First Edition : November 2003

Revised Edition : November 2008
Revised Edition : November 2016

Price : 158.00 For Contact :

99446 50380
Publisher : 96266 26747
KAL PATHIPPAGAM
Vellore – 632 011

Type setting :
Students’ Media Computer Graphics
Vellore – 632 011.
 Preface
This book on Computer Integrated Manufacturing has
been written to cover the latest revised syllabus for the
Polytechnic college students of VI Semester Mechanical
Engineering.

All the topics in this book are written in simple and

constructive manner with suitable examples and sketches.
I assure that the previous board examination questions
added at the end of each Unit will be more helpful to the
students while preparing for the examination.

I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to

M/s. KAL Pathippagam for their kind encouragement to
bring out this book in time. The author would be very glad
and thankful to receive any comments and constructive
suggestions for the improvement of this book.

N. Iyanarappan
(iyanarvlr1976@gmail.com)
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
DETAILED SYLLABUS
Unit - I : INTRODUCTION CIM AND COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN & ANALYSIS
CIM: Introduction of CIM – concept of CIM - evolution of CIM – CIM wheel –
Benefits – integrated CAD/CAM.
CAD: Computer Aided Design – Introduction – CAD definition – Shigley’s
design process – CAD activities – benefits of CAD. Types of CAD system –Host and
terminal based CAD system - PC based CAD system – workstation based CAD
system – graphics workstation – CAD software packages. 2D&3D transformations –
translation, scaling, rotation and concatenation. Geometric modeling: Techniques:
Wire frame modeling – surface modeling – solid modeling: Boundary representation
– Constructive Solid Geometry – Comparison.
Graphics standard – Definition –Need - GKS – IGES – PHIGS – DXF. Cost
involved in design changes – Concept of Design for Excellence (DFX) – Guide lines
of Design for Manufacture and assembly (DFMA).

Finite Element Analysis: Introduction – Development - Basic steps –

Advantage.

Unit - II : COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING AND RAPID PROTOTYPING

CAM: Definition – functions of CAM – benefits of CAM – Group technology –
Part families - Parts classification and coding - coding structure – Optiz system,
MICLASS system and CODE System -

Process planning – CAPP – Types of CAPP : Variant type, Generative type

– advantages of CAPP - production planning and control – computer integrated
production management system – Master Production Schedule (MPS) – Capacity
planning – Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) –Manufacturing Resources
Planning (MRP-II)– Shop floor control system - Just in time manufacturing
philosophy- Introduction to enterprises resources planning. Product Development
Cycle – Sequential engineering – Concurrent engineering. Rapid proto typing:
concept and applications – materials – types - Stereo lithography – laser sintering –
Deposition Modeling - 3D printing.
Unit - III : CNC MACHINE AND COMPONENTS
CNC Machines: Numerical control – definition – components of NC systems
– development of NC – DNC – Adaptive control systems – working principle of a
CNC system – Features of CNC machines - advantage of CNC machines –
difference between NC and CNC – Construction and working principle of turning
centre – Construction and working principle of machining centers – machine axes
conventions turning centre and machining centre – design considerations of NC
machine tools. CNC EDM machine – Working principle of die sinking and wire EDM
machines - Coordinate Measuring Machines: construction and working principles.

Components of CNC machine.

Drives: spindle drive – DC motor – Feed drives – DC servo motor and
stepper motor – hydraulic systems – Slide ways – requirement – types – friction
slide ways and anti friction slide ways - linear motion bearings – recirculation ball
screw – ATC – tool magazine – feedback devices – linear and rotary transducers –
Encoders - in process probing.

Unit - IV : PART PROGRAMMING

PART PROGRAMMING: NC part programming – methods - manual
programming – conversational programming – APT programming - Format:
sequential and word address formats - sequence number – coordinate system –
types of motion control: point-to-point, paraxial and contouring – Datum points:
machine zero, work zero, tool zero - NC dimensioning – reference points – tool
material – tool inserts - tool offsets and compensation - NC dimensioning –
preparatory functions and G codes, miscellaneous functions and M codes –
interpolation: linear interpolation and circular interpolation - CNC program
procedure. Part Program – macro – sub-program – canned cycles: stock – mirror
images – thread cutting – Sample programs for lathe : Linear and circular
interpolation - Stock removal turning – Peck drilling – Thread cutting and Sample
programs for milling: Linear and circular interpolation – mirroring – sub program –
drilling cycle – pocketing – Generating CNC codes from CAD models – post
processing

Unit - V : FMS, INTEGRATED MATERIAL HANDLING AND ROBOT

Types of manufacturing - introduction to FMS – FMS components – FMS
layouts – Types of FMS: flexible manufacturing cell – flexible turning cell – flexible
transfer line – flexible machining systems – benefits of FMS - introduction to
intelligent manufacturing system – virtual machining. Computer Integrated material
handling – AGV: working principle – types - benefits – Automatic Storage and
Retrieval Systems (ASRS).

ROBOT – definition – robot configurations – basic robot motion – robot

programming method – robotic sensors - industrial applications: characteristics,
material transfer, machine loading, welding, spray coating, assembly and inspection.
 Contents

Unit - I Introduction to CIM and

Computer Aided Design &
Analysis 1.1 – 1.52
Unit - II Computer Aided
Manufacturing and
Rapid Prototyping 2.1 – 2.49

Unit - III CNC Machines and

Components 3.1 – 3.51

Unit - IV Part Programming 4.1 – 4.81

Unit - V FMS, Integrated Material

Handling and Robot 5.1 – 5.34

One Mark Questions and Answers Q&A.1 – 31

Model Question Papers QP.1 – 14
 Unit – I
INTRODUCTION OF CIM AND
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN & ANALYSIS
1.1 Introduction
Because of the increase in consumer awareness regarding the
quality of the product, it is necessary for the manufacturer to initiate
steps to achieve quality manufacturing along with the factors of short
lead times, lower product cost, etc. The implementation of Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) will result in better and consistently
good quality products at a lower cost, with the additional benefits of
faster development of different variants of the product. Development
of interactive graphics and analysis softwares, development of
graphic workstations and availability of computer at affordable prices
are made small and medium scale industries to adopt CIM nowadays.

1.2 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Scope of CIM

Scope of CAD/CAM

Design

Business Factory Mfg.

functions operations planning

Mfg.
control

Fig.1.1 Scope of C I M

1.1
 Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) includes all of the
engineering functions of CAD/CAM and business functions that are
related to manufacturing. CIM uses the database and communication
technologies to integrate the design, manufacturing and business
functions that combine the automated segment of factory.

1.2.1 Concept of CIM (CIM Wheel)

The CIM concept is that all of the firm’s operations related to
manufacturing are incorporated in an integrated computer system to
assist, improve and automate the operations. In this integrated
computer system, the output of one activity serves as the input to the
next activity, through the chain of events that starts with the sales
order and ends with the delivery of the product.

CAD
Geometric modeling
Engineering analysis
Design review and evaluation
Automated drafting

Design
Computerized
CAM
Business System
Cost estimation
Order entry Business Factory Mfg. CAPP
Accounting functions operations planning NC part programming
Payroll
MRP, Capacity planning
Customer billing
Mfg.
control

CAM
Process control
Process monitoring
Shop floor control
Computer aided inspection

Fig.1.2 Components of a CIM system (CIM Wheel)

Customer orders are initially entered by the company’s sales

department or directly by the customer into a computerized order
entry system. The orders consist of the specifications describing the
product. These specifications serve as the input to the product design

1.2
department. New products are designed on a CAD system. The bill of
materials and assembly drawings are prepared by using CAD system.

The output of the design department serves as the input to

manufacturing engineering where process planning, tool design and
similar activities are accomplished to prepare for production. Many of
these manufacturing engineering activities are supported by the CIM
system. Process planning is performed using CAPP. Tool and fixture
design is done on a CAD system with the help of the product model
generated during product design.

The output from the manufacturing engineering provides input

to production planning and control department where MRP and
scheduling are performed using the computer system. Manufacturing
activities are controlled by shop floor control. Thus all the activities
from sales order to delivery of the product using computers
implement CIM, which result the full automation of industry.

1.2.2 Evolution of CIM

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is considered as a
natural evolution of CAD/CAM which is evolved by the integration of
CAD and CAM. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA is
credited for the development of both CAD and CAM. CAD was used to
the geometric modeling needs of automobile and aeronautical
industries. The development in computers, workstations, graphic
cards, display devices, graphic input and output devices, powerful
interactive software packages for modeling, drafting, analyzing and
optimization provide the necessary tools to automate the design
process.

MIT developed a NC part programming language, called APT,

in 1950s. Several updated clones of APT were introduced in 1980s to
automatically develop NC codes from the geometric model of the
component. Now one can model, draft, analyze, modify, optimize,
create the NC code to manufacture a component.

1.3
 The first NC machine was demonstrated at MIT in 1952. By
mid–1960s mainframes were used to control a group of NC machines
and was called Direct Numerical Control (DNC). In late 1960s NC uses
mini–computers with the facilities of mass program storage, off–line
editing and software logic control and processing. This development
is called CNC. Since 1970s, numerical controllers are being designed
around microprocessors resulting in compact CNC systems.

CNC technology led to the development of coordinate

measuring machines (CMMs) which automated inspection and robots.
All these developments led the evolution of flexible manufacturing
system (FMS) in 1980s.

During 1980s, the design process is well automated. In the

case of manufacture, CNC machines, DNC system, FMS, etc. provide
tightly controlled automation systems. Similarly computer control is
implemented in several areas like material requirements planning,
manufacturing resource planning, accounting, sales, marketing,
purchase, etc. Yet the full potential of computerization could not be
obtained unless all the segments of manufacturing are integrated by
permitting the transfer of data across various functional modules. This
realization led to the concept of Computer Integrated Manufacturing.

1.2.4 Benefits of CIM

The following are the benefits of implementing CIM:
1) Increased machine utilization
2) Reduced direct and indirect labour.
3) Reduced manufacturing lead-time.
4) Lower in-process inventory.
5) Greater scheduling flexibility.
6) Reduced scrap and rework.
7) Increased factory capacity.
8) Higher employee morale.
9) Safer working environment.
10) Improved customer image.

1.4
1.3 Integrated CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM is concerned with the engineering functions in both
design and manufacturing. Product design, engineering analysis and
documentation of the design represent engineering activities in
design. Process planning, NC part programming and other activities
associated with CAM represent engineering activities in
manufacturing. In addition, CAM has evolved to include many other
functions in manufacturing such as material requirements planning,
production scheduling, computer production monitoring and
computer process control.

Scope of CAD

Design
Scope of CAM

Business Factory Mfg.

functions operations planning

Mfg.
control

Fig.1.3 Scope of CAD/CAM

In the conventional method, engineering drawings were

prepared by the design draftsmen and later used by manufacturing
engineers to develop the process plan. This was time consuming and
duplication of effort by design and manufacturing personnel.

Nowadays, the product design and manufacturing functions are

integrated by using CAD/CAM technology. This is termed as
integrated CAD/CAM. The goal of CAD/CAM is not only to automate
certain phases of design and certain phases of manufacturing, but
also to automate the transition from design to manufacturing.

1.5
 CA CA Cnc Material
process Tool CMM Production
Program handling programs
planning Design Centre control
Computer
Aided
Design Common database

Design Common database

analysis
Finite Production
Element Scheduling Project
Simulation MRP Manage- control
Modeling ment

Fig.1.4 Common database linkage

In integrated CAM/CAM organization, the CAD system creates

the model and its design database. The database contains geometric
data, bill of materials, specification of the product, etc. The CAM
system uses this common database and converts it into a process
plan for manufacturing the product. This conversion can be
automatically done by Auto CAM softwares. A large portion of
processing is accomplished on a numerically controlled machine tool.
The NC part program necessary for making the product is
automatically generated by CAM system. The CAM system downloads
the NC part program directly to the machine tool by means of
telecommunication network. Thus, product design, NC programs and
physical production are all implemented by computer in integrated
CAD/CAM environment.

1.4 Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Computer Aided Design (CAD) may be defined as the use of
computer system to help in the creation, modification, analysis, and
optimization of a design.

1.4.1 Essentials of CAD

The computer system used in CAD contains hardware and
software. The hardware includes graphic workstations, input and
output devices, display devices and other peripheral devices. The
software includes programs for creating drawing objects on the
screen and program for various analysis such as stress-strain
analysis, heat transfer analysis, finite element analysis, etc.

1.6
1.5 Shiley's design process
The process of designing a component is explained by Shiley
as an iterative procedure, which consists of the following six steps.

Stages of CAD

Recognition of need

Problem definition

Synthesis

Analysis and
Optimization

Evaluation

Presentation

Fig.1.5 Stages of CAD

1. Recognition of need
It involves the identification of problems in existing design that
needs modification. It also involves the recognition of demand for a
new product to be introduced in the market.

2. Definition of problem
It involves complete and clear specifications of the component
to be designed. The specifications include functional and physical
characteristics, cost, quality, operating performance, etc.

3. Synthesis
During this stage, various preliminary concepts and ideas about
shapes and forms of the product are developed through the creativity
of the designer and research of similar products or designs in use.
Various geometric modeling techniques available in the sophisticated
CAD softwares can be used for synthesis.

1.7
4. Analysis and optimization
The preliminary designs are then subjected to appropriate
analysis to determine their suitability for the specified design
constraints. Analysis and synthesis are closely related and highly
iterative in nature to arrive a conceptual design. The conceptual
design is analyzed, improved through the analysis procedure, and
redesigned. This process is repeated until a best possible (optimum)
design is arrived. Most CAD software packages are provided with
analysis softwares to carry out analysis such as finite element
analysis, heat transfer analysis, stress strain analysis, dynamic
analysis, etc.
5. Evaluation
It involves measuring the design against the specifications
established in the problem definition stage. The optimized design is
reviewed and evaluated to decide the operating performance, quality,
reliability, etc. When the evaluation is not satisfactory, the design
process is repeated from synthesis stage until a best possible design
is reached. CAD software incorporates a number of features to check
the accuracy of design. Automatic dimensioning, zooming, layering,
and simulation are some of these features.

6. Presentation
The final stage in CAD is the presentation of the design. This
includes preparation of working drawings, material specifications, bill
of materials, part lists, etc. Preparation of drawings can be done faster
using CAD features such as automatic dimensioning, generation of
cross hatched areas, scaling of the drawing, capability to develop
sectional views, rotation, and other transformations of objects, etc.

1.6 Activities of CAD

The various activities of Computer Aided Design are explained below.

1) Geometric modeling
The mathematical description of the geometry of an object is
called model. A CAD system is used to develop geometric models with
the help of various drafting software packages. The model may be
newly designed of modified from an existing model.

1.8
 The geometric models may be classified into two-dimensional
(2D) models and three-dimensional (3D) models. The 2D modeling
feature is used to create part drawings, working drawings and
sectional drawings of an object. Wire frame models, surface models
and solid models are the types of 3D models. Among these models,
solid model is mostly preferred for creating and displaying realistical
image of an object.

Design Process

Recognition of need

Problem definition Role of computers

in CAD

Geometric
Synthesis
modeling

Analysis and Engineering

Optimization analysis

Design review and

Evaluation
evaluation

Automated
Presentation
drafting

Fig.1.6 Activities of CAD

2) Engineering analysis
Engineering analysis is carried out in the geometric model for
deciding the exact dimensions of an object. The analysis may include
stress strain analysis, heat transfer analysis, dynamic analysis, finite
element analysis (FEA), and computation of natural frequencies,
acceleration, velocity, and other parameters. CAD system provides
sophisticated softwares to carry out engineering analysis. Most CAD
software packages are provided with engineering analysis software to
carry out finite element analysis and to determine the mass properties
of the components. The extensive use of post processors enables
visualization of the product under stress and strain.
1.9
3) Design review and evaluation
CAD software incorporates a number of features to check the
accuracy of design. Some of the features are listed below.

Dimensioning and tolerancing routines: This feature is

used to create automatic and associative dimensioning with allowable
tolerances. This eliminates possible dimensioning errors.

Zooming: The zooming facility enables to include design

details to the minutest scale.

Layering: By using this feature, various portions of a drawing

can be drawn on different layers, which can be super-imposed
according to the need.

Animation: This feature of CAD is used to determine the

performance of the product before actually making a prototype. It
may also be used to identify the modifications to be made in the
product to improve its performance. This feature helps in kinematics,
robotics, assembly, and FMS design.

4) Automated drafting
Automated drafting involves the creation of database and
preparing the hard copy of the engineering drawing of the model.
Preparation of drawings can be done faster using the CAD features
such as automatic dimensioning, generation of cross-hatched areas,
scaling of the drawing, capability to develop sectional views of
objects, etc. The hard copy of drawings may include information such
as bill of materials, process specifications, technical illustrations, etc.

1.7 Benefits of CAD

The following are the benefits of CAD in designing of
engineering components.
1) Productivity improvement in design.
2) Shorter lead time.
3) More flexibility in design.
4) Fever design errors.
5) Improved design analysis.
1.10
 6) Standardization of design, drafting and documentation.
7) Easier creation and modification of design.
8) Easier visualization of drawings
9) Preparation of near and more understandable working drawings.
10) Creation of realistic image of component before actually making
the component.

The following are the benefits of CAD in manufacturing.

1) Tool and fixture design.
2) Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP).
3) Production Planning and Control (PPC).
4) Preparation of assembly lists and bill of materials.
5) Coding and classification of components.
6) Computer aided inspection.
7) Preparation of NC part programs.
8) Assembly sequence planning

1.8 CAD Hardware

The hardware of CAD consists of the following components.
1. Graphics terminal
2. Operator input devices
3. Central processing unit (CPU)
4. Output devices
5. Secondary storage devices

Secondary
storage devices Design workstation

Central Graphic Input

Processing Unit terminal devices

Output devices

Fig.1.7 Components of CAD hardware

1.11
Graphics terminal
It is a component of a CAD system through which the system
communicates with the user. It is also known as display terminal. The
terminal must have the capability of displaying both graphics and
alphanumeric texts. For an effective graphic display, the graphics
terminal must be large enough with better colour display capability of
high resolution.

Input devices
There are components of CAD system through which the user
communicates with the system in the following ways.
 by entering alpha-numeric data
 by entering commands necessary to the system for generating
graphics
 by positioning the cursor at specified location on the screen

Cursor control devices, keyboards, touch screen, digitizers, and

scanners are some of the widely used input devices.
Central processing unit (CPU)
The CPU coordinates and controls the activities of all other units
in the computer. It consists of Controller Unit (CU), Arithmetic and
Logical Unit (ALU), and Memory Unit (MU). The controller unit acts as
an administrator in a computer. The ALU performs the actual work of
computation and calculation such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. The memory unit can store information
such as program instruction to be executed by the controller and the
data to be processed by the ALU.

Output devices
The devices used in CAD system for making hard copies of
designs or analysis created on the terminal are known as output
devices. Any output from the computer that can be presented in paper
is called a hard copy. Printers, plotters, copiers, computer output to
microfilm (COM) units and camera systems are widely used output
devices. The selection of suitable output device depends upon the
required resolution of output, the speed at which the output is
produced and the cost of the device.

1.12
Secondary storage devices
Secondary storage devices are used for backing up the data in
the main memory and to store the data on permanent basis.
Information and data stored in secondary storage devices can then
be retrieved and quickly transferred to the CPU when it is needed.
Magnetic tape, magnetic disk, magnetic drum, floppy disk, compact
disc, DVD and flash memory are some of the widely used secondary
storage devices.

1.9 Types of CAD systems

The types of CAD systems are as follows:
1) Host and terminal based CAD system
2) PC based CAD system
3) Workstation based CAD system
1) Host and terminal based CAD system
It is the original CAD configuration when the technology was
first developed. In this arrangement, a large mainframe computer
serves as the host for one or more graphics terminals. The terminals
operate on a time-sharing basis. This system is still used today in
automotive industry to operate a large central database.
2) PC based CAD systems
 Stand-alone system: It is a single user desktop system,
which is connected to its own plotter, printer, and other
peripheral devices.
 Multiple host system: In this case, a number of host systems
are used to service groups of terminals. Most of the peripherals
are connected to one host system and shared by others.
3) Workstation based CAD systems
 Distributed system: In this case, random access memory
(RAM), read only memory (ROM) and processing capabilities
are distributed to the terminals position by replacing the dump
terminals with intelligent work stations. The workstations are
linked together through a local area network.

1.13
  Centralized system: In this case, a central computer carries
out all the processing tasks. It also controls the terminals and
other hardware elements of the system.

1.10 Graphic workstation

Printer

Mass
storage Server

Plotter

Workstation-3
Workstation-2
Display Central Input device
device Processing Unit (Digitizer)

Input device Input device

(Keyboard) (Mouse)

Workstation - 1

Fig.1.8 Configuration of graphic workstation

A graphic workstation is a desktop computer system with
adequate computing power specially designed for the use of design
engineer. Workstation can be used to run a collection of software tools
for helping design tasks. The aim is to integrate these tools to provide
an efficient means for producing designs that are more reliable.
Workstation can be used in a variety of ways. They can be used
as a dedicated stand–alone system for certain design or analysis
tasks. They can be networked with each workstation dedicated to a
different task or for a particular use. It can also be used as front-end
systems for large host computers. Workstations may be described as
an integration of hardware and software.

Workstation hardware
The hardware of a graphics workstation mainly consists of a
CPU board and a graphics board. The CPU board consists of hardware
components necessary for carrying out normal computational work.
The graphics board or graphics adapter is used to manipulate and
display graphic images on CRT screen. The graphic performance of

1.14
workstation depends upon the type of graphics card used. The
workstation mostly uses a raster scan display type monitor with high
resolution.

Workstation software
The software in a workstation consists of the following:
1) Integrative graphic software tools for model creation,
manipulation, animation, and validation.
2) Software tools for analysis of design.
3) Database to keep all the design information properly organized.
4) Software tools for documentation.
5) Standard design libraries.

Functions of graphics workstation

The following are the functions of typical graphics workstation:
1) It must generate a steady graphic image for the user.
2) It must provide digital description of the image.
3) It must translate computer commands into operating functions.
4) It must assist the process of communication between the user
and the system.

1.11 CAD software package

The softwares in computer-aided design include the following:
1. System softwares or operating system
2. Application softwares
System software
System software is a group of computer programs, which
manage the operations of a computer. These programs control the
flow of information among the various units of computer system. The
important functions of operating system are
1) Transferring data between computer and various peripheral
devices for input and output.
2) Managing various files in the computer
3) Loading computer programs into memory and controlling the
program execution.

1.15
 DOS, Windows, OS/2, UNIX, and Linux are some of the well-
known operating systems.

Application software
The application softwares in CAD include the following:
1) Software for creating 2D and 3D models of components.
2) Software for creating models for engineering analysis such as
finite element analysis, heat transfer analysis, stress–strain
analysis, etc.
AutoCAD, Pro/E, IDEAS, UniGrpahics, CADian, SolidWorks,
CADKey, ArchiCAD, Autodesk Inventor and CATIA are some of the
well-known application softwares used in computer aided design.

1.11.1 AutoCAD
AutoCAD is a drawing software package developed by the
company Autodesk Inc., USA. It is one of the most widely used
softwares for creating engineering drawings easily and quickly. The
important features of AutoCAD are listed below.

Features of AutoCAD
1) Creating basic geometric objects: Basic geometric
objects like line, circle, arc, rectangle, etc. can be easily drawn by
specifying points with the pointing device or by entering coordinate
values in the command line.

2) Modifying the objects: We can easily modify the size,

shape, and location of objects by using AutoCAD commands. We can
erase, move, and rotate the selected objects. We can create
duplicates of objects by using COPY, ARRAY, OFFSET, and MIRROR
features. We can change the size of objects by using commands like
TRIM, EXTEND, LENGTHEN, STRETCH, SCALE, etc. It is also possible
to create FILLET, CHAMFER and BREAK in objects.

3) Zooming: This feature enables to magnify the details in a

drawing for a closer view or shift the view to a different part of the
drawing. It is also possible to save a view with a name and restore it
later.

1.16
 4) Layering: By using this feature, various portions of a
drawing can be drawn on different layers, which can be super–
imposed according to the need.

5) Dimension and tolerance routines: AutoCAD provides

many ways to dimension objects and many ways to format
dimensions. We can create dimensions for a wide variety of object
shapes in many different orientations. We can use Quick Dimension
feature to dimension multiple objects at one time. We can add
geometric tolerance, which include acceptable deviation of form,
profile, orientation, location and run out of a feature.

6) Hatching: We can use this feature to fill area of a drawing

with a predefined pattern. The pattern is used to differentiate
components of an object or to signify the material composing an
object. It is also possible to create our own hatch patterns.

7) 3D modeling: AutoCAD supports 3D modeling such as

wireframe, surface, and solid modeling. Each type has its own
creation and editing techniques.

8) Viewport management: By using this feature, we can split

the drawing area into two or more adjacent rectangular areas and
display different view of the model.

9) Creating working drawing from 3D model: Working

drawings can be easily created from 3D models by using AutoCAD. It
is also possible to create orthographic, auxiliary, and sectional view
drawings of 3D models. SOLVIEW, SOLPROF, and SOLDRAW are the
commands used for this feature.

10) Rendering: We can add lighting and materials to the

surfaces of 3D models and render them to produce realistic effects. It
is also possible to create hidden–line or shaded image of model.

11) Plotting the drawing: AutoCAD drawings can be exactly

plotted as they appear on the screen with various colour and linetype
combinations. We can plot the drawing on any size paper or create a

1.17
file for use with another application. Multiple drawings can be plotted
by using Batch Plot Utility.

12) Customization: AutoCAD is a general purpose drafting

system designed with an open architecture so that we can customize
and extend its many features. We can create our own tool bars,
menus, and commands. We can also use a number of powerful
application programming interfaces to add to and modify AutoCAD to
suit our needs.

Advantages of AutoCAD
Refer: Benefits of CAD (Article 1.5)

1.12 Transformations
In computer graphics, drawings are created with combination
of geometric elements, which are represented by the coordinates of
their end points. The drawings can be modified by performing some
mathematical operations on the coordinates of geometric elements.
Translation, scaling, and rotation are the basic transformations.

1.12.1 Two-dimensional transformations

The X and Y coordinates are specified to locate a point in a two–
axis Cartesian system. These coordinates may be represented by a
1x2 matrix as (x, y). For example, the matrix (4, 6) represents a
point, which is 4 units from the origin in the X direction and 6 units
from the origin in the Y direction.

Similarly, a line may be represented by a 2x2 matrix by giving

the X and Y coordinates of the two end points of the line. The notation
of line matrix is as follows:

x1 y1
L =q r
x2 y2
Where, (x1, y1), (x2, y2) be the two end points of the line L.

Using the rules of matrix algebra, any geometric element

represented in matrix notation can be changed into a new element by
using the following matrix transformations.

1.18
1) Translation
Translation involves moving the geometric elements from one
location to another. In case of a point, the operation is as follows.
x' = x + m, y' = y + m
Where, x', y' = Coordinates of the translated points
x, y = Coordinates of the original point
m, n = Movement in the X and Y direction respectively.
In matrix notation, it can be represented as
(x', y') = (x, y) + T
Where, T = Translation matrix = (m, n)
For a line, the transformation matrix is applied to its two end points.
Example:
Y

7 (5,7)

6
Translated line
5

4 (3,4) (4,4)

3
Original line
2

1 (2,1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X

Fig.1.9 Translation
Consider a line having (2, 1) and (3, 4) as two end points. Let, the
line is to be moved by 2 units in the X direction and 3 units in the Y direction.
2 1
Then, the line matrix, L = q r
3 4
2 3
The translation matrix, T = q r
2 3
The new line matrix after translation,
2 1 2 3 4 4
=q r+ q r=q r
3 4 2 3 5 7
The new line will have end points at (4, 4) and (5, 7). The effect
of translation is shown in the figure.
1.19
2) Scaling
Enlarging or reducing the size of a graphic element is known as
scaling. The points of an element can be scaled by the scaling matrix
as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) S
m 0
Where, S = Scaling matrix = q r
0 n
This will produce an alteration in the size of the element by the
factor m in the X direction and by the factor n in the Y direction.

Example:
Y

8 (6,8)

5 Scaled line
4 (3,4)

2 (4,2)

1 (2,1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X

Fig.1.10 Scaling
Consider a line having (2, 1) and (3, 4) as two end points. Let,
the line is to be scaled by a factor 2 in the X and Y direction.

2 1
Then, the line matrix, L = q r
3 4
2 0
The scaling matrix, S = q r
02
The new line matrix after scaling,
2 1 2 0 4 2
=q r q r=q r
3 4 0 2 6 8
The new line will have end points at (4, 2 and (6, 8). The effect
of scaling is shown in the figure.

1.20
3) Rotation
It involves the rotation of an object about its origin by an angle
For a positive angle, this rotation is in the counter–clockwise
direction. The object is moved while rotating. In matrix notations, the
procedure will be as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) R
cos sin
Where, R = Rotation matrix = q r
–sin cos

Example:
Y

6
(0.598, 4.964)
5
Rotated line
4
(3,4)
3

2
(1.232, 1.866) (2,1)
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X

Fig.1.11 Rotation
Consider a line having (2, 1) and (3, 4) as two end points. Let,
the line is to be rotated about the origin by 30o.

2 1
Then, the line matrix, L = q r
3 4

cos 30 sin 30 0.866 0.500

The rotation matrix, R = q r= q r
–sin 30 cos 30 –0.500 0.866

The new line matrix after rotation,

2 1 0.866 0.500 1.232 1.866
=q r q r=q r
3 4 –0.500 0.866 0.598 4.964
The new line will have end points at (1.232, 1.866) and (0.598,
4.964). The effect of scaling is shown in the figure.

1.21
1.12.2 Three-dimensional transformations
The two dimensional transformations by matrix method can
also be applied to three-dimensional space. The same general
procedures are applied to three-dimensional transformations also.

1) Translation
The translation in three-dimensional space is represented in
matrix notation as follows:
(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) + T
Where, x', y', z' = Coordinates of the translated points
x, y, z = Coordinates of the original point
T = Translation matrix = (m, n, p)
m, n, p = Movement in the X, Y and Z directions respectively.

2) Scaling
The scaling in three-dimensional space is represented in matrix
notation as follows:
(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) S
m 0 0
Where, S = Scaling matrix = q 0 n 0 r
0 0 p

3) Rotation
The rotation about X-axis by an angle  in three-dimensional
space is represented in matrix notation as follows:
(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) Rx
cos 0 sin
Where, Rx = Rotation matrix about X axis = q 0 1 0 r
–sin 0 cos
Similarly,
1 0 0
Rotation matrix about Y axis, Ry = q0 cos sin r
0 –sin cos

cos sin0
Rotation matrix about Z axis, Rz = q–sin cos0r
0 0 1

1.22
4) Concatenation
Concatenation is the process of combining the single
transformations as a sequence of transformations. The combined
transformations are called concatenated transformations.
Concatenated transformations are generally performed during the
editing process in a graphic model.

Consider the rotation of an element about an arbitrary point in

that element. This transformation process involves the translation to
the origin, then rotation about the origin, then translation back to the
original location. The transformation matrix for concatenation is
obtained by multiplying their respective single transformation
matrices.

1.13 Geometric elements or geometric entities

A geometric element or geometric entity in computer graphics
represents a basic drawing object. The entities include points, lines,
arcs, and circles, conics such as ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.
Two-dimensional drawings are created by using the collection of such
elements. Curves and surfaces are used to construct three-
dimensional surface models. Solid primitives are used to construct
solid models.

The following are the important geometric elements used for

constructing three-dimensional models.

Wireframe entities: Cubic splines, B–splines, and Bezier

curves are some geometric entities used for constructing wireframe
models.

Surface entities: Plane surface, ruled surface, surface of

revolution, tabulated surface, Bezier surface, B–spline surface, coons
patches, fillet surface and offset surface are some geometric entities
used for constructing surface models.

Solid primitives: Box, cylinder, pyramid, cone, sphere,

hemisphere, wedge, and torus are some solid primitives used for
constructing solid models.

1.23
1.14 Geometric modeling techniques or
types of geometric models
The mathematical description of the geometry of an object is
called model. Geometric modeling involves the use of a CAD system
to develop a mathematical description of the geometry of an object.

The geometric models can be classified as

1) Two dimensional (2D) models
2) Three dimensional (3D) models.
Two-dimensional models: In 2D geometric modeling, the
computer produces a true two-dimensional drawing of the component
on its display. Mostly this will be an orthographic projection of the
component. It is easy and desirable to obtain more than three views
of the component. Most commercial software packages contain a
provision for producing drawings with sectional views. The 2D
drawings thus produced may be sent to the shop floor for production.
Three-dimensional drawings can be created with one or more
supporting 2D orthogonal projections.

Three-dimensional models: They are geometric models

created with three dimensions of an object. A three dimensional
model of a part conveys meaning more rapidly than its corresponding
orthographic views. The three dimensional geometric modeling has
the ability to provide all the information required for manufacturing
application. There are a number of ways in which the three
dimensional representation can be arrived at. The three principal
classifications can be
1) Wireframe model or line model
2) Surface model
3) Solid model or volume model

1.14.1 Wireframe modeling

A wireframe model is the simplest geometric model that can be
used to represent an object mathematically in the computer. It is also
called as line model or edge representation of the object. Typically, a
wire frame model consists of points, lines, arcs, circles, conics, and
curves. The word ‘wireframe’ is related to the fact that one may
imagine a wire that is bent to follow the object edge to generate the
1.24
model. An edge may be a straight line, arc, or any other well-defined
space curve. A wireframe model of a three dimensional object consists
of a finite set of points together with the edges connecting various
pairs of these points.

Wireframe model with linear edge

Z

V2
E6
Y
E1
E5 V4

E - Edge
E2 E3 V - Vertex
V1

E4

V3
X

Fig.1.12 Linear wireframe model of tetrahedron

Wireframe models with linear edges consist of straight-line

segments joining pair of points. For example, a tetrahedron consists of
four points in space with six linear edges joining pairs of these points
are shown in the figure. The geometry of the tetrahedron is represented
by a vertex list giving the (x,y,z) coordinates of its vertices.
Vertex list Edge list Edge type
V1 (0,0,0) E1 (V1,V2) Linear
V2 (0,0,1) E2 (V2,V3) Linear
V3 (1,0,0) E3 (V3,V1) Linear
V4 (0,1,0) E4 (V3,V4) Linear
E5 (V1,V4) Linear
E6 (V4,V2) Linear

Wireframe model with curvilinear edges

Many objects have curved boundaries. They are best
represented in wireframe with curved and linear edges. Cone is the
simplest curvilinear wireframe model. This consists of a single apex
point and a circular base. The apex is joined to the base by an infinite
set of straight-line segments called generators.

1.25
 Z
V1

E1 E2

Y
V2
E4

X
E3 V3

Fig.1.13 Curvilinear wireframe model of cone

In representing the geometry of the cone, the simplex vertex
list contains three vertices – the apex (V1) and two other vertices,
one on either end of a diameter across the circular base. The edge list
contains four edges – two linear edges from apex to base and two
semicircular edges forming the circular base.

Vertex list Edge list Edge type

V1 (0,0,3) E1 (V1,V2) Linear
V2 (-1,0,0) E2 (V1,V3) Linear
V3 (1,0,0) E3 (V2,V3) Semi-circular
E4 (V3,V2) Semi-circular

Improvement in representing a cone in wireframe model is

achieved by dividing the base circle with more number of vertices. As
the number of vertices increased, the wireframe model becomes more
realistic.
In the similar way, the wireframe model of any object can be
developed with the help of linear edges and curvilinear edges.

Advantages of wireframe modeling

1) It is easy to construct.
2) It needs less memory space.
3) It takes less manipulation time.
4) It does not require any extensive training for users.
5) It is best suitable for manipulations as orthographic, isometric
and perspective views.
6) CPU time for retrieve, edit, or update a wireframe model is
usually less as compared to surface or solid modeling.

1.26
Disadvantages
1) There is more doubt in identifying the surfaces.
2) The images of wireframe model cause confusion to the viewer.
3) It is not possible to calculate mass properties such as mass,
volume, moment of inertia, etc.
4) It is not used for NC tool path generation, cross sectioning,
interference detection, etc.
5) It is not suitable for representing complex solids.
6) Hidden line removal is a time consuming task.
7) The procedure or command sequence of wireframe model is lengthy.
8) Both topological and geometrical data are required for
wireframe modeling.

1.14.2 Surface modeling

A surface model of an object is more complete and less
confusing representation than its wireframe model. A surface model
can be built by defining the surface on the wireframe model. The
procedure of constructing a surface model is stretching a thin piece
of material over a framework.

Fig.1.14 Representation of surface modeling

1.27
 Modeling of curves and surfaces is essential to describe objects
in several areas of mechanical design such as
 Body panel of automobiles
 Aircraft structural members
 Marine vehicles
 Consumer products, etc.

The boundary of an object may consist of surfaces, which are

bounded by straight lines and curves either single or in combination.
The figure shows the illustration of a surface model built with number
of surfaces as shown.

Application of surface model

Surface modeling is generally used in the following applications.
1) Checking for interference between mating parts.
2) Generating cross sectional views.
3) Generating finite element meshes.
4) Generating NC tool paths for continuous path machining.

Advantages
1) Surface models are less confusing than wireframe model.
2) They provide hidden line and surface algorithms to add realism
to the displayed geometry.
3) Shading algorithms are also available.

Disadvantages
1) The interior details of the model cannot be represented.
2) The designer requires more training and mathematical
background.
3) It takes more time to create.
4) It requires more storage capacity.
5) It requires more manipulation time.
6) The construction is not as simple as wireframe model.

1.28
1.14.3 Solid modeling
The best method for the three dimensional model construction
is the solid modeling technique. It provides the user with complete
information about the model. In this approach, the models are
displayed as solid objects to the viewer, with very little risk of mis-
understanding. When colour is added to the image, the resulting
picture becomes very realistic. All solid modeling systems provide
facilities for creating, modifying, and inspecting models of three-
dimensional solid objects.
The following representation schemes are available for creating
solid models.
1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
2) Boundary representation (B–rep)
3) Pure primitive instancing
4) Generalized sweep
5) Cellular decomposition
6) Hybrid scheme
Among these schemes, constructive solid geometry and
boundary representation techniques are widely used in CAD systems.

1. Constructive solid geometry (CSG) or C–rep

This approach is also called building block approach. In the
constructive solid geometry approach, a sold object is represented in
a computer as a combination of simple solid objects, called primitives.
Some typical primitives utilizes in the solid models are block, sphere,
hemisphere, cylinder, cone, torus, and wedge. The primitives are
normally stored internally using the analytical representation.

CSG using Boolean operators

Boolean operators are used for combining the primitives to
form the complete solid object. The available Boolean operators are
union ( or +), intersection () and the difference (–)

A B

AUB A B A-B B-A

U

Fig.1.15 Boolean operations for two - dimensional model

1.29
 Union (): When two or more solids are combined with the
Boolean operator UNION, the result is the single solid shape
incorporating all the space occupied by any of the individual
components. Simply, this is like adding components together.

AUB A B A-B B-A

U

Fig.1.16 Boolean operations for three - dimensional model

Difference (–) : When two or more solids are combined with
the Boolean operator DIFFERENCE, the result is the single solid
incorporating the space, which is occupied by the first component but
is outside all of the remaining components. This is like subtracting the
second and subsequent components from the first component.

Intersection () : When two or more solids combined with

intersection, the result is a single solid object incorporating the space,
which is occupied in common by each of the components.

The effect of these operators on the simple primitives block and

a cylinder is shown in the figure for their two dimensional and three
dimensional relationship.

U 5

2 3 4
U
6

1 1 2
U
5

3 4
Model
CSG tree

Fig.1.17 CSG tree

In CSG, the storage of data required for the complex job is only the
construction tree of the operators and the relevant dimensions of the
1.30
primitives. This facilitates the reduction of the storage requirement. Also
by making modifications on the CSG tree, a new object can be obtained
by any time. The Boolean operators always guarantee that the objects
formed by those rules are physically realizable.

2. Boundary representation (B–Rep)

In the boundary representation scheme, a solid is represented
by the data structure containing the elements, which describes its
boundary. These elements are divided into topological elements and
geometric elements.

The topological elements are linked together in a network or

group which represents their inter–connections or connectivity in
terms of vertices, edges and faces.

Edge Edge

Vertex

Edge
Face Face

Vertex

Edge Edge

Fig.1.18 Winged edge data representation

The geometric elements are points, curves, and surfaces.
These geometric elements are linked to the appropriated topological
elements as follows:

Face  Surface

Edge  Curve

Vertex  Point

It means that a face in a B–rep model is simply a bounded area

of surfaces. A winged edge data structure, which is often used for
boundary representation, is shown in the figure.

1.31
 Model

Input views
Fig.1.19 Boundary representation
The use of boundary representation to create a solid object is
shown in the figure.

Comparison of CSG and B–Rep

CSG B–Rep
1) Solid model is built from solid Solid model is obtained by creating
graphic primitives. the outline or boundary of the object.
2) It is easy to construct a precise It is not so easy to construct the model.
solid model.
3) It uses Boolean operations. It uses topological elements.
4) It requires less storage space. It requires more storage space.
5) It requires more computation to It requires less computation to
reproduce the model. reproduce the model.
6) Non–analytical surfaces such as Non–analytical and complicated
Bezier surfaces cannot be created. surfaces can be created.
7) Conversion between C–rep and Conversion between boundary
corresponding wireframe model representation and corresponding
is very difficult. wireframe model is easy.

3. Hybrid schemes
It is the combination of both constructive solid geometry and
boundary representation approach. It makes use of the relative
benefits of both approaches overcoming their relative weaknesses. By
using this approach, solid models can be created by either C–rep or
B–rep whichever is more appropriate to the particular problem.

1.32
 1.14.4 Comparison of wire frame, surface and solid modeling

Detail Wire frame model Surface model Solid model

1. Representation Collection of corner Collection of corner Collection of corner points,

points and edge points, edge lines and edge lines, surfaces and
lines surfaces internal volume
2. Ambiguity More Less Unambiguous
3. Memory requirement Less More than wire frame More than surface model
model
4. Manipulation time Less More Less
5. Time for construction Less More Less
6. Interior details Not possible Not possible Possible
7. Automatic view generation Impossible Impossible Possible
(Perspective and orthographic)
8. Cross sectioning Manually guided Manually guided Possible even automatically
9. Elimination of hidden lines Manually guided Manually guided Possible
10. Mass property calculation Not possible Not possible Possible
11. Numerical control application Difficult or Automatic possible Automatic possible
impossible

1.33
Applications of solid modeling
Solid modeling can be used for the following applications.
1) Creating hidden line drawings, sections, and shaded images.
2) Calculating mass properties such as total surface area, volume,
centre of gravity, moments of inertia, radius of gyration, etc.
3) Self-adaptive finite element meshes generation.
4) Kinematics analysis of solid assemblies.
5) Dynamics interference analysis.
6) Process planning for manufacture.
7) CNC program generation.
8) CNC tool path simulation and program verification

Advantages
1) Solid model is complete and more understandable.
2) Solid models can be created easily.
3) It gives information about interior details.
4) There is little human intervention for automated application like
creating part program, etc.
5) It stores more information about geometry and topology of the
object.
6) It is best suitable for mass properties calculation.

Disadvantages
1) Solid model occupies more memory space.
2) It requires more manipulation time.

1.15 Graphic standards

A large number of applications are used in CAD/CAM, which are
manufactured by different vendors. Therefore, there is a need to
establish standards in CAD that help in linking different hardware and
software systems from different vendors. In addition, the data from
a CAD system is to be transferred to the CAM system to achieve
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM). The standards used in
CAD for exchanging data are called graphics standards.

1.34
 Graphics database

DXF, IGES, STEP, SET

Applications
programs
GKS, PHIGS, CORE

Graphics functions

VDI, VDM, NAPLPS

Device driver Device driver

Device Device

Fig.1.20 Various CAD standards

Need or benefits of graphics standards

Graphics standards are needed to achieve the following
benefits in CAD.
1) Application program portability: The program in a CAD
system should not be hardware dependent. It is desired to have
programs, which are interchangeable with a number of systems.
2) Picture data portability: Description and storage of picture
should be independent of different graphic devices.
3) Text portability: Representation of text associated with the
graphics should be independent of hardware.
4) Object database portability: In CAD, analysis and
manufacturing operations should be integrated for sharing
design database.
The following are the common graphics standards used in
CAD/CAM applications.
 GKS (Graphical Kernel System)
 PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interface for Graphics)
 IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)
 DXF (Drawing Exchange Format)
 STEP (STandard for the Exchange of Product model data)
 DMIS (Dimensional Measurement Interface Specifications)
 VDI (Virtual Device Interface)

1.35
  VDM (Virtual Device Metafile)
 GKSM (GKS Metafile)
 NAPLPS (North American Presentation Level Protocol Syntax)
 WMF (Windows Meta File)

1.16 Graphic Kernel System (GKS)

GKS is essentially a set of procedures that can be called by user
programs for carrying out certain generalized functions. Taking all the
existing graphic packages, ISO has standardized the GKS as a 2D
standard.
IGES file link to
other CAD systems

Application CAD system IGES

software software processor

GKS language
binding

GKS

Metafile Device driver Device driver

driver

Metafile Input
storage device

Fig.1.21 GKS implementation in CAD workstation

An environment for user to work is termed as workstation in
GKS. For a programmer, all workstations are identical. The
characteristics of these workstations are built into GKS. It is also
possible to work simultaneously on more than one workstation.

Objectives of GKS
1) To provide the complete range of graphical facilities in 2D,
including the interactive capabilities.
2) To control all the graphic devices such as plotters and display
devices in a consistent manner.
3) To be small enough for a variety of programs.

1.36
Features of GKS
1) Device independence: This standard does not require any
specific feature for the input or output devices.
2) Text or annotation: All the text or annotations are in a natural
language like English.
3) Display management: A complete set of display
management functions, cursor control, and other features are
provided.
4) Graphics functions: Graphics functions can be defined in 2D or 3D.
5) Metafile drivers: It makes use of metafile drivers, which are
devices with no graphic capability like a disc unit.

Coordinate frames
The following three types of coordinate frames are available to
the user in GKS.
1) World coordinates (WC): They are user–oriented drawing
coordinates.
2) Normalized Device Coordinates (NDC): It is a uniform
system for all workstations.
3) Device Coordinates (DC): They are the actual coordinate
system for the particular workstation.

Input methods
The input methods into GKS environment are organized in the
following way:
LOCATOR :A means of entering the location in world
coordinates.
VALUATOR:Real value in terms of distance.
CHOICE :Integer options such as 0,1,2,3,etc.
PICK :To select an object or segment in a drawing already
created.
STRING :Character value.
STROKE :To provide continuously the location valuations in
world coordinates.

1.37
Graphic primitives
The concept of PEN is used for drawing lines. PEN has the
attributes of colour, thickness, and linetype. Lines can be drawn with
any PEN that can be defined. The following are the basic graphic
primitives available in GKS.
 POLYLINE: To draw lines after specifying the linetype, line
width and line colour.
 POLYMARKER: To create specific marker types after
specifying the type, size, and colour.
 GENERALISED DRAWING PRIMITIVES (GDP): To specify
the drawing entity such as arc, circle, ellipse, spline, etc.
 TEXT: To create text after specifying font type, precision,
colour, height of box, expansion factor, spacing up vector and
the path (left, right, up or down).
 FILLAREA: To create hatching and filling of areas.

1.17 Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES)

IGES is the most comprehensive standard. It is designed to
transmit the entire product definition including that of manufacturing and
any other associated information. The software, which translates data
from CAD system to IGES, is called a pre–processor. The software,
which translates IGES data to a CAD system, is called post–processor.

CAD system A Pre-processor IGES file Post-processor CAD system B

Fig.1.22 CAD data transfer using IGES

Like most CAD systems, IGES is based on the concept of
entities. The entities in IGES are divided into three categories.
1) Geometry: Lines, circles, surfaces, etc. that define an object.
2) Annotation: Dimension, notes, title block, etc.
3) Structure: Ways in which CAD systems combine other entities
to make description of object easier.
In IGES, the records are present with 80-column field. Columns
1 to 72 provide the data and columns 73 to 80 provide a sequence
number for the record, which identifies the location of the subsection.
This sequence number is utilized as a pointer for the data.
1.38
Sub–sections of IGES
The IGES file consists of the following six sub–sections.
a) Flag section
This is optional and is used to indicate the form in which the
data is specified. ASCII mode, Binary form, and Compressed ASCII
form are the format of IGES file. Flag section is found only in
compressed ASCII files. It is identified by a letter “C” in column 73.
This section contains information that will be required by a post–
processor.
b) Start section
This section is identified by a letter “S” in column 73. The
information contained in this section is essentially for the person who
would be post–processing this file for any other application. It
contains any number of lines, which include the source, and
description of drawing, format type, etc.

c) Global section
This section is identified by a letter “G” in column 73. This
contains information about details of the drawing, the person who
created the drawing, name of the company, the system that created
the file, date, drafting standard used and other information required
for its post–processing on the host computer.

d) Directory entry section

This section is identified by a letter “D” in column 73. It
describes all the entities in the drawing. There is one entry for each
entity in the drawing. Each entry consists of two lines organized into
20 fields of 8 characters each. It contains attribute information such
as colour, linetype, view, pointers to transformation matrices,
pointers to parameter data for entities, etc.

This section also provides an index to the entities in the file.

IGES entities are identified by their type number (fields 1 and 11) and
a form number (field 15).

e) Parameter data section

This section is identified by the letter “P” in column 73. This
contains the data associated with the entities. A free format is allowed

1.39
for maximum convenience. It may contain any number of records.
The data includes the coordinate values, coefficient of curves and
surface equations, pointers to other entities, text characters and other
attributes.

The data varies with the type of entity. The parameter data
stored for a typical circular arc (type 100) are given below:
i) Parallel displacement of the X, Y plane containing the arc along
the Z-axis.
ii) Arc centre coordinate, X
iii) Arc centre coordinate, Y
iv) Start point of the arc, X
v) Start point of the arc, Y
vi) End point of the arc, X
vii) End point of the arc, Y
viii) Pointers required for the properties

f) Terminate section
This section is identified by the letter “T” in column 73. This
contains the subtotals of records present in each of the earlier sections.
This will be a single record organized into 10 fields of 8 characters each.
This record must always have a sequence number of 1.

Disadvantages of IGES
1) IGES is complex and wordy.
2) The various export choices make IGES file better or worse.
3) IGES files are about five times larger than an equivalent picture file.
4) Several entities required by specialized CAD applications are
yet not available.

1.18 Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics

Standard (PHIGS)
PHIGS includes in its functionality three dimensional output
primitives and transformations. It has dynamic control over the visual
appearance of attributes of primitives in segment. The PHIGS

1.40
standard defines a set of device-independent logical concepts.
Application programmers can use these concepts within a set of
PHIGS rules. The major concepts are explained below :

1. Structure networks
Structure networks are formed through a relation among
various structures in the centralized structure store (CSS). Structure
networks are hierarchical and acyclic. This means that structure
networks are formed through invocations of other structures in the
CSS.

2. Logical input devices

PHIGS allows graphics input for applications programs via six
classes of logical input devices, each of which delivers graphics data.
These include:
Locator : returns a point in world co-ordinates
Stroke : returns a list of points in work co-ordinates
Valuator : returns a real value in a settable range
Choice : returns an integer between 1 and a certain value n
String : returns a character string
Hierarchical pick : returns a reference to a picked primitive

All of these devices are similar to those of Graphics Kernel

System (GKS) except for the hierarchical pick. This is unique to
PHIGS.

3. Structure manipulation
A structure can be deleted invoking a function called DELETE
STRUCTURE. Once this function has been executed the entire
structure is wiped out from the CSS. Another function DELETE
STRUCTURE NETWORK wipes out the whole structure network from
the point it has been referred.

4. Search and Enquiry

PHIGS has functionalities for interrogating the CSS for
determining the element contents and its characteristics. The
complete details of a specified structure element can be determined
1.41
by calling functions like INQUIRE ELEMENT TYPE AND SIZE, etc. The
INCREMENTAL SPATIAL SEARCH (ISS) allows a structure network to
be searched for the next occurrence of a graphical output structure
element which satisfies the specified search criteria.

5. Structure archival and retrieval

An archive file is a medium for storing structure definitions.
Functions like ARCHIVE STRUCTURES, RETRIEVE STRUCTURES,
DELETE STRUCTURES, etc. are available in PHIGS for archiving
structures into an 'archive file' from the CSS, or retrieving it from the
file itself.

6. Structure traversal and display

Traversal is an operation used to describe a method of
structure element processing. The traversal of a network leads to the
display of graphical output from the structure network at each
workstation to which it is posted. The traversal process interprets
each structure element in the structure network sequentially stating
at the first element at the top of the network.

7. Graphical output
The graphical output of PHIGS is built up from 'output
primitives' and 'primitive attributes'. Output primitives are generated
from structure elements by structure traversal. A representative
cross-section of these are : POLYLINE, POLYMAKER, TEXT, FILL AREA,
CELL ARRAY, etc. Conceptually these planes have two sides and zero
thickness. The viewing transformation determines which side of these
primitives is seen.

1.19 Drawing Exchange Format (DXF)

The DXF format has been developed by the company Autodesk
Inc., USA with the AutoCAD drawing files. It is not an industry
standard developed by any standard organization. Because of the
widespread use of AutoCAD, DXF is made as a default standard for
use of a variety of CAD/CAM vendors.

A DXF file is simply an ASCII text file with a file extension of

.DXF and specially formatted text.
1.42
Organization of DXF file
The overall organization of DXF file is as follows.

a) HEADER section
This section contains general information about the drawing. It
consists of the AutoCAD database version number and a number of
system variables. Each parameter contains a variable name and
associated value. This information is used for database conversion
purpose.

b) CLASSES section
It contains the information for application–defined classes,
which appear in the BLOCKS, ENTITIES, and OBJECTS sections of the
database. A class definition is permanently fixed in the class
hierarchy.

c) TABLES section
This contains definitions for the following symbol tables, which
directly relates to the object types available in AutoCAD.
 Linetype table
 Layer table
 Text style table
 View table
 User coordinate system table
 Viewport configuration table
 Dimension style table
 Application identification table
 Block reference table

d) BLOCKS section
This section contains block (symbol) definition and drawing
entities that make up each block reference in the drawing.

e) ENTITIES section
This section contains the graphical entities in the drawing,
including block references.

1.43
f) OBJECTS section
This section contains the non–graphical objects in the drawing.
All objects that are not entities or symbol table are stored in this
section. Examples of entities in OBJECTS section are dictionaries that
contain mline (multiple lines) styles and groups.

g) END OF FILE
Group and group codes
A DXF file is composed of many groups, each of which occupies
two lines in the DXF file. The first line is a group code. The second line
is a group value, in a format that depends on the type of group
specified by the group code.

The specific assignment of group codes depends upon the item

being described in the file. However, the types of the value this group
supplies is derived from the following way.

Group code range Following value

0–9 String
10 – 59 Floating point
60 – 79 Integer
210 – 239 Floating point
999 Comment (string)

Variables, table entities, and entities are described by a group

that introduces the item, giving its type and name, following multiple
groups that supply the values associated with the item. In addition,
special groups are used for file separators such as markers for
beginning and end of sections, table, and the file itself.

1.20 Design for Excellence (DFX)

Design for Excellence is a system of product development and
improvement guidelines. These guidelines explain the issues that
happen in the four phases of a product life cycle, including
a) development phase, b) production phase, c) utilization phase, and
d) disposal phase.
1.44
 The design guidelines usually propose an approach and
corresponding methods to generate and apply technical knowledge to
control, improve, or invent particular qualities of a product. By
considering the whole life cycle of a product, a wide range of
specialized fields of engineering and non-engineering knowledge are
required to design a product for excellence. The main objective of DFX
is to deliver an excellent product to the customer at the right time.
For this purpose, examples of design guidelines are listed in the
following.

a) Development phase
 Design for reliability
 Design for test
 Design for safety
 Design for quality
 Design against corrosion damage
 Design for minimum risk

b) Production phase
 Design to cost
 Design to standards
 Design for assembly
 Design for manufacturability
 Design for logistics

c) Utilization phase
 Design for user-friendliness
 Design for ergonomics
 Design for aesthetics
 Design for serviceability
 Design for maintainability

d) Disposal phase
 Design for Environment
 Design for recycling
 Design for Disassembly

1.45
1.20.1 Cost involved in design changes
A design change is the modification carried out in the product.
It can happen at any stage in the product development process. The
design changes can be classified into pre-production and post-
production design changes. The pre-production changes can happen
in the conceptual design stage, prototype stage, detailing stage,
testing stage. The post production stage change will happen almost
immediately the product is introduced into the production. This might
be due to several reasons such as market response, design faults, not
meeting customer requirements, etc.

The cost of the design change increases with its development

time. The cost involved for design changes in pre-production is lesser
than that of post-production stage. One of the tools to minimize this
type of design change is House of Quality.

A House of Quality Matrix is a diagram in the form of house. It

is capable of storing a lot of information and comparing large amount
of data for defining the relationship between customer desires and
the product qualities. It is based on the belief that products should be
designed to reflect customer’s desires and tastes.

1.20.2 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA)

DFMA is a methodology and tool set used to determine how
to simplify a product design and manufacturing process to achieve
cost savings. DFMA allows for improved supply chain cost
management, product quality and manufacturing. It also improves
communication between Design, Manufacturing, Purchasing and
Management.

Guidelines for DFMA

1. Minimize total number of parts : Eliminating parts results
in great savings. A part that is eliminated saves the costs to make,
assemble, move, store, clean, inspect, rework or service the part.

2. Develop a modular design : A module is a self-contained

component with a standard interface with other components in the
system. Interchangeable lenses for a camera or plug-in modules for

1.46
electronic instruments are common examples. Modular design
results in easier service and repair because the defective module
can be replaced by a new one. Modular design simplifies final
assembly because there are fewer parts to assemble.

3. Minimize part variations : The risk of quality problems

are reduced when part variations are kept to a minimum. A common
way to minimize part variation is to use standard components.

4. Design parts to be multifunctional : A good way to

minimize the number of parts is to design such that parts can fulfill
more than one function. The part might be designed to provide a
guiding, aligning or self-fixturing in assembly.

5. Design parts for multiuse : It is a good practice to use

parts in more than one product. For example, the same gear can be
used in different products. Design of parts for multiuse reduces the
cost per piece.

6. Design parts for ease of fabrication : Manufacturing

processes that produce the part to near net shape are preferred
whenever possible. Secondary processes such as finish machining
and painting should be avoided whenever possible.

7. Avoid separate fasteners : The use of screws in

assembly is expensive. Snap fits should be used whenever possible.

8. Minimize assembly direction : All parts should be

designed so that they can be assembled from one direction. The
need to rotate in assembly requires extra time and motion. It also
requires additional transfer stations and fixtures.

9. Maximize compliance in assembly : The compliance

features such as generous tapers, chamfers, and radii should be
provided in the design for ease of assembly.

10. Minimize handling in assembly : Parts should be

designed to make the required position easy to achieve. Orientation
can be assisted by design features which help to guide and locate
parts in the proper position.

1.47
1.21 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computer simulation
technique used in engineering analysis. It uses a numerical technique
called the finite element method (FEM). In its applications, the object
or system is represented by a geometrically similar model consisting
of multiple, linked, simplified representations of discrete regions i.e.,
finite elements on an unstructured grid. Equations of equilibrium are
applied to each element, and a system of simultaneous equations is
constructed. The system of equations is solved for unknown values
using the techniques of linear algebra or non-linear numerical
schemes. The accuracy of FEA method can be improved by refining
the mesh in the model using more elements and nodes.

Basic steps in FEA

There are three phases in any finite element analysis.
1. Pre-processing
2. Analysis (Computation of solution)
3. Post processing (Visualization)

Pre-processing
Pre-processing is the construction of a finite element model of
the structure to be analyzed. The input of a topological description of
the structure's geometric features is required in most FEA packages.
This can be in either 1D, 2D, or 3D form, modeled by line, shape, or
surface representation. The primary objective of the model is to
realistically replicate the important parameters and features of the
real model.
The simplest mechanism to achieve modeling similarity in
structural analysis is to utilize pre-existing digital blueprints, design
files, CAD models, and data by importing that into an FEA
environment. Once the finite element geometric model has been
created, a meshing procedure is used to define and break up the
model into small elements. In general, a finite element model is
defined by a mesh network, which is made up of the geometric
arrangement of elements and nodes. Nodes represent points at which
features such as displacements are calculated. FEA packages use
node numbers to serve as an identification tool in viewing solutions in

1.48
structures such as deflections. Elements are bounded by sets of
nodes, and define localized mass and stiffness properties of the
model. Elements are also defined by mesh numbers, which allow
references to be made to corresponding deflections or stresses at
specific model locations.

Analysis (computation of solution)

The next stage of the FEA process is analysis. The FEM conducts
a series of computational procedures involving applied forces, and the
properties of the elements which produce a model solution. Such a
structural analysis allows the determination of effects such as
deformations, strains, and stresses which are caused by applied
structural loads such as force, pressure and gravity.

Post-processing (visualization)
These results can then be studied using visualization tools
within the FEA environment to view and to fully identify results of the
analysis. Numerical and graphical tools allow the precise location of
data such as stresses and deflections to be identified.

FEA softwares
The following are the widely used FEA softwares:
ABAQUS is a commercial software package for finite element
analysis developed by ABAQUS, Inc.

ANSYS is the general-purpose finite element analysis software

developed by ANSYS, Inc. It is widely used for numerically solving a
wide variety of mechanical problems including static/dynamic
structural analysis, heat transfer and fluid problems, acoustic and
electro-magnetic problems.

CATIA (Computer Aided Three dimensional Interactive

Application) is a multi-platform PLM/CAD/CAM/CAE commercial
software suite developed by Dassault Systems and marketed world-
wide by IBM.

COMSOL Multiphysics is a finite element analysis and solver

software package for various physics and engineering applications.

1.49
 FEDEM is a simulation software for mechanical multibody
systems developed by Fedem Technology.

GENOA is an integrated engineering software suite by

AlphaSTAR Corporation for virtual testing of material structures
involving composites and metals.

LS-DYNA is a most advanced general-purpose multiphysics

simulation software package, actively developed by the Livermore
Software Technology Corporation.

NASTRAN is a general purpose finite element analysis

program, originally produced by NASA.

NX Nastran is a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and computer-

aided engineering (CAE) tool provided by UGS Corp..

Applications of FEA
The major fields of application of FEA include the following :
 Determination of stresses and displacements in mechanical
objects and systems
 Heat transfer
 Solid state diffusion
 Reactions with moving boundaries
 Fluid dynamics
 Electromagnetism

Advantages of FEA
The advantages of using FEA include the following :
 Increased accuracy
 Enhanced design
 Better insight into critical design parameters
 Virtual prototyping
 Fewer hardware prototypes
 Faster and less expensive design cycle
 Increased productivity
 Increased revenue

1.50
 Review questions

1) What is CIM? Explain the activities of a CIM Wheel.

2) Explain integrated CAD/CAM.
3) List out the benefits of CIM.
4) Explain the activities of CAD in Shiley’s design process.
5) What are the benefits of CAD?
6) Briefly explain the various types of CAD systems.
7) Define the term AutoCAD. List out the advantages.
8) State the features of AutoCAD.
9) List out the disadvantages of wire frame modeling.
10) List out the various types of surface entities used for
constructing surface models.
11) What are the various representation schemes available
for creating solid models?
12) State the applications of solid modeling.
13) What is a graphic standard? List out the benefits of
introducing standards for computer graphics.
14) List out the common graphics standards used in CAD/
CAM applications.
15) State the features of GKS.
16) Briefly explain the various finite element methods.
17) Explain the various activities of CAD.
18) What are the stages of CAD? Explain.
19) Explain in detail the hardware of a CAD workstation.
20) What is graphic workstation? Explain its components with
neat sketch.
21) Briefly explain the following transformations with an example:
i) Translation ii) Scaling iii) Rotation
22) Explain 3D rotation and 3D translation.

1.51
23) Explain wire frame model with examples. State the advantages
and disadvantages.
24) Discuss in detail the surface modeling technique.
25) Discuss solid modeling with an example. State its merits and
demerits.
26) Explain with an example how complicated solid objects are created
in solid modeling by performing Boolean operations.
27) Compare the wire frame modeling, solid modeling and surface
modeling techniques.
28) Explain the implementation of GKS in CAD work station.
29) Explain the structure of IGES file.
30) Explain the structure of PHIGS file.
31) Explain the organisation of DXF file.
32) Explain the concept of Design for Excellence?
33) Explain the guide lines for DFMA.
34) What is Finite Elements Analysis(FEA). Explain the basic steps.
35) List out the applications and advantages of FEA.

1.52
 Unit – II
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
AND RAPID PROTOTYPING
2.1 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Computer aided manufacturing may be defined as the effective
use of computer technology in manufacturing, planning, and control.
CAM is most closely associated with functions in manufacturing
engineering, such as process planning and NC part programming.

Need of CAM
The following are the need of implementing CAM.
 To increase the productivity
 To improve the quality and accuracy
 To improve the flexibility in manufacturing
 To reduce the lead time in manufacturing
 To improve the reliability
 To reduce the scrap and rework
 To reduce the maintenance of machine tools.

2.2 Functions of CAM (or) Activities of CAM

The functions of CAM can be divided into the following two main
categories.
1) Manufacturing planning
2) Manufacturing control

1) Manufacturing planning
The computer can be indirectly used to provide information for
the effective planning and management of manufacturing activities.
The manufacturing planning includes the following activities.
 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP): It is concerned
with the use of computer to prepare route sheets that list the
sequence of operations and work centres required for
manufacturing a product.

2.1
  Computer assisted NC part programming: It is concerned
with the automatic generation of NC part programs by using CAM
softwares.
 Computerized machinability data system: It is concerned
with the use of computer programs to provide appropriate
machinability data for different materials.
 Development of work standard: It is concerned with uses of
computer software for setting work standards.
 Cost estimating: The task of estimating the cost of a new
product has been simplified by computerizing most of the key
steps required to prepare the estimate.
 Production and inventory planning: This includes the use of
computer programs for the maintenance of inventory records,
automatic re–ordering of stock items, production scheduling,
material requirements planning and capacity planning.
 Computer aided line balancing: It is concerned with the use of
computer for finding the best allocation of work elements among
stations on an assembly line.

2) Manufacturing control
It is concerned with the use of computer systems for managing
and controlling the physical operations in the industry. The
manufacturing control includes the following activities.
 Process monitoring and control: It is concerned with
observing and regulating the production equipment and
manufacturing processes by using computers. It includes transfer
lines, assembly system, NC, robotics, material handling and FMS.
 Quality control: it is concerned with the use of computers to
ensure the highest possible quality levels in the manufactured
product.
 Shop floor control: It refers to production management
techniques for collecting data from factory operations and using
the data to control production and inventory in the factory.

2.2
  Inventory control: It is concerned with the use of computer for
maintaining the most appropriate levels of inventory in the
factory.

2.3 Benefits of CAM (or) Advantages of CAM

The following are the benefits of using CAM
1) Greater flexibility in design: Any changes that are required
in design can be incorporated any design stage without any
delay.
2) Increased productivity: Since the total manufacturing
activity is completely controlled through the computer, the
productivity of the plant can be increased.
3) Greater flexibility in operations: CAM improves the
flexibility in manufacturing methods and changing of product
lines.
4) Shorter lead time: Due to the better communication through
networking, the lead time in manufacturing will be reduced.
5) Improved reliability: Better manufacturing methods and
controls make the manufacturing system and the product
highly reliable.
6) Reduced maintenance: Since most of the components of a
CAM system include integrated diagnostics and monitoring
facilities, they require less maintenance.
7) Reduced scrap and rework: Because of the use of CNC
machines in production, the scrap and rework is greatly
reduced.
8) Better management control: Since all the manufacturing
functions are controlled with the help of computers, a better
management control on the manufacturing activity is possible.

2.3 Group technology

Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy that can
be used to group parts based on similarities in design or
manufacturing process so as to reduce the overall production cost.

2.3
 T T T CG CG

T T T SG SG
T - Turning
M - Milling
D - Drilling
CG - Cylindrical Grinding
M M D D D SG - Surface Grinding

M M D D D

Fig.2.1 Process type layout

T M D SG

T M D CG

T T M CG

M D D

Fig.2.2 Group Technology layout

In process layout, all the machine tools of the same process

will be grouped in a single department and placed together. The parts
need to move through various departments before they are
completed. This requires a large amount of travel for the part and is
wasteful.
In product layout, the machine tools are arranged in the
sequence in which the operations are to be carried out, such that the
part movement will be smooth. When the batch size is small, it is
difficult to fully load the machine tools and that makes lower
utilization of machine tools. However, by grouping the parts together
into a family, it is possible to make the batch sizes large by combining
the production requirement of the individual parts together. This
philosophy is called Group Technology and the layout thus obtained
is called Group Technology layout.

2.4
 Similar parts are arranged into part families, where each part
family possesses similar design or manufacturing characteristics.
Grouping of production equipments into machine cells, where each cell
specializes in production of part family, is called cellular manufacturing.

Group technology and cellular manufacturing are applicable in

a wide variety of manufacturing situations. GT is more suitable under
the following conditions.
 The plant uses traditional batch production and a process type layout.
 The variety of parts can be grouped into part families.

2.3.1 Concept of part families

Part 1 Part 2
10,000/Yr 100/Yr
Tolerance ±0.05 Tolerance ±0.001
Nickel plate Stainless steel
(a) Similar design attributes but different manufacturing attributes

(b) Similar manufacturing attributes but different design attributes

Fig.2.3 Part families
A part family is a group of parts, which are similar either due
to their geometric shape and size, or due to similar processing steps
needed in their manufacture. The parts within a family are different,
but their similarities are close enough to identify them as members of
the part family.

The two parts shown in fig.2.3 (a) are similar from a design
viewpoint but quiet different in terms of manufacturing. The parts
shown in fig.2.3 (b) may constitute a part family in manufacturing,
but their geometry characteristics are different.

2.5
 The grouping of parts into part family is time consuming and
involves the analysis of much data by properly trained personnel. The
following three methods are generally used for grouping the parts.

a) Visual inspection: It is the least sophisticated and least

expensive method. It involves the classification of parts into families
by looking at either physical parts or photographs and arranging them
into similar groupings. This method is least accurate of the three.

b) Production flow analysis (PFA): It is a method of

identifying the part families and associated machine tool grouping by
analyzing the route sheets for parts produced in a given shop. It
groups together the parts that have similar operation sequences and
machine routings.

c) Parts classification and coding: It is the most time

consuming and complicated method. However, it is the most
frequently applied method and most powerful of the three. In this
method, the similarities among parts are identified and related in the
coding systems.

2.3.2 Parts classification and coding

Parts classification is the process of separating the parts into
groups based on the characteristic attributes. Coding is the process
of providing a symbol to the component. The part classification and
coding process starts from the examinations and analysis of the
design and manufacturing attributes of each part. An alternative
approach is to use a computerized classification and coding system,
in which the user responds to questions asked by the computer. On
the basis of the responses, the computer assigns the code number to
the part.

A number of classification and coding systems and software

packages for coding are commercially available. However, none of the
systems has been universally adopted. One of the reasons for this is
that a classification and coding system should be customized for a
given company or industry. A system that is best for one company
may not be best for another company.

2.6
Features of parts classification and coding system
Design and manufacturing are the important functional areas
that utilize a parts classification and coding system. Accordingly, the
systems fall into one of the following three categories.
1) Systems based on part design attributes.
2) Systems based on part manufacturing attributes.
3) Systems based on both design and manufacturing attributes.

The common design and manufacturing attributes included in

classification schemes are listed in table 2.1

Table 2.1 Design and manufacturing attributes included in a

Group Technology classification and coding system.

Part manufacturing
Part design attributes
attributes
Basic external shape Major processes
Basic internal shape Minor operations
Rotational or rectangular shape Operation sequence
Length to diameter ratio (Rotational
Major dimension
parts)
Aspect ratio (Rectangular parts) Surface finish
Material type Machine tool
Part functions Production cycle time
Major dimensions Batch size
Minor dimensions Annual production
Tolerances Fixture required
Surface finish Cutting tools

Application of parts classification and coding

The part classification and coding can be effectively used for
the following purpose
Design retrieval: While developing a new part, it is
economical to use a design retrieval system to determine if a similar
part already exists. A simple change in an existing part will take much
less time than designing a complete new part from scratch. The
existing part can be retrieved by specifying its part code.

2.7
 Automated process planning: The part code of a new part
can be used to search for process plans for existing parts with
identical or similar codes.

Machine cell design: The part codes can be used to design

machine cells capable of producing all members of a particular part
family, using the composite part concept.

2.3.4 Coding structure

A part-coding scheme consists of a sequence of symbols that
identify the parts design and manufacturing attributes. The symbols
in the code can be all numeric, all alphabetic, or combination of both
types. The arrangement of these symbols in a part code is called
coding structure. The following three types of coding structures are
used in group technology applications.
1) Hierarchical structure or Monocode structure
2) Chain type structure or Polycode structure
3) Hybrid structure or Mixed mode structure

1) Hierarchical structure
In this structure, the meaning of each symbol in the sequence
depends on the value of the preceding symbols.

Example:
Consider a two-digit code number for a part, such as 15 or 25.
Assume that the first digit stands for general shape of the part. The
symbol 1 means the part is cylindrical, and 2 means the part is
rectangular. In hierarchical structure, the symbol 5 in the code 15
may indicate a length-to-diameter ratio, and the same symbol 5 in
the code 25 may indicate an aspect ratio between the length and
width dimensions of the part.

Advantages
 The structure is relatively compact.
 It conveys more information about the part in a limited number
of digits.

2.8
2) Chain type structure
In this structure, the meaning of each symbol in the sequence
is always the same and does not depend on the value of proceeding
symbol.

Example:
Consider a two-digit code number for a part, such as 15 or 25.
In chain type structure, the symbol 5 in the above two codes will have
the same meaning whether it is preceded by 1 or 2. For example, it
may indicate the overall length of the part.

Advantages
 It is used for convenient identification of specific part attributes.
 It can be helpful in recognizing parts with similar processing
requirements.

3) Hybrid structure
It is a combination of hierarchical and chain type structures. It
makes use of the advantages of both the structures. It is the most
common structure used in GT parts classification and coding systems.
Hybrid codes are constructed as a series of short polycodes. It is best
suitable for both design and manufacturing attributes.

2.3.5 Parts classification and coding systems

The following are the generally used parts classification and
coding systems.
 Opitz system
 MICLASS system
 The CODE system
 DCLASS system
 COFORM system
 The KK–3 system
 Multiclass system
 Part analog system

2.9
 1) OPITZ classification system
This system was developed by H. Opitz. The Optiz system uses
the following digit sequence
1234 6789 ABCD
s

s
Form code Supplementary Secondary
Code code

Supplementary
Digit 1 Digit 2 Digit 3 Digit 4 Digit 5 code
Part class Digit
Main shape Rotational Plane surface Additional holes 6 7 8 9
machining machining teeth and forming
0 L/D<0.5
External Internal Machining of Other holes
1 0.5<L/D<3 shape shape plane surfaces and teeth

Original shape of raw material

element element
2 L/D>3
With deviation
3 L/D<2 Other holes,
Rotatiional Machining of teeth and
Main shape

Dimension
With deviation machining plane surfaces

Accuracy
Material
4 forming
L/D>2
5 Special
Main shape
A/B<3
6 A/C>4
Main bore and Other holes,
Main shape rotational Machining of teeth and
7 A/B>3 plane surfaces
machining forming
A/B<3
8 A/C<4
Main shape
9 Special

Fig.2.4 Basic structure of Opitz classification system

The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended

by adding four more digits. The first five digits (12345) are called
form code. It describes the primary design attributes of the parts such
as external shape and machined features. The next four digits (6789)
are called supplementary code. It indicates some of the
manufacturing attributes. The extra four digits (ABCD) are referred to
as secondary code. It can be designed by the user company to identify
the production operation type and sequence.

Fig.2.4 shows the basic structure of the Opitz parts

classification and coding system. The first digit identifies whether the
part is rotational or non–rotational. It also describes the general
shape and proportions of the part. Fig.2.5 shows the form code
(1 to 5) for rotational part.

2.10
 Digit 1 Digit 2 Digit 3 Digit 4 Digit 5
External shape, Internal shape,
Part class external shape internal shape Plane surface machining Auxiliary holes and gear teeth
elements elements

Smooth, no Smooth, no
0 L/D≤ 0.5 0 0 0 No surface machining 0 No auxiliary hole
shape elements shape elements

Surface plane and/or

No shape No shape Axial, not on pitch
1 0.5<L/D<3 1 1 1 curves in one direction, 1
Elements Elements circle diameter
external
External plane surface
Axial on pitch
2 L/D≥3 2 Thread 2 Thread 2 related by graduation 2
circle diameter
around the circle

or smooth
or smooth
Functional Functional External groove Radial, not on pitch
3 3 3 3 3

Stepped to one end

Stepped to one end
Groove Groove and/or slot circle diameter

Rotational parts
Rotational parts

Axial, and/or radial

No shape No shape External spline
4 4 4 4 4 and/or other
Elements Elements (polygon)
direction
External plane surface Axial, and/or radial
5 5 Thread 5 Thread 5 and/or slot, external 5 on PCD and/or other

ends
ends
spline direction

Functional Functional Internal plane surface

Stepped to both
Stepped to both
6 6 6 6 6 Spur gear teeth
Groove Groove and/or slot

7 7 Functional cone 7 Functional cone 7 Internal spline (polygon) 7 Bevel gear teeth

Internal and external

8 8 Operating thread 8 Operating thread 8 polygon, groove and/or 8 Other gear teeth
slot

Non rotational parts

Non rotational parts

9 9 All others 9 All others 9 All others 9 All others

Fig.2.5 Form code for rotational parts in Opitz system

2.11
Example

M10

Ø8

20
25

12.5
20
40

Fig.2.6 Example for Optiz system

The determination of form code for the rotational part shown

in fig.2.6 is explained below.
Digit 1 Digit 2 Digit 3 Digit 4 Digit 5
Auxiliary
Internal Plane surface
Part class External shape holes and
shape machining
gear teeth
Stepped on both Part contains No auxiliary
L 40 No plane
Details = = 1.64 ends with screw a through holes and gear
D 25 surface
thread on one end hole teeth
Form
1 5 1 0 0
code
The form code for the above component in Opitz system is 15100

2) MICLASS coding system

MICLASS stands for Metal Institute CLASsification System and
was developed by TNO, the Netherlands organization for Applied
Scientific Research. It is marketed in the United States by the
Organization for Industrial Research (OIR). The MICLASS system was
developed to help automate and standardize a number of design,
manufacturing and management functions.

The MICLASS code consists of 12 to 30 digits. The first 12 digits

are a universal code that can be applied to any part. The other digits
can be used to code data that are specified to the particular company
or industry. The component attributes coded in the first 12 digits of
the MICLASS code are as shown in the table.
2.12
 Digit Attribute
1st digit Main shape
2nd and 3rd digit Shape elements
4th digit Position of shape elements
5th and 6th digits Main dimension
7th digit Dimension ratio
8th digit Auxiliary dimension
9th and 10th digit Tolerance codes
11th and 12th digit Material codes

The main feature of the MICLASS system is that parts can be

coded using a computer interactively. To classify a given part, the
user responds to a series of questions asked by the computer. Most
of the question requires “Yes” and “No” answers.

Example
60

Ø6 Ø11

Ø75
Material
50 CC15
40
9.5
50
27

Fig.2.7 Example for MICLASS system

The universal part code assigned by the computer to the

component shown in fig.2.7 in MICLASS coding system is
1271 3231 3144.

2.13
3) The CODE system of part classification
The CODE system was developed and marketed by
Manufacturing Data systems Inc., Michigan. It is used in design
engineering for retrieval of part design data, process planning,
purchasing, tool design and inventory control.

The CODE number has eight digits. For each digit, there are 16
possible values (0 through 9 and A through F), which are used to describe
the parts design and manufacturing characteristics. The initial digit is
called the Major division and is used to specify whether the shape was
cylinder, flat piece, block or other. The value of the remaining seven
digits depend on the value of the first digit, but these digits themselves
form a chain type structure. Hence, the CODE system is a hybrid
structure. Representation of digits in CODE system is as follows.
Digit Attribute

Digit 1 External shape

Digit 2 Additional information about the basic geometry
and 3 and principal manufacturing process for the part
Digit 4, 5, Secondary manufacturing processes such as
and 6 threads, grooves, slots, etc.
Digits 7
Overall size of the part (Diameter, overall length, etc.)
and 8

Example

Fig.2.8 Example for CODE classification system

The part code determined for the component shown in the
fig.2.8 by using CODE classification system is 1388D75.
2.14
4) DCLASS system of part classification
The DCLASS part classification code contains 8 digits. They are
divided into five code segments as follows:
123 4 5 6 78
Basic Form
Size Precision Material
shape Feature

 The first segment of the code contains three digits. They

represent the basic shape of the part.
 The second segment contains one digit. It represents the form
feature of the part.
 The third segment contains one digit. It represents the size of
the part.
 The fourth segment contains one digit. It represents the
precision of the part.
 The fifth segment contains two digits. They represent the type
of material of the part.

2.3.6 Benefits of Group Technology

The following are the benefits of using group technology.
1) Retrieval of existing design from the database is easy.
2) It helps in design standardization.
3) It provides manufacturing feedback.
4) It helps in developing standard process plans and optimizing
the process plans.
5) Standard tooling and procedures can be developed for a part
family using GT.
6) The setup time is reduced.
7) The production rate is increased.
8) The inventory and work–in–process can be reduced.
9) The throughput time is reduced.
10) The material handling and movement is reduced.
11) The product quality is increased.
12) The scrap is reduced.
13) The machine utilization is increased.
2.15
 14) Available shop floor area is increased.
15) The output per employee is increased.
16) Manufacturing lead-time is reduced.
17) Reduction in over due orders.
18) Improved ability to respond to market changes.
19) Increase in job satisfaction and motivation.
20) The overall plant efficiency is increased.

Limitations
1) The cost of implementing GT is high.
2) It may not be suitable for a factory with a very large variety of
products.
3) The entire production of the company cannot be put under GT.
4) There is no acceptable universal standard for GT parts
classification and coding.
5) The GT cells may be altered according to the change in the
product family.

2.4 Process planning

Process planning involves determining the most appropriate
manufacturing and assembly processes and the sequence in which
they should be done to produce a product as per the specifications.

Process planning is usually accomplished by manufacturing

engineers. The process planner must have in-depth knowledge of the
manufacturing processes involved and the capabilities of the factory.
The process planning procedure is very much dependent on the
experience and judgment of the planner.

The process planning procedure includes the following

 Interpretation of design drawing: The design details such as
materials, dimensions, tolerances, surface finish, etc. of the
product must be analyzed at the start of the process planning
procedure.
 Selection of process and sequence: The process planner must
select the appropriate processes and their sequence.

2.16
  Selection of equipment: The process planner must develop
plans that utilize existing equipment in the plant.
 Selection of tools, dies, moulds, fixtures and gauges: The
process planner must decide required tooling for each processing
step.
 Setting work standards: Work measurement techniques are
used to set time standards for each operation.
 Selection of cutting tools and cutting condition: These must
be specified for each machining operation with reference to
standard handbook recommendation.

Route sheet
The processing sequence for producing individual parts is
documented on a form called a route sheet. Just as engineering
drawings are used to specify the product design, route sheets are
used to specify the process plan.

Route sheet ABC Machine Shop Pvt. Limited.

Part No. Part Name Planner Checked by Date: Page:
05879 Generator shaft 1/1
Material Stock Size Comments:
1050 H18 60mm dia. 206 mm
Al length
No. Operation description Dept. Machine Tooling Setup Std.
10 Rough turn to 52mm dia. and Lathe L38 G098 60 min. 5 min.
finish turn to 50mm dia.
20 Drill 4 radial holes 7.5mm dia. Drill D07 J333 30 min. 3 min.
30 Mill 6 mm deep x 5 mm wide Mill M05 F765 80 min. 5 min.
slot

Fig.2.9 Typical route sheet

A typical route sheet includes the following information.

1) The list of all operations in the order in which they should be
performed on the part.
2) A brief description of each operation indicating the processing,
dimensions, and tolerances.
2.17
 3) The specific machine on which the work is to be done.
4) Any special tooling such as dies moulds, cutting tools, jigs,
fixtures, and gauges.
5) Setup time, standard cycle time, and other data.

2.4.1 Requirements for process planning

The following are the important requirements for process planning.
1) Annual demand of the product or batch size.
2) The list of parts in the product.
3) Available stock sizes.
4) Details of available equipments.
5) Tools, dies, moulds, fixtures and gauges requirements.
6) Accuracy and surface finish requirements.
7) Cutting parameters such as speed, feed, depth of cut and the
number of passes.

2.5 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)

The manual process planning procedure requires more time
and expertise to determine an optimal routing for each new part
design. The need of shorter lead-time, satisfying varied customer
demand on the product variety and the optimum use of the
manufacturing facilities made the industries to automate many
functions in the product cycle. The logic, judgment and experience
required for process planning are captured and incorporated into
computer programs. Computer is extremely advantageous in process
planning, since large amount of data needs to be used for arriving
best possible process plan.

Structure of CAPP
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) is a means to
automatically develop the process plan with the help of computer
programs. The geometric model of the part is the input for the process
planning system. Based on the characteristics of a given part, the
program automatically generates the sequence of manufacturing
operations.

2.18
 Geometric Inspection Machine
input feature tool tool Material
based database database database

Fixture Cutting
Pocket Database tool
identification database editor database

Setup Standard Cutting process

Tool time parameter
identification planning optimization
estimator

Process
sequencing

Process
sheet
generation

Fig.2.10 Structure of CAPP

The development of CAPP system involves the structuring of

data concerning part design, manufacturing facilities and capabilities
into categories and logical relationships. The categories include CAD
database, machine database, tool database, material database,
fixture database, etc. The standard modules available in the CAPP
system utilize these databases to analyze and generate best possible
process plan. CAPP thus appears to fully integrate CAD/CAM.
Approaches to CAPP
The following two approaches are used in CAPP.
1) Variant approach
2) Generative approach
1) Variant approach
It is also called retrieval approach. This approach uses a
Group Technology (GT) code to select appropriate process plan from
the existing master process plans developed for each part family and
edits to suit the requirement of the part. Variant approach is
commonly implemented with GT coding system. Here the parts are
grouped into families based on similarities and each group has a
master plan.

2.19
 Part Process plan Process
Description GT code Retrieve/Edit plan

Master
plans

Fig.2.11 Variant approach to CAPP

However, this approach is impractical in situations where small

batches of widely varying parts are produced. Moreover, this method
fails to capture real knowledge of process planners. Also, there is a
danger of repeating mistakes from earlier plans that were stored in
the database.

2) Generative approach
In generative approach, a process plan is created from scratch
for each part without human intervention. These systems contain the
logic to use manufacturing database and suitable part description
schemes to generate process plan for particular part.

Part Process plan

descriptive Process
system logic plan

Manufacturing facility information

Machine Cutting Jigs

tool tool Materials

Fig.2.12 Generative approach to CAPP

Most of the CAPP systems are generative in nature. Generative
approach eliminates the disadvantages of retrieval approach and
bridges the gap between the CAD and CAM.

2.5.1 Operation of Variant type CAPP system

The operation of a typical CAPP system includes the following stages.
1) Preparatory stage
2) Process planning stage
3) Report generation

2.20
 New part design

Derive GT code Preparatory stage

number for part

Select coding
Search part family system and form
Part family file part family
file for GT code

Retrieve standard Standard process Prepare standard

process plan plan file process plans for
part families

Edit existing plan

or write new plan

Process plan Other application

formatter programs

Process plan
(route sheet)

Fig.2.13 Operation of variant type CAPP system

1) Preparatory stage
A significant amount of information must be compiled and
entered into the CAPP data files, before using the system for process
planning. It consists of the following steps.

1) Selecting an appropriate classification and coding scheme for

the company by using Group Technology.
2) Forming part families for the parts produced by the company.
3) Preparing standard process plans for the part families.
Steps (2) and (3) continue as new parts are designed and
added to the company’s design database.

2) Process planning stage

After the preparatory stage has been completed, the system is
ready for use. To determine the process plan for a new part, the GT
code number of the part is derived first. This part code is entered into
the CAPP system. A search is made in the part family file to determine
if a standard route sheet exists for the given part code. If the file
contains the process plan for the part, it is retrieved and displayed for
the user. The standard process plan is examined whether any
modifications are necessary. The user can edit the plan to make it
compatible with the new part design.
2.21
 If the file does not contain a standard process plan for the given
code number, the user may search the computer file for a similar or
related code number for which a standard process plan exists. Either
by editing an existing process plan, or by starting from scratch, the
user prepares the route sheet for the new part. The route sheet
becomes the standard process plan for the new part code number.

3) Report generation
After editing, the process plan formatter prints out the route
sheet in the proper format. The report may be a route sheet, process
picture, graphical simulation of manufacturing processes on the raw
material or a NC part program.

2.5.2 Operation of generative CAPP system

User

Inference
engine

Cutter path Operation

generation Knowledge base sequencing

Geometric Rough Finish Process Standard

Knowledge rules planning planning capability
rules time

Cutting tool Operation Process

Selection rules machine tool Fixture parameters
selection

Database Machine tool Fixture data Cutting tool Material Machinability

data data data data

Fig.2.14 Elements of generative CAPP system

The generative CAPP system uses a branch of artificial
intelligence, called expert system. Expert system is a computer
program that is capable of solving complex problem. The problem
solving procedure by using an expert system is termed as inference
engine. The technical knowledge of manufacturing and logic used by
successful process planners are captured and coded into programs.
These programs are called knowledge base. By using this knowledge
base and inference engine, the CAPP system synthesizes a new
process plan from scratch for each new part.

2.22
 The following are the steps involved to prepare a process plan
in generative CAPP system.
1) The machinable volumes, called pockets, are identified by taking
the difference of blank size and the finished component size.
2) The pockets are sorted in order of levels that clearly indicate
the same sequence in the final process plan.
3) The pockets are examined for any possibility of combining so
that the machining operations could be reduced.
4) The machine tool that can be used for each pockets are
selected.
5) The process sequence required for machining each pocket is
identified.
6) Suitable cutting tool is selected for each pocket and operation
decided.
7) The optimum cutting process parameters such as speed, feed,
depth of cut and number of passes for each part are obtained.
8) The operations are sorted on the basis of machine tool and
cutting tool.
9) The machining time and idle time involved in the production of
the part are evaluated.
10) The final process plan is selected on the basis of lowest cost of
machining time.
11) The final results are presented in any suitable form such as
process sheet, process pictures, machining simulation steps or
CNC part program.

2.5.3 Benefits of CAPP

The following are the benefits of using CAPP.
1) Automated process planning leads to more logical and optimal
process plans.
2) The standard process plans tend to result in lower
manufacturing costs and higher product quality.
3) The productivity of process planners is increased.

2.23
 4) The lead-time for process planning is reduced.
5) Computer prepared route sheets are neat and easy to read
than manually prepared route sheets.
6) The CAPP program can be interfaced with other application
program such as cost estimating and creating work standards.

2.6 Computer integrated production management system

Production planning and control (PPC) is concerned with the
logistics problems that are encountered in manufacturing such as
managing the details of what and how many products to produce and
when, and obtaining the raw materials, parts and resources to
produce those products. PPC solves these logistics problems by
managing information with the help of computers. This is termed as
computer integrated production management system.
Sales and
marketing

Aggregate
production Product
planning design

Aggregate Sales Sales

planning orders forecasts

Master
production
schedule

Inventory Capacity
records planning
Detailed
planning Material Engineering &
requirements Manufacturing
planning database

Production Purchasing Shop floor

control department control

Operations Supplier Factory Customer

base base

Fig.2.15 Computer integrated production management system

Planning and control in PPC must themselves be integrated

function. Both planning and control must be accomplished, and they
must be coordinated with each other and with other functions in
manufacturing firm.

2.24
Production planning
Production planning is concerned with the following:
 Deciding which product to make, how many of each, and when
they should be completed.
 Scheduling the delivery and production of the parts.
 Planning the manpower and equipment resources needed to
accomplish the production plan.
The activities of production planning include the following:
 Aggregate production planning: This involves planning the
production output levels for major product lines produced by
the firm. These plans must be coordinated among various
functions in the firm, including product design, production,
marketing and sales.
 Master production planning: The aggregate production plan
must be converted into master production schedule (MPS)
which is a specific plan of the quantities to be produced for
individual models within each product line.
 Material requirements planning (MRP): It is a planning
technique that translates the MPS of end products into a
detailed schedule for the raw material and parts used in those
end products.
 Capacity planning: It is concerned with determining the
labour and equipment resources required to achieve the master
schedule.

Production control
It is concerned with determining whether the necessary
resources to implement the production plan have been provided or
not. Production control uses various systems and techniques for
controlling production and inventory in the factory.

The activities of production control include the following:

 Shop floor control: Shop floor control system compares the
progress and status of production orders in the factory to the
production plans such as MPS and parts explosion
accomplished by MRP.

2.25
  Inventory control: It includes various techniques for
managing the inventory of a firm.
 Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II): It combines
MRP and capacity planning as well as shop floor control and
other functions related to PPC.
 Just–in–time (JIT) production system: This system produces
and delivers exactly the required number of each component to
the down stream operation in the manufacturing sequence just at
the time when that component is needed. This philosophy
minimizes inventory and other kinds of waste in manufacturing.

2.7 Master production schedule (MPS)

The aggregate production plan indicates the production output
levels for the major product lines of the company. The aggregate plan
must be coordinated with the plans of the sales and marketing
departments.

Week
Product line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M model line 200 200 200 150 150 120 120 100 100 100
N model line 80 60 50 40 30 20 10
P model line 70 130 25 100

(a) Aggregate production plan

Week
Product line models 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Model M1 120 120 120 100 100 80 80 70 70 70
Model M2 80 80 80 50 50 40 40 30 30 30
Model N1 80 60 50 40 30 20 10
Model P1 50 100
Model P2 70 80 25

(b) Master production schedule

Fig.2.16 Aggregate production plan and MPS

2.26
 Master production schedule is a very specific schedule of
individual products in the aggregate plan. It is a list of products to be
manufactured, when they should be completed and delivered and in
what quantities. A typical aggregate production plan and a master
production schedule are shown in the figure.

The following are the information needed to prepare master

production schedule.
1) The production plan conveyed by the top management.
2) Long term forecast of the individual items.
3) Actual orders received from the customers for the plan period.
4) Present inventory level of the individual items.
5) Resource constraints.

Objectives of MPS
The following are the objectives of master production schedule:
1) To make the best use of the resources available in terms of
equipment, material and labour.
2) To maintain the inventory as low as possible.
3) To maintain the finished products delivery as perpendicular the
expectations of the customers.

In order to achieve these objectives, the framework to be

followed is as follows:
 Use qualitative data for strategic levels.
 Direct linkage with customer order entry.
 Overall product structure to evaluate the resource
requirements.
 Make use of the support tools such as identification of
bottlenecks, identification of critical items, etc.

Based on the above framework, a preliminary MPS is

developed. This MPS is checked against the capacity constraints.

2.27
 The final MPS should be arrived at based on the following goals.
 Best use of all the resources in all the plan periods.
 The cost incurred is not in excess including the overtime
payment, subcontracting, additional man power, etc.
 All the due dates for order can be met with.

2.8 Material Requirements Planning (MRP)

Sales orders
Master
production Sales forecasts
schedule Spare parts requirements

Capacity
planning
Material
Inventory requirements
record file planning Product design
BOM, design and
manufacturing
data Manufacturing
engineering
Planned order
releases for
purchasing,
manufacturing
and other
output reports

Fig.2.17 Structure of MRP system

A material requirement planning (MRP) is a computational

method that converts the master production schedule into a detailed
schedule for the raw material and components used in the end
products. The detailed schedule indicates the quantities of each raw
material and component item. It also indicates when each item must
be ordered and delivered to meet the master production schedule. So
MRP is often considered as a method of inventory control.

Objectives of MRP
The following are the major objectives of MRP system.
1) To reduce inventory and to minimize inventory cost.
2) To coordinate production and purchase.
3) To make commitment for the delivery of the finished product.

2.28
Inputs to the MRP system
The following are the inputs to the MRP system.
1) Master Production Schedule (MPS): It is a list of
products to be manufactured, when they should be completed and
delivered and in what quantities.

2) Bill Of Materials (BOM): It is used to compare the raw

material and component requirements for end products listed in the
master production schedule. It provides information on the product
structure by listing the component parts and subassemblies that
make up each product.

3) Inventory record file: It is referred to as the item master

file in a computerized inventory system. This file contains the
following data:
Item master data: This provides the part number and other
data about the part such as order quantity and lead times.

Inventory status: This gives a list of gross requirements for the

item, planned order receipt, on–hand status, and planner order
releases.

Subsidiary data: This provides subsidiary data such as

purchase orders, scrap of rejects and engineering changes.

Working of MRP system

The MRP processor operates on data contained in MPS, the
BOM file and the inventory record file. The MPS specifies the period–
by–period list of end products to be manufactured. The BOM defines
what materials and components are needed for each product. The
inventory record file contains data on current and future inventory
status of each product, component and material.

The MRP processor computes how many of each component

and raw materials are needed each period by exploding the end
product requirements. From the gross requirements, it calculates the
planned order receipt for each product by subtracting the inventory
already available. From this, it further calculates that when the
planned orders are to be released by taking into account the lead-
time for the component.
2.29
MRP outputs
The following are the outputs of MRP system that can be used
in planning and managing plant operations.
1) Planned order releases, which indicates the amount of items,
planned to be released such that they are received when needed.
2) Reports on inventory status.
3) Rescheduling notices, indicating changes in due dates for open
orders.
4) Cancellation notices indicating that contain open orders have
been canceled because of changes in the MPS.
5) Inventory forecasts indicating projected inventory levels in
future period.

Benefits of MRP system

The following are the benefits of using MRP system.
1) Reduction in inventory.
2) Quicker response to changes in demand.
3) Improved customer service.
4) Reduced setup and product changeover costs.
5) Better machine utilization.
6) Improved capacity to respond to changes in the MPS.

2.9 Capacity planning

Capacity planning is concerned with determining the labour and
equipment resources needed to meet the current master production
schedule as well as the long–term future production requirements of
a company. Capacity planning is typically performed in terms of
labour and machine hours available. Capacity planning is
accomplished in two stages as follows:

Rough–Cut Capacity Planning (RCCP): It is established

during master production scheduling. It indicates whether there is any
violation of production capacity in the MPS.

Capacity Requirements Planning (CRP): It is established

during material requirements planning (MRP). This detailed
calculation determines whether there is sufficient production capacity
in the individual departments to complete the specific parts that are
2.30
scheduled by MRP. If the schedule is not compatible with capacity,
adjustments must be made either in plant capacity or in the master
production schedule.

Capacity adjustments can be divided into short-term

adjustments and long-term adjustments.

Short-term adjustments
1) Employment level in the plant can be increased or decreased.
2) The number of work shifts per production period can be
increased or decreased.
3) The number of labour hours per work shift can be increased or
decreased.
4) Deliveries of the product to the customer may be delayed
during busy period.
5) Subcontracting of jobs to other shops can be made during busy
periods.
6) Improved capacity to respond to changes in the MPS.

Long-term adjustments
1) Investing in more machines to meet increased future
production requirements.
2) Construction of new plants.
3) Purchasing existing plants from other companies.
4) Taking over an existing company to increase productive
capacity.
5) Closing of plant that will not be needed in the future.

2.10 Shop floor control

Shop floor control is concerned with the release of production
orders to the factory, monitoring and controlling the progress of the
orders through the various work centres, and collecting current
information on the status of the orders. A typical shop floor control
system consists of the following three phases:
1) Order release 2) Order scheduling 3) Order progress

2.31
 Master
production
schedule

Engineering & Material

manufacturing requirements Priority
database planning control

Order Order Order Management

release scheduling progress reports

Factory
Shop Dispatch Factory data
packet list collection
system

Raw materials Finished

and components products

Work centres Work-in-progress

Fig.2.18 Shop floor control system

1) Order release
This phase provides the documentation needed to process a
production order through the factory. The collection of documents is
called shop packet. It consists of the following:
 Route sheet, which documents the process plan for the item
to be produced.
 Material requisition to draw the necessary raw materials
from inventory.
 Job cards to report direct labour time for each operation on
the route sheet.
 Move tickets to move the parts between work centres.
 Parts list for assembly jobs.

MRP, engineering and manufacturing database are the inputs

to the order release module.

2) Order scheduling
Order scheduling is the process of assigning the production
orders to the various work centres in the plant. This module prepares
a dispatch list that indicates which production orders should be

2.32
accomplished at the various work centres. It also provides information
about relative priorities of the different jobs.

The order-scheduling module solves two problems in

production control: (1) Machine loading (2) Job sequencing

Allocating orders to work centres is referred to as machine

loading. Job sequencing involves determining the sequence in
which the jobs will be processed through a given work centre. To
determine this sequence, priorities are established among the jobs in
the queue, and the jobs are processed in the order of their relative
priorities.

The following are some of the dispatching rules used to

establish priorities for production orders.
 First come – first serve: The jobs that have arrived first at
the work centre will be scheduled next.
 Earliest due date: The job that has the earliest due date will
be processed next.
 Shortest processing time: The job with shortest processing
time will be given higher priorities.
 Least slack time: Slack time is defined as the difference
between the time remaining until due date and the process
time remaining. Jobs with least slack in their schedule are
given higher priorities.
 Lowest Critical ratio: The critical ratio is defined as the ratio
of remaining time for the job till the due date with the
remaining process time for the job. The job with the lowest
critical ratio will be scheduled next.
3) Order progress
This module monitors the status of various orders in the plant,
work–in–progress (WIP) and other characteristics that indicate the
progress and performance of production. A factory data collection
(FDC) system is used for this purpose. It provides information in the
form of following reports.

2.33
  Work order status reports: These reports indicate the
status of production orders such as current work center,
remaining processing time, priority level, etc.
 Progress reports: It is used to report performance of the
shop during a certain time period.
 Exception reports: An exception report indicates the
deviation from the production schedule and similar exception
information.
These reports are useful to production management in making
decision about allocation of resources, overtime hours, and other
capacity issues.
2.11 Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP–II)
Market
demand

Production
plan

Capacity
planning
Adjust
production
plans Any
Yes Problems?
No
Master Resource
procduction requirement
schedule planning

Material No Any Yes

requirement Problems?
planning

Capacity
requirement
planning
Adjust master
production
Schedule Any
Yes Problems?
No
Schedule
shop
orders

Fig.2.19 MRP– II System

2.34
 Manufacturing resource planning (MRP–II) is an improved
version of MRP. The initial versions of MRP were limited to the
planning of purchase orders and factory work orders. They did not
take into account such issues like capacity planning or feed back data
from the factory shop floor control.

It became evident that MRP should be linked to other software

packages to create a more integrated production planning and control
(PPC) system. The PPC software packages thus evolved from MRP is
known as manufacturing resource planning or MRP–II.

Manufacturing resource planning can be defined as a computer

based system for planning, scheduling and controlling the materials,
resources and supporting activities needed to meet the master
production schedule (MPS). MRP–II is a closed–loop system that
integrates and coordinates all the major functions of the business to
produce the right products at the right time.

The following are the application modules provided in a typical

high–end MRP–II system.
 Management planning: This module includes functions such
as business techniques, aggregate production planning,
master production scheduling, rough–cut capacity planning
and budget planning.
 Customer service: This module includes functions such as
sales forecasting, order entry, sales analysis and finished
goods inventory.
 Operations planning: It is the MRP module enhanced with
capacity requirements planning. The output consists of
purchase order and work order releases.
 Operation execution: This includes purchasing, production
scheduling and control, WIP inventory control, shop floor
control and labour hour tracking.
 Financial functions: These include cost accounting,
accounts receivable, accounts payable, general ledger and
pay roll.

2.35
 The following are some of the newer terms used for MRP–II
software packages.
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
 Customer–oriented manufacturing management
systems (COMMS)
 Manufacturing execution systems (MES)
 Customer–oriented management systems (COMS)

2.11.1 Enterprises Resources Planning (ERP)

Enterprise resource planning is one of the MRP-II softwares
used for developing an optimum manufacturing solution. The core
activity in ERP is the creation of an integrated data model, covering
employees, customers, suppliers, etc.

The important modules in a typical ERP software include the

following:
1. Finance module : The finance module extracts the financial
transaction from the sales and manufacturing areas, and
automatically updates the general ledger.

2. Distribution module : This module manages finished

goods, raw materials and services. Sales orders management,
inventory control, location control, distribution requirements planning
are part of distribution module.

3. Manufacturing module : This module can control all the

operation related to manufacturing. The important functions include
bill of materials, routing, MPS, MRP, shop floor control, project
control, etc.

4. Service module : This module deals with repair and

warranty related activities.

5. Project module : The project module includes estimating,

budget, planning, monitoring, invoicing, etc.

6. Tools module : This module mainly consists of the features

for customization of the software, documentation and database
management.

2.36
 7. Utilities module : The utility module helps to import and
export data among various ERP system.

8. Other modules : Material management, supply chain

management, quality management, human resource management,
plant maintenance and treasury are some other important modules
in a typical ERP software.

2.12 Just–In–Time (JIT) manufacturing system

Just-In-Time (JIT) is a philosophy of manufacturing based on
planned elimination of all wastes and continuous improvement of
productivity. The ideal just–in–time production system produces and
delivers exactly the required number of each component to the
downstream operation in the manufacturing sequence just at the time
when that component is needed.

The main objective of JIT is to eliminate the following wastes.

 Waste of over production  Waste of waiting
 Waste of transportation  Waste of processing
 Waste of stocks  Waste of motion

 Waste of making defective products. 

The following are the goals for achieving the JIT manufacturing.
 Zero defects  Zero set–up time
 Zero inventories  Zero handling
 Zero breakdowns  Zero lead time
 Lot size of one

The following are the key elements that should be followed in

JIT approach for achieving its goals.

1) Pull system of production control: In this system, the

order to make and deliver parts at each workstation comes from the
down stream station that uses those parts. When the supply of parts
at a given workstation is about to be exhausted, that station orders
the upstream station to produce the parts and fill again the supply.

2.37
 2) High quality: JIT systems eliminate all defects, which
eliminates the scrap and rework that help to provide a smooth flow of
materials through the plant. The quality is built into the process and
is controlled by workers acting as their own quality inspectors.
3) Small batch sizes and reduced setup time: Batch size
and setup time must be minimized to minimize WIP inventories.
Reduced setup time permit smaller batches and lower WIP levels.
Setup time may be reduced by the following approaches.
 Design the setup tooling and plan the setup method to permit
changeover procedure as much as possible.
 Use time and motion study to reduce the setup procedure to
the fewest possible.
 Eliminate or minimize adjustments in the setup.
 Use quick acting clamping devices instead of bolts and nuts.
 Use group technology and cellular manufacturing so that
similar part styles are produced on the same equipment.

The other requirements for a successful JIT production systems

include the following.
 Stable production schedules.
 On–time delivery.
 Defect–free components and materials.
 Reliable production equipment.
 A work–force that is capable, committed and cooperative.
 A dependable supplier base.

2.13 Product development cycle

The product development cycle starts with developing the
product concept, designing the product, planning, manufacturing the
part, marketing and servicing.
Developing the product concept : Conceptual design takes
the problem statement and generates broad solution to it in the the
form of design concepts. Combinative ideas, morphological analysis
and insight are some of the methods for developing the product
concept.
2.38
 Concept

Service Design

Marketing Planning

Manufacture

Fig.2.20 Product development cycle

Designing the product : It includes preliminary design and
detailed design. The preliminary design involves the structural
development of the design concept. In detailed design the
arrangement, form, dimensions, tolerances, and surface properties of
all individual parts are determined. The material and manufacturing
processes are specified.
Planning : The important tasks performed in this stage include
preparation of a process sheet, designing specialized tools and
fixtures, planning the work schedules and inventory controls,
planning the quality control system, establishing the standard time
and labour costs for each operation, establishing the manufacturing
methods, etc.
Manufacturing the part: Manufacturing is the transformation
of materials into items of greater value by means of one or more
processing and assembly operations. The method of manufacturing is
determined by considering the key parameters such as production
quantity, product variety, complexity of the individual parts, etc.

Marketing : The economic success of the design depends on

the skill exercised in marketing the product. For consumer type of
product, the marketing effort is concentrated on advertising and news
media techniques. For highly technical products, the marketing step
may be a technical activity supported by specialized sales brochures
and performance test data.
2.39
 Servicing : It involves the demonstration of working and
maintenance of the product, periodic servicing of the product and
repair of the product on failure. It also includes the collection of
reliable data on failures, service lives, and consumer complaints and
attitudes to provide a basis for product improvement.

2.14 Sequential engineering

The traditional product development cycle is sequential. In
sequential engineering, product design, development of
manufacturing process, supporting quality and testing activities are
carried out one after another. Sequential engineering is often called
‘across the wall’ method.

Design Planning Manufacture Quality Marketing

Fig.2.21 Sequential engineering

The research and development group completes the design
tasks and passes the data to planning, who in turn passes the details
to manufacturing and so on. There is no interaction among the
groups. Often the need for engineering changes is discovered during
planning or manufacturing or assembly. These changes are however
to be incorporated in design. In such situation, the revision process
has to start from design. This involves additional expenditure as well
as unavoidable delay in manufacturing the product.

2.15 Concurrent engineering

Concurrent engineering or simultaneous engineering is a
methodology of restructuring the product development activity in an
organization using a cross functional team. It is a technique adopted to
improve the efficiency of product design and reduce the product design
cycle time. It is also referred to as parallel engineering. Concurrent
engineering brings together a wide spectrum of people from several
functional areas in the design and manufacture of a product.
Representatives from research & development, engineering,
manufacturing, materials management, quality assurance, marketing,
etc. develop the product as a team. Everyone interacts with each other
from the start, and then perform their tasks in parallel.
2.40
 Market Product
analysis design

Sales and System

distribution design

Manufacturing

Fig.2.22 Concurrent engineering

Intensive team work between product development,

production planning and manufacturing is essential for satisfactory
implementation of concurrent engineering. The cooperation between
various specialists and systematic application of special methods such
as DFMA (Design for Manufacturing and Assembly) and FMEA (Failure
Mode and Effect Analysis) ensures quick optimization of design and
early detection of possible faults in product and production planning.
This leads to reduction in lead time which reduces cost of production
and guarantees better quality.

2.16 Rapid prototyping

Concept of rapid prototyping
Rapid prototyping is the automatic construction of physical
objects using additive manufacturing technology. The use of
additive manufacturing technology for rapid prototyping takes
virtual designs from computer aided design (CAD) or animation
modeling software, transforms them into thin, virtual, horizontal
cross-sections and then creates successive layers until the model is
complete. The machine reads in data from a CAD drawing and lays
down successive layers of liquid, powder, or sheet material, and in
this way builds up the model from a series of cross sections.

These layers, which correspond to the virtual cross section

from the CAD model, are joined together or fused automatically to
create the final shape. The primary advantage to additive fabrication
is its ability to create almost any shape or geometric feature.

2.41
Materials
The various prototyping technologies and their base materials
are tabulated below:

Prototyping technologies Base materials

Selective laser sintering (SLS) Thermoplastics, metal powders
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) Thermoplastics, eutectic metals.
Stereolithography (SLA) Photopolymer
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) Paper
Electron beam melting (EBM) Titanium alloys
3D printing (3DP) Various materials
Laser Engineered Net Shaping Metal powders

Applications of rapid prototyping

The various fields of application rapid prototyping technology
include the following :
 Rapid manufacturing  Visualization
 Metal casting  Architecture
 Education  Geospatial
 Healthcare  Entertainment
 Retail  Biotechnology
 Jewellery  Footwear
 Industrial design  Automotive
 Aerospace  Archaeology
 Dental and medical industries

2.16.1 Stereolithography (SLA)

Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing technology used
for producing models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts.
Process
In this process, a moveable table is placed at a position just
below the surface of a vat. The vat is filled with liquid photopolymer
resin. This material has the property that when light of the correct
color strikes it, it turns from a liquid to a solid. The system is sealed
to prevent the escape of fumes from the resin.

2.42
 Laser
Scanner
system
Movable
table
Knife edge

Sealed
Chamber
Object being fabricated
Photopolymer Vat

Fig.2.23 Stereolithography

A laser beam is moved over the surface of the liquid

photopolymer to trace the geometry of the cross-section of the object.
This causes the liquid to harden in areas where the laser strikes. The
laser beam is moved in the X-Y directions by a scanner system. These
are fast and highly controllable motors which drive mirrors and are
guided by information from the CAD data.

After the layer is completely traced and for the most part
hardened by the laser beam, the table is lowered into the vat a
distance equal to the thickness of a layer. To speed the process of
recoating, a knife edge moves over the surface to smooth it. More
recently pump-driven recoating systems have been utilized. The
tracing and recoating steps are repeated until the object is completely
fabricated and sits on the table within the vat. Some geometries of
objects have overhangs or undercuts. These must be supported
during the fabrication process. The support structures are either
manually or automatically designed.

After completion of the fabrication process, the object is

elevated from the vat and allowed to drain. Excess resin is wiped
manually from the surfaces. The object is given a final cure by bathing
it in intense light in a box resembling an oven called a Post-Curing
Apparatus (PCA). After final cure, supports are removed from the
object and surfaces are smoothened.
2.43
Advantages of Stereolithography
The advantages of stereolithography process include the following :
 Greatest accuracy
 Best surface finish
 Cost of equipment is comparatively less.
 Simple process
 Products are strong enough to be machined
 Products can be used as master patterns.

Disadvantages of Stereolithography
The disadvantages of stereolithography process include the following :
 Post curing is needed
 Support structures are required
 Ventilation is required
 Uncured material can be toxic

2.16.2 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing
technique used for the low volume production of prototype models
and functional components.
Laser
Scanner
Sealed system
chamber

Roller
Fabrication powder bed

Powder Object being fabricated

delivery system

Build cylinder
Powder
delivery piston
Fabrication piston

Fig.2.24 Selective Laser Sintering

Process
This process is similar to stereolithography in principle. In
this case a laser beam is traced over the surface of a tightly
compacted powder made of thermoplastic material. The powder is
2.44
spread by a roller over the surface of a build cylinder. A piston
moves down one object layer thickness to accommodate the layer
of powder. The powder supply system consists of a cylinder and a
piston. The piston moves upward incrementally to supply powder for
the process.

Heat from the laser melts the powder where it strikes under
guidance of the scanner system. The CO2 laser used provides a
concentrated infrared heating beam. The entire fabrication chamber
is sealed and maintained at a temperature just below the melting
point of the plastic powder. Thus, heat from the laser need only
elevate the temperature slightly to cause sintering. A nitrogen
atmosphere is also maintained in the fabrication chamber which
prevents the possibility of explosion in the handling of large
quantities of powder.

Once a layer is completed, the piston in the build cylinder moves

down by the thickness of a layer. The powder delivery piston moves
upward incrementally to supply powder for the process. The roller
spreads and compresses the powder on the top of the build cylinder.

The process is repeated until the entire object is completed

within the powder bed. After the object is fully formed, the piston is
raised to elevate the object. Excess powder is simply brushed away
and final manual finishing may be carried out.

Advantages of SLS
The advantages of SLS process include the following :
 Simple process
 No supports are required
 No final curing is required
 Various types of powder materials can be used
 Complex geometries can be easily produced
Disadvantages of SLS
The disadvantages of SLS process include the following :
 Poor surface finish
 Product will be porous
 Strength of the product is low

2.45
2.16.3 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is the second most widely
used rapid prototyping technology, after stereolithography. This
method is ideally suitable for conceptual models, engineering
models and functional testing prototypes.

Process
A plastic filament, approximately 1/16 inch in diameter, is
unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle.
In some machines plastic pellets fed from a hopper can also be used.
The nozzle is heated to melt the plastic. It has a mechanism to
control the flow of melted plastic. The nozzle is mounted to a
mechanical stage which can be moved in horizontal and vertical
directions.

X-Y-Z
stage system Plastic filament
supply coil

Extrusion
nozzle
Object being
fabricated

Thermal
housing Table

Fig.2.25 Fused Deposition Modeling

As the nozzle is moved over the table in the required

geometry, it deposits a thin bead of extruded plastic to form each
layer. The plastic hardens immediately after sprayed from the nozzle
and bonds to the layer below. The entire system is contained within
an oven chamber which is held at a temperature just below the
melting point of the plastic. Thus, only a small amount of additional
thermal energy is needed to melt the plastic. This provides much
better control of the process. Support structures must be designed
and fabricated for any overhanging geometries and are removed in
secondary operations.

2.46
Advantages of FDM
The advantages of FDM process include the following :
 Simple and quiet process
 Fast process
 The product has greater strength
 Various types of materials can be used
 The production cost is comparatively less

Disadvantages of FDM
The disadvantages of FDM process include the following :
 Support structures must be provided

2.16.4 3D Printing
3D printing is one of the rapid prototyping technologies where
a three dimensional object is created by successive layers of
material. 3D printers are generally faster, more affordable and
easier to use than other additive manufacturing technologies. 3D
printers offer product developers the ability to print parts and
assemblies made of several materials with different mechanical and
physical properties in a single build process.

Multichannel inkject head Liquid adhessive supply

Roller
Fabrication powder bed

Powder Object being fabricated

delivery system

Build cylinder
Powder
delivery piston
Fabrication piston

Fig.2.26 3D Printing
3D printing consists of an inkjet printing system. The multi-
channel jetting head deposits a liquid adhesive compound onto the
top layer of a bed of powder object material. The particles of the
powder become bonded in the areas where the adhesive is
deposited. Once a layer is completed, the piston in the build cylinder
moves down by the thickness of a layer. The powder delivery piston

2.47
moves upward incrementally to supply powder for the process. The
roller spreads and compresses the powder on the top of the build
cylinder.

The process is repeated until the entire object is completed

within the powder bed. After completion, the object is elevated and
the extra powder is brushed away. Thus a green object is obtained.
Parts must usually be infiltrated with a hardener before they can be
handled without much risk of damage.

Advantages of 3D printing
The advantages of using 3D printing include the following :
 Parts made of several materials with different mechanical
and physical properties can be built in a single process.
 Complicated three dimensional shapes can be built up.
 Printing of full colour prototypes.
 Fastest method.
 Cost of equipment is less.
 Easier to use.

Review questions

1) What is CAM? What are its functions?

2) What is the need of CAM?
3) What are the benefits of CAM?
4) Explain the various functions of CAM.
5) Explain the term Group technology.
6) Explain the concept of part families.
7) What are the various design and manufacturing attributes used as
a basis for parts classification and coding in GT.
8) Name some parts classification and coding systems.
9) Briefly explain the various coding structures used in parts
classification and coding.
10) Explain OPITZ classification system.

2.48
11) Explain the MICLASS system.
12) Explain the CODE system.
13) What are the benefits of group technology?
14) State the important requirements for process planning.
15) Explain with a neat diagram the structure of a CAPP system.
16) Briefly explain the two basic approaches used in CAPP.
17) Explain with neat sketch the Variant type CAPP system.
18) Explain the generative type CAPP.
19) What are the benefits of CAPP?
20) Explain the computer integrated production management system.
21) What are the objectives of MPS?
22) Explain the structure and working of MRP system.
23) Write short note on capacity planning.
24) Explain shop floor control.
25) Explain MRP-II.
26) Describe Enterprise Resource Planning.
27) Briefly explain Just–In–Time manufacturing philosophy.
28) Explain product development cycle.
29) Explain : i) Sequential engineering ii) Concurrent engineering?
30) List out the rapid prototyping technologies.
31) Explain the concept the RPT. List out its applications.
32) What is rapid prototyping? Explain stereolithography method.
33) Explain the laser sintering process of RPT. Mention its advantages
and disadvantages.
34) Explain deposition modeling.
35) Explain 3D printing.

2.49
 Unit – III

CNC MACHINES AND COMPONENTS

3.1 Numerical control
Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method
of automation in which various functions of machine tools are
controlled by letters, numbers and symbols. Basically, a NC machine
runs on a program fed to it. Since the program is the controlling point
for product manufacture, the machine become versatile and can be
used for producing any part. The capability to change the program
makes NC suitable for low and medium production. It is much easier
to write new programs than to make major alterations in the machine
tool.

3.1.1 Development of NC
Towards the end of Second World War, there is increased
activity in aerospace manufacturing in USA. Mr. John Parson of
Parsons corporation, USA, who is one of the subcontractors to United
States Air Force, had proposed a concept of using coordinate position
data contained in punched cards to define and machine the surface
contours of airfoil shapes. The United States Air Force accepted his
proposal and a contract was awarded to him to develop such a
machine. The project was then awarded to the servomechanism
laboratory of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1951,
who finally demonstrated a working milling machine in 1952.

The first control system was developed using electronic valves.

Bendix Corporation produced the first commercial production NC unit
in 1954 after purchasing the patent rights from MIT. The actual
availability of such a machine for the aerospace industry came around
1955 after very large number refinements. The first controller with
transistor technology was introduced in 1960. Later on machine tool
builders serving a variety of applications introduced several
commercial NC units into the market.

3.1
3.1.2 Components of NC system

Program Machine
control unit

Machine tool

Fig.3.1 Components of NC system

A numerical control system consists of the following three basic
components.
1. Program of instructions
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool

1) Program of instructions
In machine tool applications, the program of instruction is
called a part program, and the person who prepares the program is
called a part programmer. The part program consists of instructions
written in the numerical codes that constitutes the basic operations
to be carried out in machining of the part. These instructions include
the positions of cutting tool relative to the worktable, spindle speed,
feed rate, cutting tool selection, and other functions. The program is
entered into an input medium such as standard 1 inch paper tape,
punched cards, magnetic tape or diskettes.

2) Machine Control Unit

Machine control unit consists of the electronics and hardwares
that read and interpret the part program and convert it into
mechanical actions of the machine tool. NC controller unit includes
the following elements.
1) Tape reader
2) Data buffer
3) Signal output channel to the machine tool
4) Feed back channel from the machine tool.
5) Sequence controller unit

Tape reader: It is an electromechanical device for winding and

reading the punched tape containing the program of instructions.

3.2
 Data buffer: The data contained on the tape are read into the
data buffer. The purpose of the device is to store the input instructions
in logical blocks of information.

Signal output channels: They are connected to the

servomotors and other controls in the machine tool. Through these
channels, the instructions are sent to the machine tool from the
controller unit.

Feed back channels: Feed back information is provided to the

machine control unit through the feed back channel to ensure that
the programmed instructions are accurately carried out. The feed
back provided consists of the positional as well as velocity data.

Sequence control: They coordinate the activities of other

elements of the controller unit.

Control panel: The control panel contains dials and number of

buttons to control the machine tool. It may also contain a display
panel to provide information to the operator.

3) Machine tool
Machine tool is the part of the NC system that performs useful
work. It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting
work piece into a completed part. Typically a NC machine tool consists
of the work table and spindle as well as the motors and controls
necessary to drive them. It also includes the cutting tools, work
fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment needed in the machining
operation.

Working of NC system / CNC system

The principle of operation of a NC machine tool is shown in the
figure. The basic information that has to be inputted into the system
consists of the part geometry, cutting process parameters followed
by the cutting tools used. This part program is then entered into the
machine control unit. The controller translates these numerical codes
into the machine actuation details, which are then used to control the
individual machine functions such as the movement of the axes.

3.3
 Each of the machine axes is connected to a servomotor which
works under the control of the MCU. The movement of the cutting tool
with respect to the work piece is given in terms of the coordinates,
which are used to control the motion of the servomotor which drives
the individual axes.

Most of the NC tools are controlled with a feed back control

system. The feed back information is provided to the machine control
unit to ensure that the programmed instructions are accurately
carried out.

(Note: The following applications, advantages and

disadvantages are common for NC, CNC, and DNC system)

3.1.3 Applications of NC
1. Machine tool applications
 NC lathe
 NC boring mill
 NC drill press
 NC milling machine
 NC cylindrical grinder

2. Metal working applications

 Punch presses for sheet metal hole punching
 Presses for sheet metal bending
 Welding machines
 Flame cutting machines
 Thermal cutting machines
 Laser cutting machines
 Tube bending machines

3. Other NC applications
 Assembly machines
 Electrical wire wrap machines
 Component insertion machines

3.4
  Automatic drafting machines
 Inspection machines
 Coordinate measuring machines
 Cloth cutting machines
 Automated knitting machines
 Automated riveting machines

3.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of NC

Advantages of NC
The following are the advantages of using numerical control
1) The nonproductive time is reduced to absolute minimum.
2) The parts can be produced more accurately.
3) The operator involvement in part manufacture is reduced and
hence scrap rate is minimized.
4) The need for expensive jigs and fixtures is reduced or
eliminated.
5) The inspection requirements are reduced because the parts
produced using NC are virtually identical.
6) The lead time for manufacturing is reduced.
7) The overall production cost is reduced.
8) More complex part geometries are possible.
9) The parts inventory is reduced to a minimum.
10) Engineering changes can be accommodated easily.
11) Less floor space is required.
12) The operation fatigue does not occur in the manufacturing of part.
13) Tools can be utilized at optimum feeds and speeds.
14) The metal removal rate of NC machine is generally high.

Disadvantages of NC
1) The initial investment cost of a NC machine tool is much high.
2) The cost and skill of the people required to operate the NC
machine is generally high.
3.5
 3) Special training is needed to the persons operating the NC
machine tool.
4) The maintenance cost for NC machine tool is high.
5) The automatic operation of NC machines implies relatively
higher running costs.

3.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Computer numerical control is defined as a NC system that
utilizes a dedicated microcomputer to perform some or all of the basic
numerical control functions. Numerical control (NC) system is a
method of automation in which various functions of machine tools are
controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.

3.2.1 Development of DNC and CNC

Around 1965, integrated circuits were introduced for use in NC
control. The next development in NC control marked the introduction
of digital computers in NC controller technology. This constituted a
fundamental change in NC evolution.

Direct Numerical Control (DNC) was the first of the computer

control systems to be introduced, around 1968. In DNC, individual
machine tools were controlled by a mainframe computer located
remotely from the machines. DNC established a direct control link
between the computer and the machine tool, hence eliminating the
necessity for using punched tape input.

The DNC systems marketed in late 1960s and early 1970s were
expensive. Their high cost and inflexibility in terms of management
reporting formats and hardware requirements caused the industries
to enter into a new technology.

In the beginning of 1970s, smaller and less expensive computers

were introduced. It soon became practical to use a dedicated computer
as the MCU for each machine tool. This application came to be known
as Computer Numerical Control (CNC).

Yet the DNC concept had merit, because it included a

communications network that provided for collection of data from the
machine tools as well as distributions of part programs to the
3.6
machines. As CNC replaced conventional NC, the idea of DNC
reappeared only in a different form. Instead of direct control of
individual machines by a central computer, one instruction block at a
time, the central computer could download entire part programs to
the machines. The term used for this modified form of DNC was
Distributed NC.

3.2.2 Machine Control Unit for CNC

Memory Input/output interfaces
Central Processing Unit
* ROM - Operating system * Operator panel
(CPU)
* RAM - Part program * Tape reader

System bus

Machine tool controls Sequence controls

* Position control * Coolant
* Spindle speed control * Fixture clamping
* Tool changer

Fig.3.2 Machine control unit for CNC

The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from

conventional NC. The MCU consists of the following components and
subsystems.
1) Central processing unit
2) Memory
3) Input / Output interface
4) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed.
5) Programmable logic controller
These subsystems are interconnected by means of a system bus.

1) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit is the brain of the MCU. It manages
other components in the MCU with the help of software contained in
main memory. The CPU can be divided into three sections: (i) Control
section (ii) Arithmetic and Logic Unit and (iii) immediate access
memory.

The control section retrieves commands and data from memory

and generates signals to activate other components in the MCU. The

3.7
arithmetic and logic unit consists of the circuitry to perform various
calculations, counting and logical functions. The immediate access
memory provides a temporary storage for data being processed by
the CPU.

2) Memory
It can be divided into (i) Main memory and (ii) Secondary
memory.

Main memory consists ROM (Read Only Memory) and RAM

(Random Access Memory) devices. Operating system software and
machine interface programs are generally stored in ROM. NC part
programs are stored in RAM devices. Current programs in RAM can
be erased and replaced by new programs as jobs are changed.

High capacity secondary memory devices are used to store

large programs and files, which are transferred to main memory as
needed. Floppy diskettes, compact discs and hard disks are some
common secondary memory devices. Hard disks are high capacity
storage devices that are permanently installed in the MCU. CNC
secondary memory is used to store part programs, macros and other
softwares.

3) Input / Output Interface

The I/O interface provides communication between the various
components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and the
machine operator. The I/O interface transmits and receives data and
signals to and from external devices. It mainly consists of (i)
a operator control panel and (ii) a display device (CRT or LED)

Operator control panel: The machine operator

communicates to the CNC system through control panel. This is used
to enter commands relating to part program editing, MCU operating
mode, speeds and feeds, cutting fluid ON/OFF, and similar functions.
An alphanumeric keyboard or keypad is usually included in the
operator control panel.

3.8
 Display: It is used for communication of data and information
from the MCU to the machine operator. The display is also used to
indicate current status of the program as it is being executed and to
give warning to the operator about malfunctions in the CNC system.

I/O interface also includes one or more means of entering the

part program into storage. Programs can also be entered manually by
the operator or stored at a central computer site and transmitted via
local area network to the CNC system.

4) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed

These are hardware components that control the position and
velocity of each machine axis as well as the rotational speed of the
machine tool spindle. The control signals generated by MCU must be
converted to a form suitable for the position control system used to
drive the machine axes.

Spindle speed control components in the MCU consists of a

drive control circuit and a feed back sensor interface. The particular
hardware components depend on the type of spindle drive.

5) Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

The programmable logic controller is used to manage the input
/ output interface for auxiliary functions such as logical sequencing,
timing, counting and arithmetic functions. These auxiliary functions
are generally ON/OFF actuations, interlocks and discrete numerical
data. PLC can be reprogrammed according to the changes in the
control functions.

3.2.3 Advantages (features) of CNC system

The following are the advantages of CNC system over
conventional NC system.
1) More than one program can be stored in the CNC controllers.
2) CNC controllers have multiple data entry capabilities such as
punched tape, magnetic tape, floppy diskette, compact disc
and manual data input.

3.9
 3) The part program in the MCU computer memory can be edited
and optimized at the machine site itself.
4) The frequently used machining cycles and subroutines can be
stored as macros and that can be called by the part program
when required.
5) Linear, circular, helical, parabolic, and cubic interpolations can
be executed in a CNC system.
6) CNC system allows compensation for any changes in the
dimensions of the cutting tool.
7) The CNC machines have the facility of simulating the part
program without actually running it on the machine tool.
8) With the CNC system, it is possible to obtain information on
machine utilization which is useful to the management.
9) Acceleration and deceleration calculations are carried out in
CNC system to control the feed rate of the tool.
10) CNC system posses an on–line diagnostics capability that
monitors certain aspects of the machine tool to detect
malfunctions or to diagnose system breakdowns.

3.2.4 Comparison of NC and CNC system

NC system CNC system

1. NC controllers unit is hard– CNC controller unit is based on a

wired micro computer.

2. Punched tape only can be Punched tape, magnetic tape,

used as input medium. floppy diskette, compact disc
and manual data input are used
as input medium.

3. The part program prepared The part program is read only

using tape must be read each once and stored in the computer
time when the work piece in memory. It can be retrieved
the batch is to be produced. while producing every work
piece in the batch.

3.10
 NC system CNC system

4. The punched tape and tape The computer memory is more

reader is least reliable. reliable.

5. Metric conversion of units is Automatic metric conversion of

not possible. units is possible.

6. The part program cannot be The part program can be edited

edited at the machine site. and optimized at he machine site
itself.

7. Machining cycles and The frequently used machining

subroutines are not cycles and subroutines are
available. stored as macros and can be
called by the part program when
required.

8. Only linear and circular Linear, circular, helical, parabolic

interpolations can be and cubic interpolations can be
executed. executed.

9. Compensation for any It allows compensation for any

change in dimension of the changes in the dimensions of the
cutting tool is not possible. cutting tool.

10. Simulation of part program is Simulation of part program is

not possible. possible.

11. The information on machine The information on machine

utilization cannot be utilization can be obtained.
obtained.

12. It is not possible to make It is possible to make changes in

changes in speeds and feeds speeds and feeds during the
during the cutting process. cutting process.

13. NC system has no CNC system has on–line

diagnostics capability. diagnostics capability to detect
malfunctions or to diagnose
system breakdown.

3.11
 3.3 Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
Direct Numerical Control (DNC) is a manufacturing system in
which a large number of machine tools are controlled by a central
computer through direct connections.
Central Bulk memory
computer NC programs

Telecoomunication lines

Machine
tool

BTR BTR BTR BTR

Tape
reader MCU MCU MCU MCU

Fig.3.3 Direct numerical control system

The NC system consists of the following components
1) Central computer
2) Bulk memory at the central computer site
3) Set of controlled machines
4) Telecommunication line to connect the machines to
the central computer

All the machines are linked to the central computer through

telecommunication lines. The part program for all the components,
which are to be manufactured on the machines in DNC system, are
stored in the memory of the central computer. The part program was
transmitted to the MCU directly from the computer, one block of
instructions at a time. This mode of operation is referred to by the
name behind the tape reader (BTR).

When a machine tool needed control command, it was

communicated to the computer. The computer called the required
part program from bulk memory and sent the instruction blocks to
the designated machine tool.

The central computer also received data from machines to

indicate operating performance in the shop. Thus, an objective of DNC
was to achieve two way communication between the machines and
the central computer.
3.12
Advantages of DNC system

1) High reliability of central computer compared with individual

hard wired MCUs.
2) Elimination of unreliable tape and tape reader.
3) Control of multiple machines by one computer.
4) Improved computational capability for circular interpolation.
5) Part programs stored magnetically in bulk memory.
6) Reporting of shop performance.

3.4 Distributed Numerical Control

During 1970s and 1980s, DNC emerged once again, but in the
form of a distributed computer system, or distributed numerical
control (DNC). In this configuration, the central computer is
connected to number of MCUs, which are themselves computers. This
permits complete part program to be sent to the machine tools, rather
than one block at a time.

The new DNC permits two–way communication of data

between the shop floor and the central computer. Improvements in
data collection devices as well as advances in computer and
communications technologies have expanded the range and flexibility
of the information.

The physical configuration of DNC depends on the number of

machine tools, job complexity, security requirements, equipment
availability and preferences. The following two configurations are
widely used.

(a) Switching network configuration: It is the simplest

configuration of DNC system. It uses a data switching box to make a
connection from a central computer to a given CNC machine for
downloading part program or uploading data. Transmission of
programs to the MCU is accomplished through a RS–232C connection.

3.13
 DNC
computer

MCU MT MT MCU

Data
Switching
box

MCU MT MT MCU

MCU MT MCU - Machine control unit

MT- Machine tool

Fig.3.4(a) Switching network configuration of DNC

DNC
computer

Satellite Satellite
computer computer

MCU MT MCU MT MCU MT MCU MT

Fig.3.4(b) LAN configuration of DNC

(b) LAN configuration: Local area networks have been used
for DNC since the early 1980s. In this arrangement, a central
computer is connected to several satellite computers that are each
responsible for a number of CNC machines. Local area networks in
different sections and departments of a plant are often interconnected
in plant–wide and corporate–wide networks.

3.5 Adaptive control system

In a machining operation, the term adaptive control denotes a
control system that measures certain output process variables and
uses these variables for adjusting some input parameters to achieve
optimal performance. The process variables includes variations in raw
materials, tooling, atmospheric conditions, vibration amplitude,
cutting force and any of which may affect performance.

The main objective of using adaptive control is to minimize the

machining time or in-process time of producing a part. Adaptive
control determines the proper speeds and feeds during machining
3.14
according to the variations in factors such as work piece hardness,
width or depth of cut, air gaps in the part geometry, tool wear and so
on. Adaptive control has the capability to respond to and compensate
for these variations during the process.

Input parameters Input parameters Performance

Process } measure

Adjustments
to input
parameters
Modification

Adaptive Decision
controller

Identification

Fig.3.5 Configuration of adaptive control system

Functions of adaptive control
An adaptive control system perform the following functions to
evaluate the performance and respond accordingly.

1) Identification function: In this function, the value of the

index of performance of the system is determined on the basis of
measurements collected from the process.

2) Decision function: The next function is to decide what

should be changed to improve performance. It is implemented by
means of adaptive system’s programmed algorithm. Depending on
this algorithm, the decision may be to change one or more input
parameters to the process, to alter some of the internal parameters
of the controller or other changes.

3) Modification function: Modification is concerned with

physical changes in the system according to the decision. In
modification, the system parameters or process inputs are altered
using available actuators to drive the system towards a more optimal
state.

3.15
 Adaptive control has been successfully applied in such
machining processes as milling, drilling, tapping, grinding and boring.
It has also been applied in turning, but with only limited success.

Benefits of adaptive control

The following are the benefits of using adaptive control in
machining.
1) The machining time is reduced considerably.
2) The overall production rate is increased.
3) The tool life is increased.
4) The part is protected against an out–of–tolerance conditions
and possible damage.
5) The operator intervention is minimized.

3.6 CNC Machining Centres

The CNC machining centre is a machine tool capable of
performing multiple machining operations on work piece in one setup
under CNC system. Typical machining operations performed on
machining centre include milling, drilling, boring, reaming, and tapping.

Features of machining centre

CNC machining centres are usually equipped with the following
features to reduce nonproductive time.

Automatic tool changing: A variety of machining operations

require a variety of cutting tool. The tools are stored in a tool magazine
that is integrated with the machine tool. When a cutter need to be
changed, the tool drum rotates to the proper position. An automatic
tool changer (ATC) replaces the tool in the spindle with required tool in
the tool magazine. The ATC operates under part program control. The
capacity of tool magazine range from 16 to 80 cutting tools.

Automatic work piece positioning: Many horizontal and

vertical machining centres have the capability to orient the work piece
relative to the spindle. This is achieved by means of a rotary table on
which the work piece is fixed. The table can be oriented at any angle
about a vertical axis to permit the cutting tool for machining almost
the entire surface of the work piece in single setup.
3.16
 Automatic pallet changer: Machining centres are generally
equipped with two or more separate pallets. A pallet may be
considered as a small table having standard dimensions. While
machining is performed on the work piece with one pallet in position
at the machine, the other pallets are in a safe location away from the
spindle. In this safe location, the operator can unload the finished part
from the prior cycle and then fix raw work piece for the next cycle,
thus not disturbing the machining operation. An automatic pallet
changer is used to move these pallets.
Machining centres are classified as follows:
1) Vertical machining centre
2) Horizontal machining centre
3) Universal machining centre

3.6.1 Vertical machining centre

Z-axis
servo motor
ATC
Spindle motor

Tool Spindle
magazine Tool

Column Table

Base

Fig.3.6 CNC vertical machining centre

A vertical machining centre has its spindle on a vertical axis
relative to the work table. A vertical machining centre is typically used
for work pieces that require machining from the top.

Most of the general machines come with three axes. However,

machines with more than three axes also be available. For example,
the spindle can be swiveled in one or two axes. These are required
3.17
for machining sculptured surfaces. The following are the various forms
of vertical machining centre.

1) Traveling column vertical machining centre

In this arrangement, the tool head is positioned on a cross rail
supported by two heavy traveling columns by the side of the table.
Since the tool head is very well supported, heavy cuts with long table
travels can be achieved. These are normally used in aerospace
industry for milling aircraft structural components.

2) Gantry type vertical machining centre

In this type, the rotating spindle is supported by two columns.
The two columns are provided with synchronized driver for Y axis
movement to reduce any unequal moments. This machine is capable
of achieving rapid traverse in the order of 60m/min. with a maximum
spindle of 1800 rpm.

3) Multi-spindle vertical machining centre

Generally multi-spindle machine are used for large batch
production. These may have two to four spindles with each spindle
carrying out identical machining operation. These machines are
provided with special work holding accessories with rotary motions to
improve the productivity.

3.6.2 Horizontal machining centre

ATC

Spindle

Pallets

Tool
magazine Pallet rails
Table
Automatic
pallet changer
Fig.3.7 CNC horizontal machining centre
3.18
 A horizontal machining centre has its spindle on a horizontal
axis. These machines are used for machining heavier work pieces with
large metal removal rates. So, it requires large and heavier tools. As
a result, these machines are provided with heavier tool magazines.

The rotary table used in horizontal machining centre provides

a fourth axis. These machines are used for machining the prismatic
(box like) components. The availability of rotary table makes it
possible for machining of all four faces of the component in a single
setup. The rotary table can also have more than one axis rotation
capability. If such rotary table is interfaced with a conventional three
axis horizontal machining centre, then it will be possible to machine
complex sculptured surfaces.

3.6.3 Universal machining centre

Some horizontal machining centres have the capability of tilting
the spindle axis from horizontal to vertical position under computer
control. These are called universal machining centre. This facility
provides a fifth axis to the machine. In some cases the movement is
provided by tilting the table instead of the spindle. Such machines
allow machining the top surface of the work piece mounted on the
table in addition to the multiple sides in a single setup. The fifth axis
facility is essential for machining such components which require the
cutter axis to be perpendicular to the surface being machined.

3.7 CNC turning centres

The CNC turning centre is a machine tool capable of performing
various turning and related operations, on work piece in one setup
under CNC system. These are generally provided with two axis
control, Z axis parallel to the spindle and X axis perpendicular to
spindle axis.

Turning centres are provided with a slant bed to allow for better
view of the machining plane as well as for easy placement of the various
devices involved in the machine zone. It also provided with a indexable
tool turret which can hold 8, 12, or 16 tools of various types.

3.19
 Workpiece
Chuck Turret for drill,
CNC controls reamers

Viewing
window

Sliding
door

Base Turret for

turning tools

Fig.3.8 CNC turning centre

In addition, the most sophisticated turning centres have the

following features.
 Checking key dimensions of work piece after machining.
 Sensing when the tools are worn.
 Automatic tool changing when tools become worn.
 Automatic work piece changing at the completion of the work cycle.

CNC turning centres are classified as follows:

1) Turn–mill centre
2) Twin turret turning centre
3) Multiple spindle turning centre
4) Vertical turning centre

3.7.1 Turn–mill centre

CNC turn–mill centre is a combined machine tool which can
perform the turning as well as milling operations in the same machine
tool under CNC system. In order to do the milling operations in a
lathe, the main spindle will not rotate. Instead the tool will rotate in
the tool turret. For this purpose, a separate drive is provided in the
turret, so that the tools such as twist drills, end mills will be rotating
in the tool turret. Such tools are called driven tooling.

3.20
 N
(a) Compnent N Cutoff
tool
Drill
Milling bit F
cutter F
N N

F (b) Operations
Turning
tool

Fig.3.9 Typical operations in a turn–mill centre

The main spindle holding the work piece can therefore be

indexed suitably to get the necessary profile. This orientation of work
piece provides a third axis along with the traditional X and Z axis of
an NC lathe. The combination of these three axes can make the
machine really versatile so that a range of complex surfaces to be
produced.

3.7.2 Twin turret turning centre

Some turning centres are provided with two turrets in place of
one in the normal turning centre. This makes it a four axes turning
centre with both turrets capable of moving independently, moving in
two axes each. The main advantage of this machine tool is that
machining can be done by two tools which have larger tool capacity
also. Since two tools are machining simultaneously, a large amount
of metal is removed and thus the production time is reduced.

3.7.3 Multiple spindle turning centre

Multiple spindle turning centres are used for large volume
production of small and medium sized parts with standard tolerances.
Generally, the head stock of these machines consist of two spindles
and the tail stock has two quills, which are arranged parallel to each
other at a fixed distance. Two turrets are there to provide the tools
for these two spindles. These machines have the capability of
simultaneous machining of two work pieces and thus increasing the
productivity. These machines are widely used in automotive sectors.

3.21
3.7.4 Vertical turning centres
Vertical turning centres are used for turning very large
diameter work pieces. The vertical turning centre generally has the
spindle in the vertical direction like the table of a machining centre.
The chuck is fitted in the spindle. The work piece can be clamped on
to the chuck, which is in the horizontal plane. The tool turret is kept
in a plane above the spindle. An automatic pallet changer may be
provided for quick changing of the jobs.

The following are some widely used types of vertical turning

centres.

Inverted vertical turning centre: In this machine, the

spindle is fitted above and the tool turret is fitted below. This is
generally used for turning small work pieces as compared to the
conventional vertical turning centres. The work piece is held in the
chuck and rotated by the vertical spindle above, while the tool turret
lies below.

Pickup vertical turning centre: These machines have two

vertical spindles, one of which is movable. The movable spindle picks
up the work piece from the conveyor and moves into the machining
area. After completing the initial machining in the movable spindle, it
directly transfers the semi-finished component to the other spindle’s
working area. The second setup machining will be completed in the
stationary spindle. After the completion of machining, a gripper in the
second turret removes the work piece from the spindle and places on
the conveyor belt. These machines are useful for large volume
production of small automobile components.

3.8 Machine axis conventions

In CNC machines, the first axis to be identified is the Z-axis.
This is then followed by X and Y axes respectively.

Z-axis
The Z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or parallel to the
spindle axis. In the case of machine without a spindle such as shapers
and planers, the Z-axis is perpendicular to the work holding surface.
3.22
 For machines such as milling, drilling and lathe, the cutting
tools move in the negative Z direction to move a tool into the work
piece. The positive Z motion increases the clearance between the tool
holder and work piece surface.

When there are several spindles and slide ways, the spindle
perpendicular to the work holding surface may be chosen as the
principal spindle. The primary Z motion is then related to the primary
spindle.
+z
Workpiece +c

-x +b +y Workpiece
-z

+x
+a

-y +x

Worktable -x +z
-z
(a) For flat workpieces (b) For rotational workpieces

Fig.3.10 Designation of axes

X-axis
The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the work piece
is designated as X–axis. It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and should
be horizontal and parallel to the work holding surface when possible.

When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the

positive (+) X is to the Right. For turning machines, it is radial and
parallel to the cross slide.

Y-axis
It is perpendicular to both X and Y-axes, and the direction is
identified by the right hand Cartesian coordinate system.

3.23
3.9 Design considerations of NC machine tools
The following points are to be considered while designing NC
machine tools :
 The machine tool structure should have high static stiffness
along with the best stiffness to weight ratio. The large static
stiffness would allow for very small deflection of the structural
elements under the operative load of the machine tool such as
the cutting forces, weight of the work piece, etc.
 Necessary material damping should be provided to reduce the
vibrations which is essential for large material removal rates
and high speed machining.
 In heavy structural design, ribs should be provided at the
strategic locations to improve the static stiffness.
 The spindle design should be optimized so as to minimize the
spindle deflection and to reduce the possibility of chatter.
 The spindle should be well supported with very little overhang
beyond the end bearings.
 The spindle should be supported with sufficiently large ball and
roller bearings to take care of the large axial and radial cutting
forces.
 It is necessary to provide proper cooling of the spindle so as to
maintain thermal equilibrium.
 The lead screw is designed so as to reduce the friction between
the metal to metal and sliding contact between the nut and the
screw. A lead screw with a recirculating ball nut may be used.
 Low friction linear motion devices should be used in slide ways.
 Appropriate feed back devices should be provided to control the
movement of the axes accurately.

3.10 CNC drilling machine

CNC drilling machines are used for production drilling of holes
at different coordinate positions in work pieces with automatic cycles.
The automatic cycles consists of X–Y positioning, rapid approach of
tool to work piece, drilling with required feed rate to the required

3.24
depth and rapid retraction of tool. The automatic cycle is controlled
by the CNC system.

The configuration of the CNC drilling machine is same as

vertical machining centre.

3.11 CNC grinding machines

The grinding process is very sensitive to process parameters
like grinding pressure, speed and feed rates, flow of coolant, etc.
There is more wheel wear during operation. In CNC grinding
machines, automatic wheel wear compensation is included in the
grinding cycle to control the work piece size. This is achieved by either
regulating the machine slides or dressing the wheel to the required
shape to enable plunge grinding.

Surface grinders
In horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinding
machines, the most critical operation is the depth control. Hence CNC
is applied only to the wheel head slide (Y–axis). Conventional
hydraulic drives are used for feed and longitudinal traverse.

In some machines, the cross feed is also replaced by an electric

drive with a timer circuit or open loop control for feed. A closed loop
control on the cross feed axis can be used directly to generate
contours in the Y–Z plane while reciprocating the table in the
longitudinal axis. In plunge grinding a contour-dressed tool may be
used. In some cases, the longitudinal traverse of the table is also
provided with an electric drive.

Cylindrical grinder
In many cases, CNC is provided only for wheel head slide to
control diameters. In some cases, CNC is provided for longitudinal
traverse and wheel head traverse (Z–axis) to control length of
shoulders and diameter steps. Work piece size is achieved by dressing
the wheel or by using an interactive size control unit. Such machines
can generate solids of revolution involving tapers, circular arcs, and
curved surfaces. Similar controls are available for internal grinders.

3.25
Tool and cutter grinders
CNC has been applied to complex tool and cutter grinders involving
as many as eight axes. In this machine, the control system works in an
interactive mode with the part program residing in the memory.

Profile grinders
In these grinders, the control system is provided with linear,
circular, and helical interpolations to generate complex contours. It
has provision to dress the wheel and to compensate for wheel wear.
Vision system is used for tool setting, position of work piece, checking
wheel dressing and inspection of work piece.

3.12 CNC Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

In this machining process, the metal is removed from the work
piece due to erosion. The erosion is caused by an electric spark at
high temperature. The work piece is held in a fixture placed inside a
work pan. The pan contains a dielectric fluid like kerosene, mineral
oil, white spirit or paraffin. The work piece is connected to the +ve
terminal of D.C. supply.
Reduction gear box

Constant
tool feed

Servo motor

Tool
- ve Dielectric fluid
Filter
D.C. Supply

+ ve Work
Table
Work pan Pump

Fig.3.11 CNC Electrical discharge machining

The tool is designed according to the shape to be produced on
the work piece. The hollow tool is made of copper, brass, tungsten or
graphite. Dielectric fluid is supplied through the hole in the tool. The
tool is automatically fed by a servomotor to maintain a small gap of
0.005 mm to 0.05 mm between the work piece and the tool.

3.26
 When D.C. supply is given, an electric spark is produced in the
gap between the tool and work piece. Due to this spark, a high heat
of about 1200oC is developed. The metal in a small area of work piece
is melted by this heat. Thousands of sparks are produced per second.
The molten metal is splitted into small particle and removed due to
the high forces of these sparks. At the same time the metal particles
are carried away by the dielectric fluid passed with high pressure.
Dielectric fluid also acts as coolant.

There are several types of electric discharge machines which

are fitted with Computer Numerical Control.

1) Die Sink EDM

It is is also known as Ram type EDM. In this type of machine,
the shape and size of the electrode is same as that of the counter-
part of the work piece being machined. Servo control is used to
maintain the gap between the electrode and the work piece.

2) Orbital EDM
In this type of machine, the electrode is in the form of a ball
ended cutter and spins about its own axis. the relative position of the
electrode and work piece is regulated by a 3–axis CNC system to
generate any three dimensional surface.

3) Wire cut EDM

Wire cut EDM is mainly used to make dies for blanking and
piercing. In this type of machine, the electrode is in the form of a
wire. A small hole is drilled into the work piece and the wire electrode
is threaded through the work piece on to a take-up roll. Computer
numerical control is used to move the work table in X and Y directions
for cutting the component to the required shapes.

A 3–axis NC system is used to tilt the wire axis relative to work

piece surface in the required direction depending on the contour to be
machined. Some of the latest wire EDM machines have the automatic
drilling and self threading facility.

3.27
Applications of CNC EDM

1) EDM is widely used for making moulds in tool and die

industries.
2) It is used for making prototype and production parts in
aerospace, automobile and electronics industries.
3) Very complicated shapes can be easily produced using EDM.
4) This method is used for producing small holes in nozzles.
5) It is used for machining hard and brittle materials like
tungsten carbide, stellite, etc.
6) It is used for sharpening tool and cutters.

3.13 Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is an electromechanical
system designed to determine the location, orientation, dimensions
and geometry of a component or object.

A CMM consists of the following components.

1) Probe head and probe to contact the work piece surface.
2) Displacement transducers to measure the coordinate values
of each axis.
3) Mechanical structure that provides motion of the probe.
4) Drive system and control unit to move each of the three axes.

Construction of CMM
The probe of the CMM is fastened to a mechanical structure
that allows movement of the probe relative to the work piece. The
work piece is usually located on a worktable that is connected to the
structure.

1. Probe
The tip of the probe is usually a rub ball. Probes may have a
single tip or multiple tips. Touch–trigger type probes are widely used
nowadays. This probe actuates immediately when it makes contact
with the work piece surface.

3.28
 (a) Single tip probe (b) Multiple tips probe

Fig.3.12 Contact probe

The X, Y and Z coordinates of the probe are accurately

measured by displacement transducers and recorded by the CMM
controller. Rotary encoders, optical scales and magnetic scales are
the commonly used displacement transducers.

2. Mechanical structure or configuration

(a) Cantiliver structure (b) Moving bridge structure (c) Fixed bridge structure
Z

(d) Horizontal arm structure (e) Gantry structure (e) Column structure

Fig.3.13 Types of CMM configuration

3.29
 The following are various mechanical structures of CMM for
achieving the motion of the probe.

(a) Cantilever structure: In this structure, the probe is

attached to a vertical quill that moves in the Z–axis direction relative
to a horizontal arm. The quill can also be moved along the length of
the arm to achieve Y–axis motion, and the arm can be moved relative
the work table to achieve X–axis motion.

(b) Moving bridge structure: In this design, the probe is

mounted on a bridge structure that is moved relative to a stationary
table. This provides a more rigid structure than the cantilever design.

(c) Fixed bridge structure: In this configuration, the bridge

is attached to the CMM bed, and the work table is moved in the X–
direction beneath the bridge. The rigidity and accuracy of this
structure is more than moving bridge structure.

(d) Horizontal arm structure: It consists of a cantilever

horizontal arm mounted to a vertical column. The arm moves
vertically, in and out to achieve Y–axis and Z–axis motions. To
achieve X–axis motion, either column or table is moved.

(e) Gantry structure: In this structure, the probe moves

relative to the horizontal arm extending between the two rails of the
gantry. This construction is suitable for inspecting large work pieces.

(f) Column structure: This structure is similar to the

construction of a machine tool. The X–axis and Y–axis movements
are achieved by moving the work table, while the Z–axis motion is
achieved by moving the probe quill vertically.

Working principle of CMM

The type of instructions needed for the operation of a CMM are
inspection probe selection, speed for positioning the probe, the path
to be followed by the probe, speed and angle at which the probe
approaches the work piece, tolerance based information, etc. The
operation of a direct computer control CMM is explained below.

3.30
 The inspection programs for CMM is generated with the help of
a CAD database containing the geometric information and
manufacturing information. This is achieved by using Dimensional
Measuring Interface Standard (DMIS). DMIS is a protocol that permits
two–way communication between CAD systems and CMM.

CMM Program

Data about
part
CAD system

CNC program

Part

Data about
part
CNC machine tool CMM

Fig.3.14 Working principle of direct computer control CMM

After a part has been produced on the CNC machine tool, the
part will be checked on a CMM with the inspection program
downloaded from the computer. After CMM checks the part, data
about the part is sent back to the computer, where the original part
geometry is stored. Thus, the geometry of the designed part is
compared with the geometry of the produced part and deviations
existing are identified. This will help in identifying the problems in
manufacturing and rectification.

The following are some other controls used in CMM.

a) Manual driven CMM: In this control, the human operator

physically moves the probe along the machine’s axes to make contact
with the part and record the measurements.

3.31
 b) Manual driven CMM with computer assisted data
processing: It provides some data processing and computational
capability for performing the calculations required to evaluate the
dimensions of a given work piece.

c) Motor driven CMM with computer assisted data

processing: It uses electric motors to drive the probe along the
machine axes under operator control. A joystick or similar device is
used as the means of controlling the motion.

Application of CMM
The following are the applications of CMM
1) It is used for checking the various dimensions of machined
components.
2) It is used for checking the profiles and dimensions of gears,
threads and cams.
3) It is used for checking sheet metal panels, subassemblies and
complete car bodies in the automotive industries.
4) It is used for the inspection of incoming parts from a vendor to
ensure that the vendor’s quality control system are reliable.
5) It is used for checking and measuring various gauges, fixtures
and other inspection and production tools to validate their
continued use.

Benefits of CMM
1) The inspection cycle time is reduced.
2) CMM has more flexibility to measure different part
configuration.
3) The operator errors in measurements and setup are reduced.
4) CMM is more accurate and precise than manual inspection.
5) CMM has better repeatability.
6) The operation of CMM is simple.
7) All the features and dimensions of a component can be
measured in a single setup by using CMM.

3.32
COMPONENTS OF CNC MACHINE
3.14 Drives
The following are the two drives used in CNC machines:
1) Spindle drives to provide the main spindle power for cutting.
2) Feed drives to drive the axis as per the programme.

3.14.1 Spindle drives

Spindle drives are used to cause motion of the spindle as per
the motion commands issued by the CNC system. The following are
the requirements of a spindle drive.
 Compactness
 Fast dynamic response
 High rotational accuracy
 Constant power over wide range of speeds
 Good running smoothness
 A range of output from 3.5KW to 5KW
 Maximum spindle speed up to 9000 rpm to 20000 rpm
 High overload capacity
 Large speed range

Types of spindle drives

Two major types of spindle drives are used in CNC machine tools.
 DC variable speed spindle drives
 AC variable speed spindle drives

A) DC spindle drives
DC drives are widely used in CNC machines. A complete main
spindle drive consists of DC motor and controller. The different types
of DC motors are describes below.
1) DC permanent magnet motors
In DC permanent magnet motors, the stator magnetic field is
produced by a permanent magnet. No power is used for producing
the magnetic field. The magnetic flux remains constant. So speed–
torque curve of the PM motor is linear. As the magnet is made of
ceramic materials, the speed–torque curve is more linear when

3.33
compared to that of wound field motor. Since PM motors requires no
power for producing magnetic flux, there will not be any heat
produced in the stator and hence requires less cooling. Another
advantage is that PM motors have reduced frame size for a given
output power.

2) Separately excited DC motors with analog thyristor drive

Most of the DC main spindle drives used today is separately
excited DC motors with analog thyristor controller. The maximum
speed of such motor is about 6000 rpm with a control range of 1:4 at
constant output. Such motors are cooled by a separate AC motor
driven fan. Because of this independent cooling, motors can be
operated at rated loads in the armature control range down to 50
rpm. Filter is also provided to get clean air for cooling.

Thermistors built into the motor prevent damage from over–

heating. Fully laminated stator enable high rates of current change
above 200 times the rated current per second. These motors are fitted
with permanently lubricated rolling bearings. A large number of
sleeved armature slots prevent magnetic noise.

Convertors are used for speed control and optimum utilization

of motor. It contains power section with thyristors, armature and field
circuit, semi–conductor fuses and transformers. Electronic
components are mounted on PCBs. The convertor units contain the
necessary monitoring devices for protection for motors.

3) DC main drives with digital control

Recent technical advances have resulted in the development of
digital designs in place of analog designs. The digital control motors
enable easy start–up and servicing.
Advantages of DC spindle drives
The following are the main advantages of DC spindle drives.
1) Easiness in controlling the speed of rotation.
2) Sufficient overload capacity.
3) Compact design.
4) Linear speed–torque characteristics.

3.34
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of DC spindle drives
1) Relatively high cost.
2) Decreasing power with decrease in rpm below the rated speed.
3) Relatively large dimension and weight.
4) Need of regular maintenance.
5) Need of cooling

B) AC spindle drives
AC spindle motors are preferred for the main drive of CNC
machines due to the following reasons:
 AC motors are more reliable than DC motors under severe
operating conditions such as dust, coolant splash, etc.
 AC motors are free from brushes and other wearing parts.
Hence they require less maintenance.
 The stator cooling system in AC motors give high speed and
high output with compact size.
 AC drives provides stable and smooth operation with reduced
vibration and noise.

AC spindle motors of the high power series have a wider

constant power characteristic. The speed ratio is of the order of 4:1
to 5:1. AC spindle drive for machine tools consist of a squirrel cage
induction motor and a transistor inventor type controller.

The important characteristics of AC spindle motors are:

 Fast installation
 High degree of safety
 Less maintenance
 Easy setting of parameters during servicing
 Short speed and torque response time
 Low inertia
 Robust 4–pole designs
In order to reduce inertia, rotors are made hollow. Two
thermistors are used to protect motor from excessive temperature rise.

3.35
 The important characteristics of transistor pulse invertors are:
 Direct connection to the mains without transformer and
commutating reactors
 Regenerative braking
 Digital multiprocessor configurations for speed and torque
controls
 High degree of safety

3.14.2 Feed drives

The following are the feed drives used in CNC machine tools
 DC Servomotors
 AC Servomotors
 Stepper motors
 Linear motors

DC servomotors : DC servomotors are high performance

motors which are used where starts and stops must be made quickly
and accurately. The light weight and low inertia armatures of DC
servomotors respond quickly to the excitation voltage changes. Low
armature inductance in these motors results in a low electrical time
constant that further improves motor response to command signals.
They are insensitive to demagnetization and provide smooth rotation
even at low speeds.

AC servomotors : Three phase AC servomotors are compact

in design. These have high degree of noise immunity, reliability and
safety in operation. These motors are provided with integrated
holding brake and pulse generator. These are also self-cooled. These
are light weight motors with low moment of inertia.

Stepper motors : A stepper motor rotates in fixed angular

increments. Step size or step angle, is determined by the construction
of the motor and the type of drive scheme used to control it. Typical
step resolution is 1.8 degrees. Stepper motors are usually used in
open loop control systems. Permanent magnet (PM) and variable
reluctance (VR) are the most common types of stepper motors.
Stepper motors are simple in construction. The reliability of the
stepper motors are very high and hence no maintenance is required.
3.36
 Linear motors : Linear motors are used in high performance
CNC machine tools. It consists of a series of magnets attached to the
machine base and a set of electrical coils potted around a steel
laminate core attached to the moving slide. Machines built with linear
motors and all-digital drive systems can produce parts with higher
accuracy and tighter tolerances at higher feeds and speeds. They
reduce the non-machining time with high acceleration and
deceleration rates.

3.15 Slide ways or Guide ways

Precise positioning and repeatability of machine tool slides are
the major functional requirements of CNC machine. The following are
the requirements of a good slide way system.
 Low coefficient of friction at varying slide velocities
 Minimum difference between static and dynamic friction
coefficients
 Low rate of wear
 High stiffness at the sliding joints
 Good damping capacity
 Negligible stick–slip
 Easy machinability
 Low price

3.15.1 Types of slideways

The slideways are mainly classified according to the nature of
friction between contacting surfaces of the operative element :
\ 1) Friction slideways (Guideways with sliding friction )
2) Anti-friction slideways (Guideways with rolling friction )

1. Friction slideways
The guideways with sliding friction are called as friction
slideways. The slideways are further classified according to the
lubrication at the interface of contacting surfaces. The friction
between the sliding surfaces may be dry, semi-liquid, and liquid.

When the lubrication is absent in between contacting surfaces,

it is called as dry friction. Dry friction is not generally occurred in NC
machine tools.

3.37
Hydrodynamic slideways :
In hydrodynamic slideways, the sliding surfaces are completely
separated by the lubricant film. Liquid friction occurs at their
interface. When two bodies slide with respect to each other having
lubrication between them, the sliding body tends to rise or float due
to hydrodynamic action of the lubricant film. This provides almost a
frictionless condition for the movement of the slide.

Hydrostatic slide ways :

In the hydrostatic slide ways, air or oil is pumped into small
pockets or cavities machined into the carriage or slides which are in
contact with the slide way. The pressure of the fluid gradually reduces
to atmospheric pressure as it leaks out from the pockets through the
gap between slide and slide ways.

The hydrostatic slide way provides almost a frictionless

condition for the movement of the slide. For efficient operation, it is
very important that the fluid and slide ways are kept clean. Also, the
hydrostatic slide ways need a very large surface area to provide
adequate support.

2. Anti-friction slideways
In anti-friction slideways, the sliding friction between the slide
and slide ways is replaced with rolling friction by the use of antifriction
balls or roller bearings. Recirculating linear roller bearings are used
for movement along a flat plane. The continuous roller circulation
allows unlimited linear movement. Linear motion bearings are widely
used in anti-friction slideways.

Linear motion bearings

A linear motion bearing consists of hardened and precision
ground supporting elements and a number of cylindrical rollers. The
rollers are guided between shoulders of the supporting elements with
very close tolerances. The guiding elements prevent the rollers from
falling out and sliding against each other. It also assists in smooth
return of the rollers to the loading zone.

3.38
 Fig.3.15 Linear motion bearing

The rollers are in contact with the guide ways machined on the
bed of the machine. This arrangement provides smooth and easy
movement. Hardened steel guides with special guide forms may be
attached to the bed of the machine and the rollers can move on the
rails. The linear roller bearing can be mounted horizontally for load
carrying applications such as machine tool table. It can be mounted
vertically to provide support, guidance and motion for the vertical
elements of the machine tool.

Advantages of linear motion bearings

Linear motion bearings has the following advantages
1) There is little difference between dynamic friction and static friction.
2) The drive equipment is more compact.
3) Machine weight, overall cost and maintenance can be reduced.
4) Smooth motion is obtained with reduced vibration and shock.
5) Stick–slip problem is completely eliminated.
6) A small quantity of lubrication is sufficient.
7) Little wears and long life.

3.16 Recirculating ball screw

The conventional machines use lead screw for motion
transmission purposes. The lead screw with acme–threads is not
suitable for CNC machines due to high friction between the lead screw
and the nut, poor power transmission efficiency and inaccuracy due
to backlash. These problems have been overcome with the use of
recirculating ball screw and nut arrangement.
3.39
 The approach in recirculating ball screw and nut arrangement
is to replace sliding friction by rolling friction. The connection between
the screw and the nut is through an endless stream of recirculating
steel balls. The screw thread is a hardened and ground ball race. The
steel bearing balls roll in the thread grooves as nuts.

The balls rolling in the grooves exit from the trailing end of the
nut. The balls are picked up by the return tube inserted from outside
and are recirculated into the leading end of the nut. There are also
systems in which the rolling balls circulate within the nut. In this
system, a deflector is provided to reposition the balls back into the
beginning of the thread.
Recirculating
Recirculating
balls ballsBall returnBall
tubereturn tube

(a) Gothic (a)

arch
Gothic arch

Ground Ground
thread screw
thread screw
Nut Nut (b) Semicircular
(b) Semicircular
arch arch


Fig.3.16 Recirculating ball screw and nut 
Fig.3.17Profile of ball screw

The ball screws can have gothic or circular arch grooves. Gothic
arch grooves have a small axial clearance when they are used with a
single nut. The circular arch grooves allow little axial deformation and
a greater load capacity.

Elimination of backlash
A certain amount of radial or axial clearance exists in ball
screws of the single nut type. When thrust loads are applied, the balls
and grooves are deformed slightly because the balls are pressed down
to the grooves. Backlash is the sum of the axial clearance and the
deformation caused by the axial loading.

The elimination of backlash is absolutely necessary for CNC

machines where precise positioning and high stiffness are required.
This can be achieved by preloading. Preloading is to be applied to two

3.40
nuts. A shim plate is inserted between the two nuts and tightened
with a preloading bolt.

Advantages
The ball screw and nut arrangement provides the following
advantages when compared with conventional Acme screws.
1) Coefficient of friction is low.
2) Transmission efficiency is very high.
3) Stick–slip phenomenon is absent.
4) Backlash is completely eliminated.
5) The wear is reduced to minimum and hence the life is
increased.
6) The assembly is reversible which makes it possible to back
drive the unit.

3.17 Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)

Automatic tool changer (ATC) is an important part of a CNC
machine. An ATC picks up a tool from the tool magazine and replaces
it with the tool in the spindle. It plays a significant role in reducing the
idle time during tool change operations. The time for tool change
varies between 3 to 7 seconds.

Classification of ATC
ATCs can be classified as follows
1) According to the kind of cutting tools
 For single tool
 For multi tool heads
 For special tools such as microbores

2) According to the system tool exchange

 Without tool change arm
 With tool change arm
 With tool parking position

3) According to the position of axes of tool and spindle

 With parallel axes
 With intersecting axes

3.41
 4) According to tool position
 With horizontal tool position
 With vertical tool position

Operation of ATC
Spindle
Spindle
Spindle
Spindle

Tool magazine
Tool Tool
magazine
magazine
Tool magazine

ATC
ATC ATC ATC
o
(1) Arm rotates through o90 from o rest (2) Arm pulls tools (3) Arm rotates
o o
(1) Arm
(1)position
Arm
rotates
(1)rotates
through
Arm
and through
rotates
grips90 from
90tools
through
both from
rest from rest (2) Arm
90 rest (2)from
pulls
Arm
(2) pulls
tools
Arm tools
mountingpulls tools (3) Arm
(3)through
rotates
Arm
(3)rotates
Arm
o rotates
180 o
position
position
and grips
and grips
both both
tools tools
position and grips both tools from from
mounting
mounting
from mounting through
through
180 180 180o
through

(4) Carrier inserts tools (5) Arm rotates through

(4) Carrier
(4) Carrier
inserts
(4) inserts
tools
Carrier tools tools
inserts (5) Arm
(5)90
rotates
Arm
o (5)rotates
through
Arm through
rotates through
to
o restoposition
90o to90rest
to90
position
resttoposition
rest position

Fig.3.18 Operation of double ended ATC

The operation of a double-ended arm type ATC is shown in the

figure. The sequence of operation is as follows:
 At the moment of tool change, ATC arm rotates through 90o
from its rest position.
 One end of the arm grips the tool in the magazine and another
end grips the tool in the spindle.
 The tools in the spindle and the magazine are pulled out.
 The arm rotates through 180o. It inserts the new tool to the
spindle and the old tool to the magazine.
 The arm rotates through 90o and goes to the rest position.

The same operation repeats for replacing each tool. There are
also other designs to allow relative movement between arm and
spindle during tool change.

3.42
3.18 Tool magazines
Tool magazine is a device used in CNC machines for storing the
tools. It keeps the tools clean and free from damage. It also keeps track
of which tools are where. This can be done by coding the tool physically
either on the tool itself or in the magazine adjacent to the tool.

Requirements of tool magazines

Tool magazines should satisfy the following requirements.
 It must be capable of holding enough tools.
 It must be simple and compact.
 Interchange of tools should not interfere with the work piece
space and tool space.
 Easier and safer manual exchange of tools should be provided.
 All preparatory works for tool exchange should be made during
machining.

Types of tool magazines

The main types of tool magazines used in CNC machines are
(1) Tool turret (2) Drum or disc type magazine
(3) Chain type magazine

1) Tool turret

1
12 2
11

3
10

4
5
9

8 6
7

Fig.3.19 Tool turret

3.43
 It is the simplest type of tool magazine. It is generally used in
turning centres. It combines tool storage and tool change procedure
without any separate tool change device. A turret indexing
mechanism is used to bring the tool to the required position against
the work piece. The tools can be identified with their pocket position
and no separator identification is required. It is the main advantage
of this magazine.

2) Drum or disc type magazine

Fig.3.20 Drum or disc type magazine

This type of magazines is used in machining centres with lower

tooling requirement. In this type of magazine, the drum rotates to
bring the required tool to the tool change arm position as per part
program. The tools are identified by their pocket number. The number
of tool that can be hold in the magazine depends on the diameter of
the drum.

3) Chain type magazine

This type of magazine is capable of storing more number of
tools than other type. It is generally used in machining centres. In
this magazine, the tools are inserted into their pockets, which are
attached to the chain. The chain is moving on sprockets. The
sprockets are driven by motors. At the moment of tool change, the
control calculates whether it is shorter to rotate the chain clockwise

3.44
 Fig.3.21 Chain type magazine
or anticlockwise to bring the required tool to its pickup point.
Accordingly the motors are driven.

3.19 Feed back drives

Based on feed back control, the CNC systems are classified as
open– loop and closed–loop control systems.

1) Open–loop control system

Machine Drive Machine

control unit motor tool slide

Fig.3.22 Block diagram of open–loop control system

Machine tool controls in which there is no provision to compare
the actual position of the cutting tool or work piece with the input
signal, are called open–loop control systems. In this system, the
electric motor continues to run until the programmed location has
been attained. There is no monitoring of the actual displacement of
the machine slide.

The actual displacement of the slide may vary with change in

external conditions and due to the wear of components. Periodical
adjustments are required to compensate for the changes due to
various factors. Open–loop system are less accurate compared to a
closed loop system. It is less expensive than closed–loop systems due
to the absence of feed back devices. Open–loop systems require less
maintenance.
3.45
2) Closed–loop system
Tacho
generator

Machine Machine
control unit tool slide

Velocity feedback
Measuring
Displacement feed back device

Fig.3.23 Block diagram of closed–loop control system

In a closed–loop control system, the actual displacement of the

machine slide is compared with the input signal. In this system, the
displacement can be achieved to a very high degree of accuracy
because a measuring or monitoring device is used to determine the
displacement of the slide. The feed back from the monitoring device
is then compared with the input signal and the slide position is
regulated by the servo system until it agrees with the desired position.

3.19.1 Feed back devices

Closed–loop control system requires the following two types of
feedback.

Velocity feed back: It is normally provided by a device called

tachogenerator. It gives voltage output proportional to its speed. This
output voltage is used as feedback to monitor the motor speed.

Position feedback: The positional feedback is provided by

measuring the slide movement with measuring device. The generally
used feed back measuring devices are:
1) Rotary encoders
2) Linear transducers

1) Rotary encoder (transducer)

Rotary encoder operates by measuring the rotary speed of the
lead screw. From known value of the lead screw, movement of the
slide is calculated by the control system. This transducer operates on
the photoelectric principle.
3.46
 Lenses
Light source Dark region

Lead screw
Radial Transparent
grating disc region

Fig.3.24 Rotary encoder disc

Working principle
The transducer consists of a disc fitted on the axis of lead
screw. The disc is made up of uniform alternate transparent and dark
areas. A light source is fitted on one side of the disc and photocell on
the other side. When the disc rotates with the rotation of the lead
screw, the photocell will sense light and dark areas alternatively.

The photocell gives output voltage based on the intensity of

light falling on it. The output voltage is converted into square shaped
pulses and then counted. The rotary speed of lead screw is calculated
from the known number of transparent areas in the disc. The
displacement of the slide is then calculated from the lead of the lead
screw.

The direction of rotation of the lead screw is sensed by putting

a second photocell in the circuit such a way that the output from the
two photocells will be out of phase.

2) Linear transducer
Linear position measuring transducer operates on the
photoelectric principle. It measures the displacement of the machine
slide from a fixed datum.

Working principle
The linear measuring system consists of a light source, a
photocell and a precision linear scale engraved with alternate
transparent and dark parallel lines. The light source and the photocell
are fixed on the stationary element of the machine tool, and the scale
is fixed to the moving worktable.

3.47
 Work table

Light source Linear grating

(fixed) (attached with table)

Photocell
(fixed)

Fig.3.25 Linear transducer

When the worktable moves, a pulse is generated by the

photocell as it is exposed to light source through the transparent area
of the linear scale. From the known number of engraved lines on the
linear scale and by counting the number of pulses, the displacement
of the worktable is determined. A second photocell is used to detect
the direction of movement of he slide.

3.20 In-process probing

During many unattended machining operations in CNC
machines, a periodic checking and adjusting dimensional tolerances
of the part is necessary. As the cutting tool wears out, or perhaps
because of other reasons, the dimensions may fall into the out-of-
tolerance zone. Using a probe device and a suitable program, the
in-process probing option offers quite a satisfactory solution.

In-process probing systems are used to help provide process

control on a wide range of CNC machine tools, including CNC lathes,
vertical and horizontal machining centers and grinders.

Probing applications fall into the following two categories

 Spindle or turret probing
 Tool probing.

3.48
Spindle or turret probing
These systems consist of a spindle or turret mounted touch
probe with a stylus, a transmission system and a machine control
interface. These systems are used for setting up the machining
cycle, for in-process part inspection with feedback for automatic tool
compensation, and for on-machine final part inspection. In
machining-center setup applications, a spindle-probe system will
locate the part at specified data points and provide automatic input
of work coordinate positions. During part changeovers, probing
makes it possible to take one fixture and setup off the machine, put
another one on, and get quick validation to start machining. Benefits
usually include a substantial reduction in setup time and increases
in machine-tool productivity or overall throughput.

For in-process applications, the spindle or turret probing

system measures critical machined dimensions to make sure they
conform to original specifications. Most often, the inspection is
combined with data feedback for automatic tool compensation. This
provides process control that is especially cost-effective in turning
operations. Sometimes, measurement of particular dimensions
serves to provide final part inspection right on the machine.

Tool-probing
These systems consist of a table-mounted touch probe and
stylus, an adjustable probe holder and a machine control interface.
These systems have two primary functions. One function is to check
tool diameter and length, which can save setup time by eliminating
the need for off-machine tool presetting. The second function is to
check for broken tools, which can prevent possible damage to the
tool, the part and the machine and consequent breakdowns in
production.

Actually, broken tool detection is an incidental result of the

tool-length measurement. The probe checks the tool length against
a programmed error margin. If the error is greater than this, the
tool registers as broken and is replaced.

3.49
 Review questions

1) What is a NC system? What are its components?

2) Explain the working principle of CNC system.
3) Explain the components of a MCU in CNC system.
4) List out the applications of CNC.
5) What are the advantages and disadvantages of CNC system?
6) Compare NC systems with CNC systems.
7) What is DNC system? How it differs from CNC system?
8) Explain the term adaptive control system and how this system
minimizes the machining time.
9) What are the benefits of adaptive control?
10) Write short notes on various types of machining centres.
11) Explain the construction and working of CNC machining centre.
12) Briefly explain the salient features of machining centres.
13) What are the various types of turning centre? Briefly explain.
14) Explain the construction and working of CNC turning centre.
15) State the various features of turning centres.
16) Explain the machine axes conventions of turning centre and
machining centre.
17) Explain the various design considerations of NC machine tools.
18) Explain in detail how CNC drilling machine works. What are its
advantages? Where these machines are used?
19) Explain any one type of CNC grinding.
20) Explain the working principle of EDM die sinking machine.
21) Explain the working principle of wire EDM machine.
22) What is CMM? Explain the working of CMM with neat sketch.
23) List out the various mechanical structure of CMM.
24) What are the requirements of spindle drives?
25) Describe the different types of DC spindle drives.
26) Write the advantages of DC spindle drive.

3.50
27) Compare AC drives and DC drives used for spindle drives in CNC
machines.
28) List out the various feed drives used in CNC machines.
29) Describe the principle of AC drives used for spindle drive.
30) Explain the various feed drives used in CNC machines.
31) Explain the working principle of servo motor.
32) Explain the working principle of stepper motor.
33) What are the requirements of a slide way system?
34) Write short notes on friction slide ways and antifriction slide ways.
35) Describe with sketches any two types of slide movement elements
used to convert rotary motion to a linear motion in CNC machines.
36) With neat sketch, explain the working of recirculating ball screw.
37) What is Automatic Tool Changer? Explain its working principle.
38) What is tool magazine? What are its requirements?
39) Explain the different types of tool magazines used in CNC machines.
40) Compare the closed loop system with the open loop system and
state its advantages.
41) What is a transducer? What for it is used in CNC machines?
42) What is feed back device? Explain the principle of rotary
transducer.
43) Explain how linear transducers are used to get feed back signals.
44) Explain in-process probing.

3.51
 Unit – IV
PART PROGRAMMING
4.1 NC Part programming
NC part program is a detailed list of instructions that need to
be executed by the machine control unit (MCU) to achieve the final
component shape. The processing sequence needed to manufacture
a given part is broken down into small elements and written in a
specific format understood by the MCU.

4.1.1 Methods of creating part program

The following are the methods of creating part programs.
1) Manual part programming
2) Computer aided part programming
3) Part programming using CAD/CAM (Graphical programming)
4) Manual data input – MDI (Conversational programming)
5) Voice programming (Verbal programming)

4.2 Manual part programming

In this method, the programmer writes the machining
instructions on a special form called a part program manuscript. The
tool path of the CNC machine tool is then described in machine codes
with a standard format.

The program is directly input into the memory of the machine

by a tape reader or transferred from a computer system into the
machine control unit. This method is widely used for work pieces
having simple geometry.

4.2.1 Types of motion control

In order to perform the machining process, the cutting tool and
work piece must be moved relative to each other. The following are
the important motion control systems used in NC machine tools.
1) Point – to – Point (Positioning)
2) Paraxial (Straight Cut)
3) Contouring (Continuous Path)

4.1
 Point–to–point (PTP) motion control : The objective of this
method is to move the cutting tool to a predefined location. The speed
or path by which the movement achieved is not important. Once the
tool reaches the desired location, the machining operations are
performed at that position. Drilling or punching a hole on a work piece
is an example of point–to–point application.

Paraxial (straight-cut) motion control : This system is

capable of moving the cutter parallel to one of the major axes at
controlled feed rate. In this system, it is not possible to combine
movements in more than one axis direction. Hence, angular cuts
cannot be done on the work piece. This system is also capable of point-
to-point movements. This system is suitable for performing milling
operation to produce work pieces of rectangular configurations.

Contouring (continuous path) motion control : Contouring

is the most complex and most expensive machine tool control system.
It is capable of performing both point-to-point and straight-cut
motions. In addition, the path of the cutter is continuously controlled
to generate the desired geometry of the work pieces. It is achieved
by NC system, which is capable of simultaneous control of two or
more axes. Straight or plane surfaces at any orientation, circular
paths, conical shapes, or any other complex form can be produced
using contouring control. Milling and turning operations are examples
of continuous path applications.
4.2.2 Data required for manual part program
The following are the data required for manual part
programming.
1) Specification of coordinate system
2) Specification of axes
3) Specification of machines
4) Specification of reference points in machines and work pieces
5) Specification of tools
6) Method of holding work pieces
7) Data tables and books containing cutting process parameters
such as speed, feed, depth of cut, etc.
8) Sequence of operation

4.2
4.3 NC coordinates system

Fig.4.1 Right hand coordinate system

All the NC machine tools make use of Cartesian coordinate
system for the sake of simplicity. The guiding coordinate system
followed for designating the axes is the well-known right hand
coordinate system.

Designation of axes
First axis to be identified is the Z-axis. This is then followed by
X and Y axes respectively.
+z
Workpiece +c

-x +b +y Workpiece
-z

+x
+a

-y +x

Worktable -x +z
-z
(a) For flat workpieces (b) For rotational workpieces

Fig.4.2 Designation of axes

Z-axis
The Z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or parallel to the
spindle axis. In the case of machine without a spindle such as shapers
and planers, the Z-axis is perpendicular to the work holding surface.

4.3
 For machines such as milling, drilling and lathe, the cutting
tools move in the negative Z direction to move a tool into the work
piece. The positive Z motion increases the clearance between the tool
holder and work piece surface.

When there are several spindles and slide ways, the spindle
perpendicular to the work holding surface may be chosen as the
principal spindle. The primary Z motion is then related to the primary
spindle. The tool motions of other spindles or slides, designated as U,
V, W and P, Q, R respectively.

X-axis
The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the work piece
is designated as X–axis. It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and should
be horizontal and parallel to the work holding surface when possible.

When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the

positive (+) X is to the Right. For turning machines, it is radial and
parallel to the cross slide.

Y-axis
It is perpendicular to both X and Z-axes, and the direction is
identified by the right hand Cartesian coordinate system.

Rotary motions
A, B and C define primary rotary motion. These motions are
located about the axis parallel to X, Y and Z respectively. Positive A,
B and C are in the directions which advance right hand screw in the
positive X, Y and Z directions respectively. Machine tools with rotary
motion capability generally have either four or five axes.
4.4 Zero points and reference points
Zero point
In CNC machines, tool movements are controlled by coordinate
systems. The origin of the coordinate system is considered as zero
point. In some of the CNC machines, the zero point may be located at
a fixed place and cannot be changed. This is known as fixed zero point.
Some other machines, a zero point may be established by moving the
slides so that the cutting tool is placed in the desired position in relation
to the work pieces. This is known as floating zero point.
4.4
Machine zero point or machine datum (M)

Fig.4.3 Machine zero point

It is a fixed point on a machine specified by the manufacturer.

This point is the zero point for the coordinate system of the machine
controller. In turning centre, the machine zero point is generally at the
centre of the spindle nose face. In machining centres, it is either fixed
at centre of the table or a point along the edge of the traverse range.

Work piece zero point (W)

+x
Workpiece zero point Workpiece zero point +x

M W +Z -Z M W

Fig.4.4 Work piece zero point

This point determines the work piece coordinate system in
relation to the machine zero point. This point is chosen by the part
programmer and input to the machine controller. The position of this
point may be chosen in such a way that the dimensions of the work
piece drawing can be easily converted into coordinate values. For
turned components, it is placed along the spindle axis, in line with the
right or left end face of the work piece. It is also known as program
zero point.

Tool zero point (T)

When machining a work piece, the tool must be controlled in
precise relationship with the work piece along the machining path.
This requires a point in the tool turret be taken as reference point,
which is known as tool zero point.

4.5
 As the tools in the tool turret have different shapes and sizes,
the offset distance between the tool zero point and work piece zero
point is measured and entered in to the computer. This is known as
tool offset setting.

Machine reference point (R)

Machine reference point is also known as home position. It is
used for calibrating and controlling the measuring system of the slides
and tool movements. It is determined by the manufacturers.

M
XMR

M
ZMR

Fig.4.5 Machine reference point (XMR, ZMR)

The value of machine reference coordinates (XMR, ZMR) is fixed
and cannot be changed by the user. The positing of the reference
point is accurately predetermined in every transverse axis by the trip
dogs and limit switches.

4.5 Cutting tool materials

The cutting tool material should have the following properties.

1. The hardness of tool material must be more than the hardness

of work material even at high temperature.
2. The tool material should have high wear resistance.
3. It should have high toughness to withstand shock and
vibration.
4. The friction between the tool and work piece should be
minimum.
5. The cost of tool material will be low.

The following cutting tool materials are generally used for

producing tools for CNC machines.
1) High Speed Steel (HSS) 2) Cemented Carbides
3) Ceramics 4) Cermets

4.6
1. High Speed Steel (H.S.S)
This type of steel contains up to 0.8% carbon. Tungsten,
molybdenum, cobalt, chromium and vanadium are added with this
steel. This tool steel effectively cut materials at high speed also. It
can retain its hardness up to 900oC. The following three types of
H.S.S are available.
a) Tungsten high speed steel
b) Molybdenum high speed steel
c) Cobalt high speed steel
a) Tungsten high speed steel
It contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium and
0.75% carbon. It is also called as 18-4-1 HSS. It is used for
producing drill bits, milling cutters, lathe, planer and shaper tools.

b) Molybdenum high speed steel

This type of steel contains 6% molybdenum, 5% tungsten, 4%
chromium, 2% vanadium. It has high toughness and cutting ability.

c) Cobalt high speed steel

It contains 12% cobalt, 20% tungsten, 4% chromium, 2%
vanadium. It is also called as super high speed steel. It is used for
producing planer tools, milling cutters and lathe tools.

2. Cemented carbides
Tungsten carbide is produced by mixing 6% carbon with 94%
tungsten powder and heating at 1500oC. Tungsten carbide is mixed
with cobalt and pressed at high pressure to form as blocks. It is cut
and ground to required shape and then sintered at high
temperature. A type of carbide tip has 82% tungsten, 10% titanium
carbide and 8% cobalt. This carbide tips are brazed in the tool
shank. It can withstand temperature up to 1000 oC. The cutting
speed is 6 times more than the cutting speed of H.S.S. Heavy
support must be provided to avoid cracking as it so brittle. It is used
for machining hard materials like cast iron, bronze and hard steel.

3. Ceramics
It consists of aluminium oxide. Aluminium oxide powder is
pressed in moulds at high pressure and sintering is done at 2200oC.

4.7
Ceramic tips are clamped in the tool shank. It has high hot hardness,
compressive strength and brittleness. It can withstand temperature up
to 1200oC. No coolant is required for this tool. The cutting speed is 40
times more than the cutting speed of H.S.S. It is used to produce single
point cutting tools for machining plastics and cast iron.

4. Cermets
It is another cemented material based on titanium carbide.
Nickel or molybdenum is used as binder. It provides higher abrasion
resistance and chemically inert. It is mainly used in automobile industry
application for finish machining of steels and malleable cast iron.

4.5.1 Tool inserts

As the cutting tools are expensive, they are often designed
with inserts or replaceable tips. In these, the cutting edge is formed
with a separate piece of material by brazing, welding or clamping on
to the tool body. Common materials for tips include cemented
carbide, polycrystalline, diamond, and cubic boron nitride.

Different insert shapes are used for specific types of

machining operations on various work piece shapes. Round,
triangle, square, rhombus and diamond are the common shapes of
tool insert. The strength of insert depends on the shape of the insert.
For example, the round insert has the greatest strength and the
most cutting edges. The diamond insert has the lowest strength.
The triangular insert is widely used for milling operations.

4.6 NC coordinates dimensioning

The following are the two methods of dimensioning the
components to be machined in NC machine tool.

1) Absolute dimensioning: In absolute dimensioning, the

coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined with respect
to the origin.

2) Incremental dimensioning: In incremental dimensioning,

the coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined relative
to the previous point.

4.8
4.7 CNC program procedure

Study part drawing

Identify
Machine tool
machine tool
database

Identify operations
Capability of
& tooling
cutting tools Cutting tool
database
Determine feeds,
speeds & depths

Machinability
Prepare database
process sheet

Develop
part program

Simulate
tool path

Dry run

Cut the first part

Inspect the part Proven part

Fig.4.6 CNC program procedure

The following are the steps involved in the development of a

part program and its proving.

1) Process planning: The programmer carryout a careful

study of part drawing to prepare the process plan. It includes the
following:
 Machine tools used
 Fixtures required
 Sequence of operations
 Cutting tools required
 Process parameters

4.9
 2) Axes selection: The reference axes should be chosen so
that the coordinates for various features can be determined easily.

3) Tool selection: Various tools are feasible for a given

operation, but some of them would be more economical than others.
So it is essential to chose the right tool for the job.

4) Cutting process parameters planning: For a given tool

and the operation, the appropriate process parameters such as speed,
feed and depth of cut are to be selected. These may be taken from
the handbooks supplied by the cutting tool manufacturer or based on
the shop experience.

5) Job and tool setup planning: The initial position of job

and tool are defined carefully.

6) Tool path planning: A careful planning of the tool path

ensures that the required manufacturing specifications are achieved
at the lowest cost.

7) Part program writing: This involves the actual writing of

the part programs undertaking the format and syntax restrictions into
account.

8) Part program proving: Once the part program is created,

it should be verified before it can be loaded on the machine controller
for the manufacture of the component. A trial run can be carried out
with or without the tool or work piece to enable visualization of
movements taking place, and any collision possible between the tool,
the work piece and the clamping device.

4.8 Definition of character, word and block

Bit: A binary digit is called a bit. In includes 0 or 1. In punched
tape, the values 0 or 1 are represented by the absence or presence
of a hole in a certain row and column position.

Character: A character is formed from a row of bits. A

character is a combination of bits representing a numerical digit (0 to
9), an alphabetical letter (A–Z and a–z), or a symbol.

4.10
 Word: A word is formed from a sequence of characters. A word
specifies a detail about the operation, such as X–position,
Y–position, feed rate, or spindle speed.

Block: A block is formed from a collection of words. A block is

one complete NC instruction. It specifies a destination for the move,
the speed and feed of the cutting operation, and other commands
that determine what the machine will do.

4.8.1 Block format

The order in which words appear in a block of instruction is
called the format. The following are the block formats used in NC
programming.

1) Fixed sequential format: This format was used on many

of the first commercially available NC machines. Each instruction
block contain five words in only numerical data and in a very fixed
order.
Example: 00100703003
00200706003

2) Fixed sequential format with tab ignored: This is the

same as the fixed sequential format except that TAB codes are used
to separate the words for easier reading.
Example: 001 00 70 30 03
002 00 70 60 03

3) Tab sequential format: This is same as fixed sequential

format with tag ignored except that words with the same value as in
the preceding block can be omitted in the sequence.
Example: 001 00 70 30 03
002 00 60

4) Word address format: This format uses a letter prefix to

identify the type of word. Repeated words can be omitted. The words
run together, which makes the code difficult to read.
Example: N001G00X70Y30M03
N002Y60

4.11
 5) Word address format with TAB separation and
variable word order: This is the same format as word address
format except that words are separated by TAB, and the words in the
block can be listed in any order. It is the block format used on all
modern CNC controllers.
Example: N001 G00 X70 Y30 M03
N002 Y60

4.9 Structure or format of a part program

The complete part program for a given component consists of
a beginning code of %. A part program consists of large number of
blocks each representing an operation to be carried out in the
machining of the part. The words in each block are usually given in
the following order.
 Sequence number (N – word)
 Preparatory word (G – word)
 Coordinates (X–, Y–, Z– words for linear axes;
A–, B–, C– words for rotational axes)
 Feed rate (F – word)
 Spindle speed (S – word)
 Tool selection (T – word)
 Miscellaneous command (M – word)
 End–of–block (EOB symbol)

The structure of part program used in Fanuc controller is given

below.
%; (Program start)
O3642 (Program number)

N010 .....
..... .....
Blocks s ..... .....
N100 M02; (Program end)

Program number
Each of the program that is stored in the controller memory
requires an identification. It is used while running and editing of the

4.12
programs directly from the control console. This identification is
specified in terms of a program number with O word address. The
number can be a maximum of four digits.

Sequence number (N–word)

Each block in a part program always starts with a block
number, which is used as identification of the block. It is programmed
with a N word address.

Coordinate function
The coordinate values are specified using the word address
such as X, Y, Z, U, V, W, I, J, K, etc. All these word addresses are
normally signed along with decimal point depending upon the
resolution available in the machine tool.

Comments
Parentheses are used to add comments in the program to
clarify the individual functions that are used in the program. When
the controller encounters the opening parenthesis, it ignores all the
information till it reaches the closing parenthesis.

Example:
N010 G00 Z50 M05 (Spindle stops and rapidly moves up)

Table 4.1 Common word addresses used in word address format

Address Function

N Sequence number to identify a block.

G Preparatory word that prepares the controller for
instruction given in the block.
X, Y, Z Coordinate data for three linear axes.
U, V, W Coordinate data for incremental moves in turning in the
X, Y and Z directions respectively.
A, B, C Coordinate data for three rotational axes X, Y and Z
respectively.

4.13
Address Function

R Radius of arc, used in circular interpolation.

I, J, K Coordinate values of arc centre, corresponding to X, Y
and Z-axes respectively.
F Feed rate per minute or revolution in either inches or
millimeters.
S Spindle rotation speed.
T Tool selection, used for machine tools with automatic
tool changer or turrets.
D Tool diameter word used for offsetting the tool.
P It is used to store cutter radius data in offset register.
It defines first contour block number in canned cycles.
Q It defines last contour block number in canned cycles.
M Miscellaneous function.

4.10 Preparatory functions (G – words)

These are preset function associated with the movement of
machine axes and the associated geometry. It prepares the machine
control unit for the instruction and data contained in the block. The
common G–codes and their functions are given in table 4.2.

Modal and Non–modal G–codes

Some of the G–codes are modal, which means that they behave
as settings to the control. Once given they remain operational till
cancelled by another G codes from the same group. A few other G–
codes are non–modal, which means that they remain operational in
the block in which they are programmed.

For example, G20 (Inch input) is a modal command, which can

be cancelled by G21 (Metric input) command.

4.14
Table 4.2 Common G–codes

G–code Function
Turning Center Machining Center

G00 Rapid positioning

G01 Linear interpolation

G02 Circular interpolation (Clockwise)

G03 Circular interpolation (Anticlockwise)

G04 Dwell

G10 Setting offset amount

G17 Selection of XY plane

G18 Selection of ZX plane

G19 Selection of YZ plane

G20 Inch input system

G21 Metric input system

G27 Zero return check

G28 Return to zero

G33 Thread cutting, block by block

G40 Tool nose radius compensation cancel Cutter radius compensation cancel

G41 Tool nose radius compensation Left Cutter radius compensation Left

G42 Tool nose radius compensation Right Cutter radius compensation Right

G50 Maximum spindle speed setting

G65 Call of user macro

G70 Finishing turning cycle

4.15
 G–code Function
Turning Center Machining Center

G71 Multiple turning cycle

G72 Multiple facing cycle

G73 Pattern repeating cycle Peck drilling cycle

G74 Peck drilling cycle

G75 Grooving cycle

G76 Multiple thread cutting cycle

G80 Canned cycle cancel

G81 Drilling cycle, spot boring

G82 Drilling cycle, counter boring

G84 Tapping cycle

G85 Boring cycle

G86 Boring cycle

G87 Back boring cycle

G90 Box turning cycle Absolute mode of positioning

G91 Incremental mode of positioning

G92 Thread cutting cycle Preset program zero point

G94 Box facing cycle Feed per minute

G95 Feed per revolution

G96 Constant surface speed (m/min)

G97 Constant RPM

G98 Feed per minute

G99 Feed per revolution

4.11 Miscellaneous functions or Auxiliary functions (M – codes)

These functions actually operate some controls on the machine
tool and thus affect the running of the machine. The particular machine
tool must have the function that is being called. Miscellaneous

4.16
commands are normally placed at the end of the block. The common
M–codes and their functions are given in table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Common M – codes

M–code Function

M00 Program stop

M01 Optional stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle ON, clockwise
M04 Spindle ON, counter–clockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M07 Coolant supply No.1 ON
M08 Coolant supply No.2 ON
M09 Coolant OFF
M10 Automatic clamping
M11 Automatic unclamping
M13 Spindle ON, clockwise + coolant ON
M14 Spindle ON, counter–clockwise + coolant ON
M30 Program END and rewind
M70 X axis mirror ON
M71 Y axis mirror ON
M80 X axis mirror OFF
M81 Y axis mirror OFF
M98 Subprogram call
M99 Subprogram end

[Note: G – codes, M – codes and programming methods used

in this book are based on FANUC CNC controller system]

4.17
4.12 Part programming for turning centres
Diameter programming
The dimensioning of a turned component is generally specified
by its diameters. However, in turning operation, the tool should
approach the work piece in radial direction for machining. Hence, for
the sake of simplicity, most of the turning centres are provided with
diameter programming facility.

This means that all the movements of the tool along X–axis
should be doubled to represent the diametral movement rather than
radial movement. The selection of radius or diameter programming
depends upon the system variable set during the integration of
controller with the machine tool.

Axes system

Tool datum Tool turret

Machine datum
+X
Work datum

-Z M W

Chuck

Fig.4.7 Axes system used in turning centres

In turning centres, the spindle axis is designated as Z. The

radial axis perpendicular to the Z-axis and away toward the principal
tool post is termed as X–axis. The machine datum or home position
may be the intersection of spindle axis and clamping plane. At the
start, the controller display will show the axis position with respect to
home. The work piece datum is fixed by the programmer on the work
piece for the convenience of part programming. The difference
between the tool tip position and the turret datum is termed as tool
offset.

4.18
4.12.1 Tool function (T–word)
Tools are selected in a program through the T word. The T word
selects the turret station that is to be indexed to the cutting position
and activates the tool offset register number. The tool offset register
number selects the following data from the tool-offset file.
 X and Z axis tool offsets
 Tool nose radius value
 Tool nose orientation number

The T word has the format Tmmnn. The first two digits (mm)
specify the turret station and the last two digits (nn) specify the
location of the tool offsets. The offset is cancelled by giving 00 in place
of the offset register number.

Table 4.4 Contents of tool offset register

Offset Tool nose

X–axis offset Z–axis offset Tool nose
register radius
amount amount radius
number direction
01 120.030 15.10 0.8 0
02 121.310 17.85 0.8 0
.
.
.

Example: N050 M06 T0616

The above block calls for the turret station 6 and selects tool
geometry offset register number 16.

4.12.2 Speed function

The spindle speed can be specified in the following two ways.
a) Constant surface speed option (G96)
The cutting speed is specified by the diameter of the rotating
work piece which varies during different turning processes such as step
turning, taper turning, facing, etc. Hence to maintain a constant cutting
force and uniform surface finish, it is necessary to vary the spindle
speed in direct proportion to the change in work piece diameter at the
cutting tool edge. This is achieved by constant surface speed option,
which can be invoked by using the preparatory function G96.

4.19
b) Constant RPM option (G97)
This is the default option and can also be invoked by G97.
Since, the spindle speed is continuously varied in turning operation,
there is a possibility that the rpm may go beyond certain maximum
limit for the equipment being used. In such situations, it is possible
to specify an upper limit on the speed change using the G50
command.

Example:
N080 G50 S4000 (Maximum spindle rpm is 4000)
N070 G96 S200 (Spindle speed is set at 200 m/min)
N090 G97 S2500 (Spindle speed is set at 2500 rpm)

4.12.3 Feed specification

Feed rate can be specified in two formats and can be obtained
by using the following G–codes.

G98 – Feed in mm/min; G99 – Feed in mm/rev.

G98 is the default mode. The feed rate remains unchanged until
reprogrammed. The decimal point must be programmed while using
G99. The feed rate override switch on the control panel modifies the
programmed feed rate from 0 percent to 150 percent.

Example:
G98 F2.5 (2.5 mm / minute)
G99 F1 (0.01 mm / revolution)
G99 F1.0 (1.00 mm / revolution)
G99 F100 (1.00 mm / revolution)

4.12.4 Rapid positioning (G00)

G00 is used for rapid positioning simultaneously in all the axes.
The feed rate programmed in the block would be overridden by the
maximum allowed feed rate for the axes. The G00 command is modal.
When it is programmed to move in both axes (X and Z), the axes
execute the X and Z rapid traverse rates.

4.20
Example: (Rapid movement from A to B)
X
A(55,25)

B(10,0)

Fig.4.8 Rapid positioning

Absolute mode: N030 G00 X10 Z0

Incremental mode: N030 G00 U–45 W–25
Mixed mode: N030 G00 U–45 Z0 (or) G00 X10 W–25

4.12.5 Interpolation methods

Interpolation methods are used in NC for generating a smooth
continuous linear and curvilinear path in contouring applications. The
various methods of interpolation are as follows.
 Linear interpolation: This is used when a straight line path
is to be generated in continuous path.
 Circular interpolation: This is used for generating circular arc.
 Helical interpolation
 Parabolic interpolation
 Cubic interpolation
Among these, linear and circular interpolations are almost
included in modern CNC systems. Helical, parabolic and cubic
interpolations are less common, and they are only needed for
producing complex surface contours.

a) Linear interpolation (G01)

This is the most basic and is used for creating straight-line
path. G01 is used for linear interpolation at a given feed rate. The
programmer specifies the beginning point and end point of the

4.21
straight line and the feed rate to be used along the straight line. The
format of G01 is as follows:

G01 X_ Z_ F_

Example: (Programming from A–B–C–D)

X
D(60,-23) A

C(30,-25)
B(20,0)

Fig.4.9 Linear interpolation

Absolute mode
Diameter programming Radius programming
N030 G00 X20 Z0 N030 G00 X10 Z0
N040 G01 X30 Z–25 F150 N040 G01 X15 Z–25 F150
N050 G00 X60 Z–23 N050 G00 X30 Z–23
Incremental mode
Diameter programming Radius programming
N030 G00 U–90 W–25 N030 G00 U–45 W–25
N040 G01 U10 W–25 F150 N040 G01 U5 W–25 F150
N050 G00 U30 W2 N050 G00 U15 W2

b) Circular interpolation
This method is used for generating circular arc. The circular
interpolation can be achieved either by specifying the radius or centre
coordinates of the arc. The radius can be directly specified using the
R word address. When the center coordinate is specified, its value is
to be given in incremental form from the start point of the arc with
word addresses I and K.

(i) Circular interpolation – clockwise (G02)

The format of G02 is as follows:

G02 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G02 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

4.22
Example: (Programming from A–B–C–D–E)
X
E(60,-28) A

R5
D(30,-30)
I=5
C(20,-20) B(20,0)

Fig.4.10 Circular interpolation – clockwise

Absolute mode (Diameter programming)
N030 G00 X20 Z0 N030 G00 X20 Z0
N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150 N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150
(OR)
N050 G02 X30 Z–30 R5 F50 N050 G02 X30 Z–30 I5 K0 F50
N060 G00 X60 Z–28 N060 G00 X60 Z–28

(ii) Circular interpolation – Counter-clockwise (G03)

The format of G03 is as follows:

G03 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G03 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

Example: (Programming from A–B–C–D–E)

X
E(60,-28) A

R5
D(30,-30)
C(20,-20)
K=-5 B(20,0)

Fig.4.11 Circular interpolation – Counter-clockwise

Absolute mode (Diameter programming)
N030 G00 X20 Z0 N030 G00 X20 Z0
N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150 N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150
(OR)
N050 G03 X30 Z–30 R5 F50 N050 G03 X30 Z–30 I0 K–5 F50
N060 G00 X60 Z–28 N060 G00 X60 Z–28

4.23
c) Helical interpolation
This method combines the circular interpolation scheme for two
axes with linear movement of a third axis. This permits the definition
of a helical path in three-dimensional space. This can be achieved by
using computer aided part programming methods.

d) Parabolic and cubic interpolations

These routines provide approximations of free form curves
using higher order equations. They generally require considerable
computational power. Most applications are in the aerospace and
automotive industries for free form design that cannot be accurately
and conveniently be approximated by combining linear and circular
interpolations.

4.12.6 Dwell (G04)

Dwell is used to specify a pause in axes motion for a specified
time. This is a non–modal command, which causes the axes to stand
still for the period of time specified in the block. The dwell time can
be specified by using X, U, or P word addresses.
G04 X4.5 (4.5 Seconds)
G04 U4.5 (4.5 Seconds)
G04 P4500 (4.5 Seconds)

4.12.7 Tool nose radius compensation (G41, G42)

(a) Tool nose radius compensation (b) Tool nose radius compensation
- not active - active
,

Fig.4.12 Tool nose radius correction

The tool path for finish cutting of a profile can be easily derived
by offsetting the nose radius. However, at the beginning and end of
inclined path, it is necessary to make calculations based on simple

4.24
trigonometry for the offset point from the original contour. By using
the cutter compensation, the need for all complex calculations will be
eliminated. The programming for the finishing cutting will be the
direct path of the actual contour to be machined.

However, even after compensating the nose radius, the point of

contact between the tool nose and the work piece will still be along the
nose radius periphery which will be changing depending upon the
orientation of the tool with respect to the cut surface. For example, the
tool will leave a small amount of metal along the inclined surface, when
the tool nose radius compensation is not active. For this purpose, the
turning centre controllers will provide the necessary correction.

If the correction is active, then the controller automatically

compensates and removes the unwanted material. However, in order
for the correction to be active, the controller will have to know the
correct orientation of the nose radius with respect to the machining
surface. For this purpose, nose radius direction is included in the tool-
offset registers.

Example part program 4.01:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre using Fanuc controller.

X Tool change position

D(50,-60)
A(50,0)

C(40,-60) B(40,0)
Ø50

Ø40

60

Fig.4.13 Component for part program 4.01

4.25
(Diameter Programming)
% (Program start)
O4010 (Program Number)
N010 G21 (Metric units – mm)
[BILLET X50 Z80 (Work piece dimension)
N020 G50 S4000 (Maximum spindle speed 4000 rpm)
N030 G98 (Feed in mm/min.)
N040 G96 S300 (Spindle speed at 300 m/min.)
N050 G42 (Tool nose radius compensation right)
N060 M06 T0101 (Select tool 1 with offset No.1 for turning)
N070 M03 (Spindle ON – forward)
N080 G00 X50 Z0 (Tool rapid position to A)
N090 G00 X40 Z0 (Rapid position from A to B)
N100 G01 X40 Z–60 F150 (Turn from B to C at feed rate 150mm/min)
N110 G00 X50 Z–60 (Rapid position from C to D)
N120 G00 X50 Z0 (Rapid position from D to A)
N130 G40 (Nose radius compensation cancel)
N140 G28 U0 W0 (Tool return to reference point)
N150 M05 (Spindle Stop)
N160 M30 (Program stop and rewind)

Example part program 4.02:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre with a depth of cut of 2.5mm for each
pass.
X Tool change position
2.5
D A
(45,-60) 2 1 (45,0)

C B
Ø50

Ø40

60

Fig.4.14 Component for part program 4.02

4.26
 %
O4020
N010 G21
[BILLET X50 Z80
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300
N050 G42
N060 M06 T0101
N070 M03
N080 G00 X50 Z0
N090 G00 X45 Z0 (First depth of cut)
N100 G01 X45 Z–60 F150 (First cut)
N110 G00 X50 Z–60
N120 G00 X50 Z0
N130 G00 X40 Z0 (Second depth of cut)
N140 G01 X40 Z–60 F150 (Second cut)
N150 G00 X50 Z–60
N160 G00 X50 Z0
N170 G40
N180 G28 U0 W0
N190 M05
N200 M30

Example part program 4.03:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre.
R10
A(50,0)
D(50,-60) I=10
B(30,0)
C(30,-50)
Ø50

Ø30

10 50

Fig.4.14 Component for part program 4.03

4.27
 %
O4030
N010 G21
[BILLET X50 Z80
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101
N060 G00 X50 Z0 (Rapid position to A)
N070 G00 X30 Z0 (Rapid position from A to B)
N080 G01 X30 Z–50 F150 (Turn from B to C)
N090 G02 X50 Z–60 R10 F50 (Clockwise circular interpolation
(or) from C to D)
G02 X50 Z–60 I10 K0 F50
N100 G28 U0 W0
N110 M05
N120 M30

Example part program 4.04

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre.

D(23,-40) A(23,0)
1
B(21,0)
C(21,-40) G(21,-20) 2
E(19,0)
F(19,-20) I(19,-2) 3
H(15,0)
Ø19
Ø21
Ø23

2x45°
20
40
50

Fig.4.15 Component for part program 4.04

4.28
 %
O4040
N010 G21
[BILLET X23 Z50
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101
N060 G00 X23 Z0
N070 G00 X21 Z0 (First depth of cut to B)
N080 G01 X21 Z–40 F150 (First cut from B to C)
N090 G00 X23 Z–40 (Rapid position to D)
N100 G00 X23 Z0 (Rapid position to A)
N110 G00 X19 Z0 (Second depth of cut to E)
N120 G01 X19 Z–20 F150 (Second cut from E to F)
N130 G00 X21 Z–20 (Rapid position to G)
N140 G00 X21 Z0 (Rapid position to B)
N150 G00 X15 Z0 (Rapid position to H)
N160 G01 X19 Z–2 F150 (Third cut from H to I)
N170 G28 U0 W0
N180 M05
N190 M30

4.12.8 Thread cutting (G33)

For thread cutting operation, G33 is used with uniform pitch.
The function G33 is to synchronize the spindle drive and the feed drive
to achieve the necessary lead. However, the start point is to be
programmed carefully to get the correct point depending upon the
type of thread depth being given. For cutting V–threads the depth
may be 0.64 times of its pitch, i.e. d = 0.64 p.

Example part program 4.05

 Write a part program for cutting external threads on the
component shown below in turning centre.

For the given thread, pitch, p = 2mm

Total depth of cut, d = 0.64 x p = 0.64 x 2 = 1.28mm.

4.29
 M25x2

Ø25
5 30

Fig.4.16 Component for part program 4.05

The depth of cut for each pass and their corresponding X values
are given below.
Depth of cut 0.5 0.5 0.28
X coordinate 24 23 22.44

%
O4050
N010 G21 G99
[BILLET X25 Z50
N020 G97 S1000 M03 (Spindle speed 1000 rpm)
N030 M06 T0202 (Get the thread cutting tool)
N040 G00 X24 Z2 (Position to the first cut)
N050 M08 (Coolant ON)
N060 G33 Z–30 F2 (Complete the first cut)
N070 G00 U6 (Retract to a safe distance)
N080 Z2 (Go to the start point)
N090 X23 (Position to cut 2)
N100 G33 Z–30 F2
N110 G00 U6
N120 Z2
N130 X22.4 (Position to cut 3)
N140 G33 Z–30 F2
N150 G00 U6
N160 G28 U0 W0
N170 M09 (Coolant OFF)
N180 M05
N190 M30
4.30
4.12.9 Canned cycles or Fixed cycles
Canned cycle or fixed cycle may be defined as a set of
instructions, inbuilt or stored in the system memory, to perform a
fixed sequence of tool movements. The canned cycles can be brought
into action with a single command. Canned cycles are used for
repetitive and commonly used machining operations.

Advantages of using canned cycles

1) The programming time and effort is reduced.
2) The program becomes simple.
3) The program needs less memory space.

The canned cycles commonly used in turning centres are

explained below.

a) Rough turning (or) Box turning canned cycle [G90]

X

Rapid
Feed Start position
Rapid
Final point Feed
(X,Z)

Fig.4.16 Box turning canned cycle (G90)

In a rough turning canned cycle, the tool is to be positioned at

a point that just clears the work material. The final (corner) points of
the turning motion to be taken by the tool are specified by using the
X and Z coordinate. Then the canned cycle generates the following
motion:
 Move rapid to the X coordinate to take the depth of cut
 Move at feed rate to the Z coordinate specified
 Retract at feed rate to the initial X position
 Retract rapid to the start position

4.31
Example part program 4.06 [Rough turning canned cycle]:
 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre with a depth of cut of 2.5mm for each
pass, using canned cycle.
Ø50

Ø40

60

Fig.4.17 Component for part program 4.06

%
O4060
N010 G21
[BILLET X50 Z80
N020 G98
N030 G96 S300
N040 G42
N050 M06 T0202 (Rough turning tool)
N060 M03
N070 G00 X50 Z0
N080 G00 X45 Z0
N090 G90 X45 Z–60 F150 (First cut)
N100 X40 Z–60 (Second cut)
N110 G40
N120 G28 U0 W0
N130 M05
N140 M30

b) Box facing canned cycle [G94]

This cycle is similar to the rough turning cycle (G90), except
that the operation is to be done on the face of the work piece rather
than the longitudinal surface. This is useful for taking a number of
facing cut.
4.32
 The format of G94 code is

G94 X_ Z_ F_

where, X and Z are coordinate values.

F- Feed rate

Rapid
Start position
Feed Rapid

Final point Feed

(X,Z)

Fig.4.18 Facing canned cycle operation

The actual motions performed in this cycle are as follows:

 Move rapid to the Z coordinate to take the depth of cut
 Move at feed rate to the X coordinate specified
 Retract at feed rate to the initial Z position
 Retract rapid to the start position

Example part program 4.07 [Box facing canned cycle]:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre using box facing canned cycle.

Ø50 Ø20

Fig.4.19 Component for part program 4.07

4.33
 %
O4070
N010 G21
[BILLET X50 Z25
N020 G98
N030 G96 S300
N040 M06 T0202 (Facing tool)
N050 M03
N060 G00 X50 Z0
N070 G94 X20 Z–1
N080 Z–2
N090 Z–3
N100 Z–4
N110 Z–5
N120 G28 U0 W0
N130 M05
N140 M30
c) Thread cutting canned cycle [G92]
Thread cutting cycle is also similar to the rough turning cycle
G90 in terms of the motions performed. The only difference is that
during the cutting operation, G33 will be initiated in place of G01 for
synchronizing the spindle drive and the feed rate. The format of G92
code is
G92 X_ Z_ F_

where, X and Z are coordinate values

F – Feed rate (pitch of the thread)

Example part program 4.08 [Thread cutting canned cycle]:

 Write a part program for cutting external threads on the
component shown below in turning centre using thread cutting
canned cycle.
Figure: same as Example part program 4.05.
%
O4080
N010 G21 G99
[BILLET X25 Z50

4.34
 N020 G97 S1000 M03
N030 M06 T0202
N040 G00 X24 Z2 M08
N050 G92 X24 Z–30 F2
N060 X23 Z–30
N070 X22.4 Z–30
N080 G28 U0 W0
N090 M09
N100 M05
N110 M30

d) Multiple turning canned cycle (or) Stock removal cycle [G71]

Multiple turning canned cycle is used in stock removal operation
for a pocket in turning application. In this cycle, the tool is positioned at
the starting point. The finishing contour of the pocket is to be
programmed like the normal programming using G codes. Then using
the G71 cycle, the pocket will be machined. All the roughing cuts required
to turn the pocket will be generated by the controller automatically.
R Start point
U(Depth of cut)

Pocket

U(Finishing allowance)
w

Fig.4.20 Multiple turning canned cycle

This caned cycle consists of the following two blocks:

G71 U_ R_
G71 P_ Q_ U_ W_ F_

The first block establishes the parameters for the multiple

rough turning cycle.
Where, U = Depth of cut of each pass
R = Distance by which the tool will be withdrawn from the
work piece for the return pass
The second block executes the multiple rough turning cycle.
4.35
Where, P = The sequence number of the first block in the program
that controls the work piece area to be machined.
Q = The sequence number of the last block in the program
that controls the work piece area to be machined.
U = Finishing allowance in X direction.
W = Finishing allowance in Y direction.
F = Feed rate

Finish turning canned cycle [G71]

The roughing canned cycle G71 leaves the finishing allowance
on the contour that needs to be removed later using the finish turning
canned cycle G70.
The format of the G70 canned cycle is

G70 P_ Q_ F_

Where, P = The sequence number of the first block in the program

that controls the work piece area to be machined.
Q = The sequence number of the last block in the program
that controls the work piece area to be machined.
F = Feed rate

Example part program 4.09 [Multiple turning canned cycle]:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre using canned cycle.

(Note:The depth of cut for each pass is assumed as 1mm and the
finishing allowance is assumed as 0.5 mm)

%
O4090
N010 G21
[BILLET X23 Z50
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101
N060 G00 X23 Z0

4.36
 F(23,-40) S(23,0)

Pocket
E(21,-40) D(21,-20)
C(19,-20) B(19,-2)
A(15,0)

Ø19
Ø21
Ø23

Ø15
2x45°
20
40
50

Fig.4.21 Component for part program 4.09

N070 G71 U1 R1
N080 G71 P090 Q140 U0.5 W0.5 F100
N090 G01 X15 Z0
N100 G01 X19 Z–2
N110 G01 X19 Z–20 Blocks specifying the
N120 G01 X21 Z–20
N130 G01 X21 Z–40
t contour position
A–B–C–D–E–F

N140 G01 X23 Z–40

N150 G70 P090 Q140 F50
N160 G28 U0 W0
N170 M05
N180 M30

e) Multiple facing cycle [G72]

The multiple facing cycle is used when the major direction of
cut is along the X axis. This cycle causes the profile to be roughed cut
out by facing. This canned cycle consists of the following two blocks:

G72 W_ R_
G72 P_ Q_ U_ W_ F_

Where, W = Depth of cut in Z axis for each pass

All other words are similar to that of G71 code. It also requires
a finishing cycle G70 for finishing the profile.

4.37
Example part program 4.10 [Multiple facing canned cycle]:
 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in turning centre using canned cycle.

R10

R10

Ø25
Ø35

Ø5
20 10 5 10 5

Fig.4.22 Component for part program 4.10

%
O4100
N010 G21 G98
[BILLET X35 Z50
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G96 S300 M03
N040 M06 T0101
N050 G00 X35 Z0
N060 G72 W0.5 R0.5
N070 G72 P080 Q130 U0.1 W0.1 F350
,

N080 G01 X35 Z–50

N090 G01 X35 Z–30
N100 G02 X25 Z–20 R10 F25 Blocks specifying the
N110 G01X25 Z–15 F35
N120 G03 X5 Z–5 R10 F25
t contour position
A–B–C–D–E–F

N130 G01 X5 Z0
N140 G70 P080 Q130 F250
N150 G28 U0 W0
N160 M05
N170 M30

4.38
f) Multiple thread cutting cycle [G76]
This cycle is used for cutting external thread. The syntax of G76
code is as follows.

G76 X_ Z_ A_ I_ K_ D_ F_

Where, X = Core diameter of the thread (X22.4)

Z = Length of the thread (Z–30)
A = Angle of the thread (A60)
I = Thread taper (usually zero) (I0)
K = Total depth of the thread in microns (K1280)
D = Depth of first cut in microns (D500)
F = Feed rate (pitch) (F2)

Example part program 4.11 [Multiple thread cutting cycle]:

 Write a part program for cutting external threads on the
component shown below in turning centre using multiple
thread cutting cycle.
M25x2
Ø25

5 30

Fig.4.23 Component for part program 4.11

%
O4110
N010 G21 G99
[BILLET X25 Z50
N020 G97 S1000 M03
N030 M06 T0202 (Thread cutting tool)
N040 G00 X24 Z2 M08
N050 G76 X22.4 Z–30 A60 I0 K1280 D500 F2
N060 G28 U0 W0

4.39
 N070 M09
N080 M05
N090 M30

g) Peck drilling cycle [G74]

The G74 code is used for peck drilling in Fanuc controller system.
We simply position the drill to a safe starting point and then call the
drilling cycle. The drill then drills to each incremental peck depth and
then retracts to clear the chips. This continues until the programmed
Z–depth is reached. The syntax of G74 code is as follows.
G74 X_ Z_ K_ F_

Where, X = Finish diameter

Z = Finish Z – depth
K = Peck depth
F = Feed

Example part program 4.12 [Peck drilling cycle]:

 Write a part program for drilling in the component shown below
in turning centre using peck drilling cycle.
Ø12
Ø30

30 40

Fig.4.24 Component for part program 4.12

%
O4120
N010 G21 G98
[BILLET X30 Z70
N020 G97 S1800 M03
N030 M06 T0303 (Twist drill 12 mm)
N040 G00 X0 Z2 M08
N050 G74 X0 Z–40 K5 F100
N060 G28 U0 W0
4.40
 N070 M09
N080 M05
N090 M30

h) Grooving canned cycle [G75]

Start
K Tool

Fig.4.25 Grooving canned cycle [G75]

Grooving is an operation in which the tool is plunged into the

surface of the work piece until the proper depth is reached. The
grooving canned cycle allows for wide grooves to be cut with multiple
passes by specifying a shift value with the K–word.

We simply position the grooving tool to the start point and then
call the canned cycle. The tool will first take an initial cut to the
finished diameter. Then it will retract to the starting X position and
move over in the Z axis by the amount specified with the K–word.
The tool will make several passes until it reaches the programmed Z
coordinate. This cycle can be used as parting off operation by
specifying the X coordinate as zero.

The syntax of G75 codes is as follows.

G75 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

Where, X = Finish diameter

Z = Finish Z – depth
I = Peck depth (radial)
K = Z shift amount
F = Feed

4.41
Example part program 4.13 [Grooving cycle]:
 Write a part program to cut a groove on the component shown
below in turning centre using grooving cycle. The width of the
grooving tool is 4mm.

Start

Ø20

Ø30
25 12 25

Fig.4.26 Component for part program 4.13

%
O4130
N010 G21 G98
[BILLET X30 Z60
N020 G97 S1000 M03
N030 M06 T0404 (Grooving tool 4mm width)
N040 G00 X30 Z29
N050 G75 X20 Z–37 I5 K4 F100
N060 G28 U0 W0
N070 M05
N080 M30

Example part program 4.14:

 Write a CNC part program for finish turning of cylindrical
component from the following data:
From left to right: Turning of diameter 80mm, and length
of 30mm, taper turning of minor diameter 60mm, and a length
of 40mm, turning of diameter 60mm and a length of 30mm,
and a chamfer at right edge of 5 x 45 o. Stock: Mild steel,
Tool:HSS

4.42
 Ø80

Ø60

Ø50
5x45°

30 40 30

Fig.4.27 Component for part program 4.14

%
O4140
N010 G21
[BILLET X80 Z100
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101
N060 G00 X80 Z0
N070 G71 U1 R1
N080 G71 P090 Q130 U0.5 W0.5 F100
N090 G01 X50 Z0
N100 G01 X60 Z–5
N110 G01 X60 Z–30
N120 G01 X80 Z–70
N130 G01 X80 Z–100
N140 G70 P090 Q130 F5
N150 G28 U0 W0
N160 M05
N170 M30

Example part program 4.15:

 Write a part program for producing the following component
on CNC lathe.

4.43
 Ø35
Ø25 R5
R7.5

10 10 10 30

Fig.4.28 Component for part program 4.15

%
O4150
N010 G21
[BILLET X35 Z60
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101
N060 G00 X35 Z0
N070 G71 U1 R1
N080 G71 P090 Q150 U0.5 W0.5 F100
N090 G00 X0
N100 G03 X15 Z–7.5 R7.5 F5
N110 G01 X15 Z–25 F100
N120 G02 X25 Z–30 R5 F5
N130 G01 X25 Z–40 F100
N140 G01 X35 Z–50
N150 G01 X35 Z–60
N160 G70 P090 Q150 F5
N170 G28 U0 W0
N180 M05
N190 M30

4.44
Example part program 4.16:
 Write a manual part program for the part shown below using Fanuc
controller in CNC turning centre.
(i) Stock material: diameter 50x150mm; Brass material
(ii) Hand loaded and positioned parting width is 4mm
(iii) Machining face one end, turning diameter.45, 35 and 25 in
two passes per diameter and parting off to a length of 100mm

Ø35
Ø45

Ø25
Ø50

45 30 50 20 5

Fig.4.29 Component for part program 4.16

Note: Facing cycle (G94), box turning cycle (G90) and

grooving cycle (G75) can be used.
%
O4160
N010 G21
[BILLET X50 Z150
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0202 (Facing tool)
N060 G00 X50 Z0
N070 G00 X50 Z–2.5
N080 G94 X0 Z–2.5 F150
t(Facing cycle)
N090 G94 X0 Z–5
N100 M05
N110 M06 T0101 (Turning tool)
N120 G90 X47.5 Z–105
t (Turning of diameter 45mm in two pass)
N130 G90 X45 Z–105
N140 G90 X40 Z–75
t (Turning of diameter 35mm in two pass)
N150 G90 X35 Z–75

4.45
 N160 G90 X30 Z–55
t (Turning of diameter 25mm in two pass)
N170 G90 X25 Z–55
N180 M05
N190 M06 T0606 (Parting tool)
N200 G00 X45 Z109 (Start position)
N210 G75 X0 Z109 I5 K0 F150 (Grooving cycle)
N220 G28 U0 W0
N230 M05
N240 M30

Example part program 4.17:

 Write a part program for producing the following component
on CNC lathe using Fanuc controller.

Ø24
Ø20
2x45°
Ø16

Ø6

20
25
40
50

Fig.4.30 Component for part program 4.17

%
O4170
N010 G21
[BILLET X24 Z50
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101
N060 G00 X24 Z0
N070 G71 U1 R1
N080 G71 P090 Q130 U0.5 W0.5 F100

4.46
 N090 G01 X16 Z0
N100 G01 X20 Z–2
N110 G01 X20 Z–25
N120 G01 X24 Z–40
N130 G01 X24 Z–50
N140 G70 P090 Q130 F50
N150 M05
N160 M06 T0606 (Grooving tool of width 5mm)
N170 M03 S1000
N180 G00 X20 Z–25
N190 G75 X16 Z–25 I2 K0 F150 (Grooving cycle)
N200 M05
N210 M06 T0202 (Twist drill of 6 mm)
N220 G00 X30 Z2
N230 G74 X0 Z–20 K5 F200 (Peck drilling cycle)
N240 G28 U0 W0
N250 M05
N260 M30

Example part program 4.18:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in CNC lathe using Fanuc controller.

%
O4180
N010 G21
[BILLET X40 Z60
N020 G50 S4000

M25x2
Ø40

Ø30

Ø25

10 5 10 6 30

Fig.4.31 Component for part program 4.18

4.47
 N030 G99
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101 (Turning tool)
N060 G00 X40 Z0
N070 G71 U1 R1
N080 G71 P090 Q150 U0.5 W0.5 F0.2
N090 G01 X21 Z0
N100 G01 X25 Z–2
N110 G01 X25 Z–36
N120 G01 X30 Z–36
N130 G01 X30 Z–45
N140 G01 X40 Z–50
N150 G01 X40 Z–60
N160 G70 P090 Q150 F0.1
N170 M05
N180 M06 T0606 (Grooving tool–width 2mm)
N190 G00 X25 Z–32
N200 G75 X22.4 Z–36 I1 K2 F0.2 (Grooving cycle)
N210 M05
N220 M06 T0303 (Threading tool)
N230 G00 X25 Z2
N240 G76 X22.4 Z–30 A60 I0 K1280 D500 F2 (Thread cutting cycle)
N250 G28 U0 W0
N260 M05
N270 M30

4.13 Part programming for machining centres

4.13.1 Feed function (F word)
Generally the feed is specified in velocity units using the F
word address. For example, F150 means that the feed rate is specified
as 15mm per minute. This is the actual speed with which the tool
moves along the programmed path.

4.13.2 Speed function

The spindle speed of the CNC machine tool is specified by using
S word address. It can be directly set in the revolution per minute. For
example, S1500 means that the spindle speed is to be set at 1500rpm.

4.48
4.13.3 Tool function
The tool function is normally indicated by the word address T.
This may have two or more digits depending upon the tool magazine
capacity. For example, the word T12 causes the tool magazine
position 12 or tool number 12 to be brought into the spindle replacing
the already present tool in the spindle.

4.13.4 Coordinate system

a) Absolute programming [G90]
The preparatory function G90 is used for absolute
programming. In absolute system, the dimensions are given with
respect to a common datum chosen by the programmer. It must be
programmed and cancelled by the function G91. Whatever may be
the route of the move, the programmed X and Y values of each
position remain the same.
b) Incremental programming [G91]
The preparatory function G91 is used for incremental
programming. This is generally the “turn on mode” and can be
cancelled by the word G90. The end of the program words M02 and
M30 also sets it. In the incremental system, the dimensions are given
with respect to the previous point. The programmed data changes if
the route of the move is altered.
Y

60

C
50

B D
40

30

A
20

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 X

Fig.4.32 Absolute and incremental system

4.49
Example: (Programming from A–B–C–D)

Absolute programming Incremental programming

N030 G90 G01 X10 Y20 N030 G91 G01 X10 Y20
N040 G01 X10 Y40 N040 G01 X0 Y20
N050 G01 X30 Y50 N050 G01 X20 Y10
N060 G01 X50 Y40 N060 G01 X20 Y–10

4.13.5 Active plane selection [G17, G18, G19]

Z Z Z

Y Y G19 Y

G17 G18

X X X
(a) XY plane selection (b) XZ plane selection (c) YZ plane selection

Fig.4.33 Active plane selection in vertical axis machining centre

Some of the functions in NC control can only work in a plane

rather than in all the three possible coordinate axes. It requires the
selection of active plane.
 XY plane selection [G17]: This is the default turn on code.
This allows for the working to be carried out in the horizontal
plane in case of vertical axis milling machine. In a given block,
only X and Y coordinates are to be specified while the Z
coordinates are to be specified in a separate block.

 XZ plane selection [G18]: This allows the working to be

carried out in XZ plane. In a given block, only X and Z
coordinates are to be specified while the Y coordinates are to
be specified in a separate block.

 YZ plane selection [G19]: This allows the working to be

carried out in YZ plane. In a given block, only Y and Z
coordinates are to be specified while the X coordinates are to
be specified in a separate block.

4.50
4.13.6 Preset [G92]
Each of the machine tool has a separate machine reference
point. However, this point is not very convenient to use as a
coordinate datum for the component. Most of the CNC machine tools
allow for a ‘Floating datum’ to be fixed anywhere in the machine. As
a result, the programmer can choose a convenient position on the
component as a datum, which may be referred to as ‘program zero
point’. The same is then programmed in the part program using the
G92 code.
Example: G92 X200 Y170 Z50

4.13.7 Motion commands

The following are the important preparatory functions used for
controlling the motion of the tool.
 G00 (Rapid positioning)
 G01 (Linear interpolation)
 G02 (Circular interpolation – clockwise)
 G03 (Circular interpolation – counter-clockwise)
 G04 (Dwell)
The format and functions of the above G codes are
similar to that of turning centres.

4.13.8 Cutter radius compensation (or) Cutter offset compensation

Programmed path

Cutter

Offset path of cutter

Fig.4.34 Cutter radius compensation

4.51
 In contouring operations, it is always desirable that the tool
path will be separated from the actual surface of the part by a distance
equal to the cutter radius. This tool path compensation is called the
cutter offset.
The calculation of the correct coordinates of the end points of
each move can be time consuming and tedious for the part
programmer. Modern machine tool controllers perform these cutter
offset calculations automatically when the programmer uses the
following G codes.
 G40 (Cutter radius compensation off)
 G41 (Cutter radius compensation left): It is used when the
cutter is to be positioned at the left of the programmed path
when looking in the direction of the tool movement. It is
programmed when the cutter moves in a clockwise tool path
around the work piece.
 G42 (Cutter radius compensation right): It is used when
the cutter is to be positioned at the right of the programmed
path when looking in the direction of the tool movement. It is
programmed when the cutter moves in a counter-clockwise
tool path around the work piece.
In many CNC systems, the compensation values are stored
separately, irrespective of the tools being used. This helps in calling
different compensation values even with the same tool when used on
different occasions. The pre-registered cutter radius compensation
values are called in the program block by the word D.
Example: M06 T04
G01 X50 D03 F150
The above blocks mean that milling will take place with tool
number 04 with a radius compensation corresponding to the entry in
the register against the identifier 03.
4.13.9 Tool length compensation
Consider a work piece that requires more than one tool for
machining. The programming for this part becomes tedious, if the
programmer has to take care of the individual tool lengths for the
purpose of programming the Z depth in each case.
4.52
 Z

1 2 3 4

L2

L3

L4
X

Fig.4.35 Tool length compensation

In modern NC practice, all tools are measured in the assembled

state using a tool presetter. The difference in length is manually
entered and stored with the associated tool number. Whenever these
tools are called in a program, the respective compensation values are
activated and automatically taken into account in the tool motion. The
pre-registered length compensation values are called in the program
block by the word H.

Example: M06 T02

G81 X150 Y100 Z60 R40 H07 F100
The above blocks mean that the drilling operation will take
place with tool number 02 with a length compensation corresponding
to the entry in the register against the identifier 07.

Example part program 4.19

 Write a part program for producing the following component in
machining centre using Fanuc controller. The size of the
material used is 100x100x10mm.
The diameter of the cutter is assumed as 10mm.
%
O4190
N010 G21 (Metric mode)
[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10
(Applicable only for
[TOOLDEF T1 D10 t DENFORD CNC simulator)
[EDGEMOVE X0 Y0 Z0

4.53
 N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0 (Presetting at S1)
N030 M06 T01 (Tool change)
N040 M03 S1500 (Spindle speed at 1500 rpm)
R10 R10 3(100,100) 3(100,100)
4(0,100) 4(0,100)

(20,80) (20,80)
(40,80) (40,80)
(80,80) (80,80)
F E F DE D
100

100
60

60

60

60
(20,20) (60,20) (60,20)
(20,20) (80,20) (80,20)
S2(0,20,2) S2(0,20,2)
A BA C B C
R10 R10
20

20

S1(0,0,2) S1(0,0,2)
20 5020 50 1(0,0) 401(0,0) 20 40 2(100,0)
20 2(100,0)

100 100
Tool movement Tool movement

Fig.4.36 Component for part program 4.19

After second cut

After first cut
(Finished product)
Fig.4.37

(Absolute programming)
N050 G90 (Absolute mode)
(Cutting along 1–2–3–4)
N060 G41 (Cutter radius compensation, left)
N070 G00 X0 Y0 Z2 (Position S1)
N080 G00 Z–5 (Depth of cut)
N090 G01 X100 Y0 F1.5 (Position 2)
N100 G01 X100 Y100 (Position 3)
N110 G01 X0 Y100 (Position 4)
N120 G01 X0 Y0 (Position 1)
N130 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)

4.54
 (Cutting along A–B–C–D–E–F)
N140 G42 (Cutter radius compensation, right)
N150 G00 X0 Y20 Z2 (Position S2)
N160 G00 Z–5 (Depth of cut)
N170 G01 X60 Y20 F1.5 (Position B)
N180 G03 X80 Y20 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from B–C)
N190 G01 X80 Y80 F1.5 (Position D)
N200 G01 X40 Y80 F1.5 (Position E)
N210 G03 X20 Y80 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from E–F)
N220 G01 X20 Y20 F1.5 (Position A)
N230 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)
N240 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 (Return to reference point)
N250 M05 (Spindle STOP)
N260 M30 (Program end and rewind)

The above program can also be written in incremental mode as follows:

(Incremental programming)
N050 G91 (Incremental mode)
(Cutting along 1–2–3–4)
N060 G41 (Cutter radius compensation, left)
N070 G00 X0 Y0 Z2 (Position S1)
N080 G00 Z–7 (Depth of cut)
N090 G01 X100 Y0 F1.5 (Position 2)
N100 G01 X0 Y100 (Position 3)
N110 G01 X–100 Y0 (Position 4)
N120 G01 X0 Y–100 (Position 1)
N130 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)
(Cutting along A–B–C–D–E–F)
N140 G42 (Cutter radius compensation, right)
N150 G00 X0 Y20 Z7 (Position S2)
N160 G00 Z–7 (Depth of cut)
N170 G01 X40 Y0 F1.5 (Position B)
N180 G03 X20 Y0 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from B–C)
N190 G01 X0 Y60 F1.5 (Position D)
N200 G01 X–40 Y0 F1.5 (Position E)
N210 G03 X–20 Y0 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from E–F)
N220 G01 X0 Y–60 F1.5 (Position A)

4.55
Example part program 4.20:
 Write a part program for producing the following component in
machining centre using Fanuc controller. The size of the
material used is 85x85x10mm.

%
O4200
N010 G21 (Metric mode)
[BILLET X85 Y85 Z10
[TOOLDEF T01 D10
[EDGEMOVE X0 Y0 Z0
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0
4 3
10

F E
10

G D
45

H C
10

A B
10

2
1
10 10 45 10 10

Tool movement

Fig.4.38 Component for part program 4.20

N030 M06 T01

N040 M03 S1500
N050 G90 (Absolute mode)
N060 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N070 G00 Z–5
N080 G91 (Changing to incremental mode)
(Cutting along 1–2–3–4)
N090 G41
N100 G01 X85 Y0 F1.5 (Position 2)

4.56
 N110 G01 X0 Y85 (Position 3)
N120 G01 X–85 Y0 (Position 4)
N130 G01 X0 Y–85 (Position 1)
N140 G40
(Cutting along A–B–C–D–E–F-G-H)
N150 G42
N160 G00 X0 Y10
N170 G01 X65 Y0 F1.5 (Position B)
N180 G02 X10 Y10 R10 F0.5 (Position C)
N190 G01 X0 Y45 F1.5 (Position D)
N200 G03 X–10 Y10 R10 F0.5 (Position E)
N210 G01 X–45 Y0 F1.5 (Position F)
N220 G02 X–10 Y–10 R10 F0.5 (Position G)
N230 G01 X0 Y–45 F1.5 (Position H)
N240 G02 X10 Y–10 R10 F0.5 (Position A)
N250 G90
N260 G00 Z2
N270 G40
N280 G28 U0 W0
N290 M05
N300 M30

4.13.10 Canned cycles

a) Drilling cycle [G81]

Ra
pid

Clearance plane
Rapid
depth

Feed
Hole

Breakthrough
distance

Fig.4.39 Drilling canned cycle [G81]

4.57
 G81 canned cycle is used for carrying out the drilling operation
for through holes. The format of G81 cycle is as follows.

G81 X_ Y_ Z_ R_

Where, X,Y = Centre coordinates of the point where drilling is to

be carried out
Z = Final depth of the hole to be drilled
R = Position of the clearance plane from the work surface.
As G81 is modal, any point specified when G81 is in force, the
drilling action will be repeated. So it is necessary to use the code G80
to cancel the canned cycle. The effect of G80 is to cancel the existing
canned cycle in force and made G00 operational.

The following canned cycles have the same format as drilling

cycle [G81].
G82 Counter sinking, counter boring cycle
G84 Tapping cycle
G85 Reaming cycle
G86 Boring cycle
G87 Multiple boring cycle
G88 Boring cycle
G89 Boring cycle

b) Peck drilling cycle [G83]

It is used for deep hole drilling. In this cycle, the feed from the
work surface is intermittent. The format of G83 code is as follows.
G83 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ Q_

Where, Q = Depth of cut for each pass

While giving depth of cut (Z), the dimension between the drill
shoulder and the tip of point should be added with the actual depth
of the hole to be drilled.
The dimension between the drill shoulder and tip point
1
= x Diameter of drill
3

4.58
Example:
For drilling a hole of 30mm depth using a drill bit of 18mm diameter,
1
Depth of cut, Z= 30 + x 18 = 36 mm
3

Example part program 4.21:

 Write a part program to drill four holes of 8mm diameter in a
100x100x10mm plate. The centre of each hole is at a distance
of 15mm from the nearest edges of the plate. Take the speed
as 2000rpm and feed as 0.1mm/rev.
15

4 3
50

Ø8-4HOLES

1 2
15

15 70 15
10

Fig.4.40 Component for part program 4.21

%
O4210
N010 G21
[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10
[TOOLDEF T01 D08
[EDGEMOVE X0 Y0 Z0
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0
N030 M06 T01
N040 M03 S2000
N050 G90 G95 (Feed in mm/rev.)
N060 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N070 G81 X15 Y15 Z–13 R2 F0.1 (Hole 1)

4.59
 N080 X85 Y15 (Hole 2)
N090 X85 Y85 (Hole 3)
N100 X15 Y85 (Hole 4)
N110 G80
N120 G00 Z2
N130 G28 U0 W0
N140 M05
N150 M30

Example part program 4.22:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in machining centre using Fanuc controller system.
20 20
Ø8.5-5HOLES
20

Ø15 Counter-boring
15mm depth
30

M10x1.5
20

50 50
10

15
30

Fig.4.41 Component for part program 4.22

Cutting conditions

Tool Speed Feed rate

Tool name
No. (rpm) (mm/rev)
01 Centre drill 2000 0.5
02 Twist drill 750 0.1
Counter bore
03 1500 0.1
(15mm)
04 Tap (M10) 250 1.5

4.60
%
O4220
N010 G21
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0
(Centre drilling 5 holes)
N030 M06 T01
N040 M03 S2000
N050 G90 G95
N060 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N070 G81 X50 Y20 Z–5 R2 F0.5 (Hole 1)
N080 Y50 (Hole 2)
N090 Y80 (Hole 3)
N100 X20 Y50 (Hole 4)
N110 X80 (Hole 5)
N120 G80
N130 G00 Z2
N140 M05
(Drilling 5 holes of 8.5 mm)
N150 M06 T02
N160 M03 S750
N170 G90 G95
N180 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N190 G83 X50 Y20 Z–33 R2 F0.1
N200 Y50
N210 Y80
N220 G83 X20 Y50 Z–13 R2 F0.1
N230 X80
N240 G80
N250 G00 Z2
N260 M05
(Counter boring)
N270 M06 T03
N280 M03 S1500
N290 G82 X50 Y50 Z–13 R2 F0.1
N300 G80
N310 G00 Z2
N320 M05

4.61
 (Tapping)
N330 M06 T04
N340 M03 S250
N350 G84 X20 Y50 Z–17 R2 F1.5
N360 X80 Y50
N370 G80
N380 G00 Z2
N390 M05
N400 G28 X0 Y0
N410 M30

4.13.11 Sub program

Sub programs provide the capability of programming certain
fixed sequence or frequently used procedures into small programs.
These are independent programs with all the features of a usual part
program. Sub programs are stored in the memory under separate
program number.
Whenever a particular feature is required within the main
program, the associate sub program is called for execution. After
executing the sub program, the program control returns back to the
main program block next to the sub program calling block. The same
sub program can be called any number of times within a program.

Main program Sub program

%… SUB 12
N010 … N100 …
N020 … N110…
………. ……….
………. ……….
………. ……….
………. N150 RETURN
N100 CALL SUB12
N110 …
N120 …

It is also possible to call another sub program from a sub

program. The following two types of sub programs are used in Fanuc
controller.
(a) Subroutines (b) Macros

4.62
(a) Subroutines
The subroutines are temporary in nature and will be specific to
a particular main program.

Format of subroutine
The format of the subroutine is similar to that of the main
program except that it should end by M99. The M99 should be in a
separate block.

O1432 Subroutine number

N010 …..
N020 …..
………… t Program block
…………
N100 M99 Return to calling program

Subroutine calling [M98]

Subroutine can be activated by giving a call block [M98] in the
main program. The format should be as follows:

N050 M98 Prrrnnnn

Where, ‘rrr’ specifies the number of times the subroutine is to be

repeated. It is possible to repeat a subroutine up to
999 time. If no value is entered, the subroutine is
called once.
‘nnnn’ Specifies the identification number of the subroutine
to be executed.
Example:
N050 M98 (Subroutine 1432 is to be executed two
P0021432 times)
N110 M98 P8432 (Subroutine 8432 is to be executed once)

Example part program 4.23:

 Write a part program for producing the component shown
below in machining centre, using subroutines.

4.63
 200
50

200
50
50

M10x1.5 -7 Nos.

50 50 50

30

Fig.4.42 Component for part program 4.23

The component requires the following operations
1) Centre drilling of seven holes
2) Drilling of seven core holes using 8.5mm drill bit.
3) Tapping of seven holes using M10 tap.

The positioning of tools at seven holes will be repeated for each

operation. So, this procedure is written into a separate subprogram
and called whenever required.

Tool Speed Feed rate

Tool name
No. (rpm) (mm/rev)
01 Centre drill 2000 0.5
Twist drill
02 750 0.1
(8.5mm)
03 Tap (M10) 250 1.5

4.64
 %
O4230
N010 G21
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0
N030 M06 T01 (Centre drill)
N040 M03 S2000
N050 G90 G95
N060 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N070 G81 Z–5 R2 F0.5
N080 M98 P4321 (Calling subprogram 4321 once)
N090 M06 T02 (Twist drill 8.5mm)
N100 M03 S750
N110 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N120 G81 Z–33 R2 F0.1
N130 M98 P4321
N140 M06 T03 (Tap)
N150 M03 S250
N160 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N170 G84 Z–32 R10 F1.5
N180 M98 P4321
N190 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N200 M30
(Sub program)
O4321 (Sub program name)
X50 Y50
Y100
Y150
X100 Y100
X150 Y50
Y100
Y150
G80
G00 Z2
M05
M99 (Return to main program)

4.65
b) Macros
Macros are also subprograms that are permanent in nature and
stored permanently in the controller memory. Therefore macros can
be called by any program.

Macro calling in Fanuc [G65]

The preparatory function G65 is used for calling a macro in the
main program. The format is as follows.

G65 P4322 A_ B_ C_ . . . . . .

Where, P4322 specifies the subprogram number to be called

A, B, C, etc. are word addresses used for assigning arguments.
Each word address has an equivalent variable number in the
sub program as follows.

Word address A B C D E F H I J K M Q
Variable number #1 #2 #3 #7 #8 #9 #11 #4 #5 #6 #13 #17

Word address R S T U V W X Y Z
Variable number #18 #19 #20 #21 #22 #23 #24 #25 #26

In Fanuc controller, the variables are identified by # and can

vary from 0000 to 9999.

Example:
G65 P4322 A12.6 B24.4 C15.0 D10 X48.3
The above block in the main program will call the sub program
4322 and the effects are as follows.

Word address Equivalent variable

Value
in main program in subprogram
A #1 12.6
B #2 25.4
C #3 15.0
D #7 10
X #24 48.3

4.66
Example part program 4.24:
 Create a macro (sub program) for drilling any number of holes
along a circle, which are all equidistant.
Y 100

Ø60

Ø8 Ø16

100
50

50
4
10

Fig.4.43 Component for part program 4.24

The inputs are the following:
#1 =X coordinate of the centre of the circle
#2 =Y coordinate of the centre of the circle
#3 =Diameter of the circle
#4 =Depth of hole to be drilled
#5 =Total number of holes
#6 =Actual canned cycle code to be used (81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86)
#8 =Height of the clearance plane in Z coordinate
#9 =Feed rate to be used
Let, #31 =Counter for drilled hole
#32 =X coordinate of the hole to be drilled
#33 =Y coordinate of the hole to be drilled
#34 =Angle between holes

4.67
Sub program
%
O41564 (Sub program number)
N010 #34 = 360 / #5 (Angle between holes)
N020 #31 = 0 (Counter for drilled hole)
N030 #32 = #1 (Centre drill)
N040 #33 = #2
N050 #32=#32+0.5*#3*cos(#34*#31) (X value)
N060 #33=#33+0.5*#3*sin(#34*#31) (Y value)
N070 G#6 X#32 Y#33 Z–#4 R#8 F#9 (Drill hole)
N080 #31 = #31 + 1 (Increment counter)
N090 IF [#31 LT #5] GOTO 50 (Repeat loop for all holes)
N100 G80
N110 M99
Main program
%
O4240
…… ……
…… …..
N050 M06 T01
N060 G65 P1564 A50 B50 C80 E2 I13 J8 K81 F120
(Call sub program for drilling)
N070 M06 T02
N080 G65 P1564 A50 B50 C60 E2 I4 J8 K82 F100
(Call sub program for counter boring)
Explanation
After calling the sub program for drilling, the sub program will
be activated as follows and drill the first hole.
N010 #34 = 45 (360/8 =45)
N020 #31 = 0
N030 #32 = 50
N040 #33 = 50
N050 #32 = 80 (50+0.5 x 60 x cos[45x0] =80)
N060 #33 = 50 (50+0.5 x 60 x sin[45x0] =50)
N070 G81 X80 Y50 Z–13 R2 F120
N080 #31 = 1 (0 + 1 =1)
N090 IF [1 LT 8] GOTO 50 (LT = Less Than)

4.68
 Now the control will go to the block 50 in the subprogram, for
drilling second hole and so on.

4.13.12 Mirror imaging

Most of the part geometries are generally symmetric in nature.
When the part program is written for such symmetric geometries in
common practice, the most of the blocks in the program may be
repeating with small changes. Hence mirror imaging facility is
incorporated in almost all the controller to make use of such
symmetries.

The part programmer has to identity that part of the

component geometry, which becomes the basic. Then the part
program may be simply repeated by using appropriate mirror imaging
codes. Mirroring can be carried out about X axis, Y axis or about X
and Y axis.

Mirroring allows for changing the sign of the dimensions of the

particular axis whose mirroring is specified. For example, if mirroring
is done about X axis, then all X coordinates after that will have their
sign reversed.

Fig.4.44 Mirror imaging

The following M codes are used for mirroring in Fanuc control.
 M70 – X axis mirror ON
 M71 – Y axis mirror ON
 M80 – X axis mirror OFF
 M81 – Y axis mirror OFF

Example part program 4.25 (Mirror imaging):

 Write a part program for contouring operation on the
component as shown below, in machining centre, using
subprogram and mirroring.

4.69
 Y

20
2 1
(-X,+Y) (+X,+Y)
10 20 20
10

X
100

(0,0)

(-X,-Y) (+X,-Y)
4 3

100

Fig.4.45 Component for part program 4.25

The component is symmetric about both X and Y axis. the
program zero point is taken at the centre of the component for
convenience.
%
O4200
[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10
[TOOLDEF T01 D5
[EDGEMOVE X–50 Y–50 Z0
N010 G21 G90 G94
N020 M06 T01
N030 M03 S1500
N040 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N050 M98 P2001 (Calling sub program 2001)
N060 M70 (X axis mirror ON: The sign of all X values
are reversed)
N070 M98 P2001
N080 M80 (X axis mirror OFF)
N090 M71 (Y Axis mirror ON: The sign of all Y values
are reversed)

4.70
 N100 M98 P2001
N110 M81 (Y axis mirror OFF)
N120 M70 (X axis mirror ON)
N130 M71 (Y axis mirror ON)
N140 M98 P2001
N150 M80
N160 M81
N170 G28 X0 Y0
N180 M05
N190 M30
Sub program
O2001
G00 X10 Y10 Z2
G01 Z–2 F30
G01 X30 Y10
G03 X10 Y30 R20
G01 X10 Y10
G00 Z2
M99

4.21 Computer Aided (or Assisted) part programming

Manual part programming will be time consuming and subject
to errors for parts having complex geometries. In these cases, it is
advantageous to use computer aided part programming.

Part program input Translator

Processor

Arithmetic and
cutter location
offset calculations

Cutter location data

(CLDATA)

Post processor NC blocks

Fig.4.46 Computer Aided part programming system

4.71
 In computer aided part programming the machining
instructions (part program) are written in English-like statements. A
set of programs, called processor, which converts these input
information into a generalized set of cutter location data and the
relevant machine motions which independent of the machine tool.
Only one processor is sufficient for any number of NC machine tools.

The second set of program, called post processor, which

converts the generalized cutting locations data into the specific
control codes (NC blocks) of the machine tool. A separate post
processor must be needed for individual machine tool.

The following are some important NC part programming

languages in current use.
 APT (Automatically Programmed Tools)
 ADAPT (ADaptation of APT)
 EXAPT ( EXtended subset of APT)
 UNIAPT
 SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language Internally Translated)
 COMPACT II
 PROMPT

4.21.1 APT language

Automatically Programmed Tools (APT) is a high level part
programming language that can be used to control up to five axes. It
also contains computer programs that performs the calculations to
generate cutter location data based on APT statements.
There are four types of statements in the APT language.
1) Geometry statements
2) Motion statements
3) Post processor statements
4) Auxiliary statements

1) Geometry statements
These are used to define the geometric elements that describe
the work part. They are also sometimes called definition statements.
4.72
The general form of an APT geometry statement is as follows:

<SYMBOL> = GEOMETRY TYPE / Descriptive data

A symbol can be any combination of six or fewer alphabetical

and numerical characters, at least one of which must be alphabetical.
Geometry type specifies an APT major word that identifies the
type of geometry element such as POINT, LINE, CIRCLE, PLANE, etc.
Descriptive data is provided to define the element precisely,
completely and uniquely.
Example:
 P1=POINT / 10,20,30 (It defines a point P1 at 10,20,30)
 L1= LINE / P2,P3 (It defines a line joining points P2 and P3)
 C1= CIRCLE / CENTER,P1,RADIUS,25 (It defines a circle
of radius 25mm at the center P1)
 PL= PLANE / P1,P2,P3 (It defines a plane joining the points
P1,P2, and P3)

2) Motion statements
These are used to specify the tool path. The format of an APT
motion command is as follows:

MOTION COMMAND / Descriptive data

The motion command indicates what have the tool should

made. The descriptive data following the slash tell the tool where to go.
Descriptive data is provided to define the element precisely,
completely and uniquely.
Example:
Point-to-point motion commands
 GOTO/P1 (The tool is directed to go to point P1)
 FROM/PTARG (The word FROM indicates the initial point from
which all others will be referenced and PTARG represents the
target point where the operator has set up the tool)
 GODLTA/20,40,50 (It instructs the tool to move from its
present position by a distance of 20mm in X direction, 40mm
in Y direction and 50mm in Z direction)
4.73
Contouring motion commands
 GOLFT (Go left)  GORGT (Go right)
 GOFWD (Go forward)  GOBACK (Go backward)
 GOUP  GODOWN

3) Post processor statements

These statements are used to control the operation of machine
tool and play a supporting role in generating the tool path. Such
statements are used to define cutter size, specify speeds and feeds,
turn coolant ON and OFF, and control other features of the machine
tool. The general format is as follows.

POST PROCESSOR COMMAND/ Descriptive data

POST PROCESSOR COMMAND is an APT major word

indicating the type of function or action to be accomplished. The
descriptive data consists of APT minor words and numerical values.

Example:
 UNITS/MM (It indicates that the units used are is mm)
 INTOL/0.03 (It specifies the inward tolerance for circular
interpolation)
 CUTTER/18 (It defines the cutter diameter)
 SPINDL/1000,CLW (It specifies the spindle rotation speed in
rpm, clockwise)
 FEDRAT/50,IPM (It specifies the feed rate in millimeters per
minute or inches per minute)
 RAPID (It engages rapid transverse for next move)
 COOLNT/FLOOD (It turns cutting fluid ON)
 DELAY/30 (It stops the machine temporarily for a specified
period)

4) Auxiliary statements
These statements are used to prepare the computer for
accepting the part program, improve the readability of the part
program and control the output of the computer. Auxiliary statements
have no effect on the generation of tool path.

4.74
Example:
 PARTNO (It is the first statement in an APT program, used to
identify the part program)
 FINI (It is the last statement included at the end of a part
program)
 MACHIN/ (It identifies the post processor to be used of
outputting the necessary NC blocks)
 REMARK (It is used to add comments in the part program)
 CLPRINT (It is used to print out the cutter location sequence)

Example part program on APT:

 Write a part program using APT to perform the drilling
operations in the component as shown below.
Y 25 10
25

P3
100

P2
25

P1
25

X
25 25
100

Fig.4.47 Component for part program on APT

The component is symmetric about both X and Y axis. the

program zero point is taken at the centre of the component for
convenience.

4.75
 PARTNO DRILLING OPERATION
MACHIN/DRILL,01
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
REMARK Part geometry points are defined 10mm above part surface.
PTARG=POINT/0,–1–,10
P1=POINT/25,25,10
P2=POINT/50,50,10
P3=POINT/75,75,10
REMARK Drill bit motion statements
FROM/PTARG
RAPID
GOTO/P1
SPINDL/1000,CLW
FEDRAT/1.5,IPM
GODLTA/0,0,–25
GODLTA/0,0,25
RAPID
GOTO/P2
GODLTA/0,0,–25
GODLTA/0,0,25
GOTO/P3
GODLTA/0,0,–25
GODLTA/0,0,25
GOTO/PTARG
SPINDL/OFF
FINI

4.22 NC part programming using CAD/CAM (or)

Graphical programming
In this method, NC part program is automatically generated with
the help of interactive computer graphics using a CAD/CAM system.

Generating CNC codes from CAD model

In CAD/CAM, a computer graphics model of each part is
developed and stored in the CAD database. This database contains all
of the geometric, dimensional and material specification for the part.
The same database can be used to perform NC part programming.

4.76
Instead, the part programmer can retrieve the part geometry model
from the storage and use the model to construct the appropriate
cutter path. Most of the CAM systems have the capability to construct
a geometric model of the part by using interactive graphics technique.
File converters are available to convert any of the files to other
standard CAD systems that are in common use.

Most AutoCAM system provides a complete cutting tool database

for cutting process parameter selection. Various tool path modules are
available for tool path generation. These modules include the common
machining cycles for milling, drilling and turning. These modules utilize
the geometry of the part and the built in cutting tool database to
generate the optimum tool path. These input informations are
converted into generalized set of cutter location data (CLDATA) and the
relevant machine motions. The output generated is the universally
applicable cutter centre coordinates which are independent of the
machine tool on which the part is to be finally made.

Post processing
Post processing is the process of converting the generalised
cutter location data into the specific control codes of the machine tool.
The various function of a post processor includes the following :
 Converting the CLDATA to the machine tool coordinate system

 Converting the CLDATA to the control unit understandable NC

blocks considering the machine tool functions such as
maximum table or spindle traverses, available feeds and
speeds, available preparatory, miscellaneous and other
functions, straight and ciruclar interpolations, acceleration and
decelerations of the slides, etc.

Advantages of graphical programming

1) The time for geometry definition is reduced.
2) Immediate visual verification of geometry is possible.
3) The tool path can be generated automatically by using software
modules.
4) It provides display of tool path for immediate verification by
the part programmer.
4.77
 5) It provides an animated simulation of the complete part
program for validation.
6) It integrates the product design function with part
programming

4.23 Manual Data Input (MDI) or Conversational Programming

In this method, the machine operator performs the part
programming task at the machine tool. The operator manually enters
the part geometry data and motion commands directly into the MCU
before running the job.

Communications between the operator and MDI system is

accomplished using a display monitor and alphanumeric keyboard.
Entering the commands into the controller is done using a menu–
driven procedure. The operator responds to prompts and questions
asked by the MDI system about the job to be machined. The sequence
of questions is designed so that the operator input the part geometry
and machining commands in a logical manner. A computer graphics
capability is included in modern MDI system to visualize the
machining operations and to verify the program.

Advantages of MDI
1) The procedure is relatively simple.
2) It provides an easy way to change over to NC system for small
shops.
3) The initial investment for implementing MDI system is less.
4) No need of manual part program.
5) A minimum knowledge in NC part programming is sufficient for
the machine operator.

Disadvantages of MDI
1) The program must be short and simple.
2) It is not suitable for jobs having complex geometry.
3) Length of the program is restricted.
4) Machine is idle while programming.

4.78
4.24 Verbal programming or Voice NC programming (VNC)
In voice NC (VNC) programming, the part geometry definition
and machining procedures are instructed to the controller unit
through vocal communication. This method looks like a dialogue
between the programmer and the system.

The operator speaks a head band microphone to perform the

part programming task with VNC system. The communication of
programming instruction is in shop language with such terms as
“turns”, “mill”, “circle”, etc. together with numbers to provide
dimensional and coordinate data.

Before the voice–input system can be used, it must be trained

to recognize and accept the individual programmer’s voice pattern.
This is accomplished by repeating each word of the vocabulary about
five times to provide a reference set. While programming, after a
command is spoken, the VNC system compares and verifies each
command, and prompts the operator for the next command.

A typical dialogue between the VNC system and the

programmer for defining a circle may be as follows:

Programmer : “Define”
System : Definition type
Programmer : “Circle”
System : CIRCLE # =
Programmer : “Three”
System : CENTER PT X =
Programmer : “Three decimal five two, Go”
System :Y=
Programmer : “Eight decimal three five, Go”
System : RADIUS =
Programmer : “Two decimal five, Go”
System : CW / CCW
Programmer : “Clockwise”

4.79
Advantages of VNC programming
1) It avoids writing the programs by hand.
2) The programming time is saved up to 50%.
3) The manufacturing lead time is reduced.
4) Less computer skill is sufficient for the programmer.

Disadvantages of VNC programming

1) The background noise may disturb the programming
procedure.
2) The programmer must be trained for vocabulary.

Review questions

1) What are the various methods of creating part program?

2) What are the data required for manual part programming?
3) With neat sketch, explain NC coordinate system.
4) What is meant by ‘machine zero point’ and ‘machine reference
point’?
5) Explain about the datum points of CNC.
6) Explain the NC dimensioning methods with example.
7) Explain the types of motion control.
8) Write short notes on CNC program procedure.
9) Describe the following terminology: i) Character ii) Word iii) Block
10) What is meant by word addressed format?
11) Give the format of a part program.
12) Briefly explain preparatory and miscellaneous functions.
13) Explain the following: i) Tool function ii) Feed function.
14) Write short notes on interpolation schemes.
15) Explain the terms linear interpolation and circular interpolation
with an example.

4.80
16) Explain about tool materials and tool inserts of CNC machines.
17) Briefly explain about tool offset and tool nose radius compensation.
18) Describe any five G functions.
19) What is a canned cycle? Give two examples.
20) Explain stock removal canned cycle with an example.
21) Write a part program for thread cutting operation in a CNC lathe.
22) Explain peck drilling cycle.
23) Explain grooving canned cycle with an example.
24) What is cutter compensation? When it is used and how it is
programmed?
25) Write short notes on tool length compensation.
26) Write a part program for pocketing in CNC milling machine.
27) What are canned cycles? Explain with sketches canned cycles for
drilling and tapping.
28) Write a part program to drill three holes in a rectangular work part.
The part is 10mm thick. Assume the dimensions and positions of
the hole.
29) Explain the terms macros, subroutines, and canned cycles used in
CNC programming.
30) Explain the use of macros with a simple CNC program.
31) Write a part program to explain mirroring operation in CNC
maching centre.
32) Explain APT programming.
33) Describe about conversational programming.
34) Make a comparison between graphical and verbal programming.

4.81
 Unit – V
FMS, INTEGRATED MATERIAL
HANDLING AND ROBOTICS
5.1 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)
Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) is a highly automated GT
machine cell, consisting a group of machine tools, interconnected by
automated material handling and storage system, and controlled by
a central computer. It is capable of processing a variety of parts
simultaneously at the various machine tools. In FMS, the mix of part
styles and quantities of production can be adjusted according to the
change in demand.

FMS is called flexible due to the following flexibilities related to

manufacturing.
 Machine flexibility
 Production flexibility
 Mix flexibility
 Product flexibility
 Routing flexibility
 Volume flexibility
 Expansion flexibility

Objectives of FMS
The following are the objectives of FMS
1) To maximize the utilization of the resources in the factory.
2) To minimize the process cycle time.
3) To produce a variety of part styles simultaneously at the
various machine tools.
4) To provide flexibility in product mix according to the change in
demand.
5) To produce parts through alternative work station sequences in
response to equipment break–downs, tool failures, etc.
6) To provide a system that can be expanded to increase total
production quantities.

5.1
5.1.1 Types of FMS
FMSs are classified as follows :
a) Based on number of machines
 Flexible Turning Cell (FTC): It consists of one CNC turning
centre combined with a parts storage system. The availability
of C-axis and the live tools in the turret enable the machine to
perform operations like turning, milling, off-centre drilling,
tapping, helical groove cutting, etc. It means that all operations
to produce a component can be carried out in one set up itself.

The flexible turning cells are provided with facilities like

automatic part changer, automatic tool changer, tool breakage
sensors, automatic tool length offset compensation, in-process
gauging, automatic chuck changing, etc. The idle time of the
machine can be considerably reduced with the help of these
facilities. The productivity and flexibility of CNC turning centres
can be improved by using these facilities.
 Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC): It consists of two or
three CNC machine tools interfaced with automated material
handling and automatic tool changers. Flexible manufacturing
cells are capable of automatically machining a wide range of
difference work pieces. They are usually employed in small
batch production. The following are the typical examples of
flexible manufacturing cell :
 A turning centre fitted with a gantry loading and
unloading system and pallets for storing work pieces and
finished parts.

 One or two horizontal machining centres with modular

fixturing, multiple pallets, advanced tool management
system, automatic tool changer, automatic head
changer, robots, etc.
 A turning centre and a machining centre equipped with a
pick and place robot, automatic storage and retrieval
system, rail guided vehicle, etc.

5.2
  Flexible Transfer Lines (FTL): A transfer line is a
manufacturing system which consists of a predetermined
sequence of machines connected by an automated material
handling system. They are designed for high volume
production. Each operation is performed on only one machine.
This results in a fixed route for each part through the system.

The objective of flexible transfer line is to provide quick

system changeover and quick adaptation to changing
production orders. At the same time the general characteristics
of transfer lines are maintained. It provides an adjustable
material flow and precise work piece transfer within an
optimum processing station layout. The flexibility of a transfer
line relates to all of its components such as material handling
control, material flow and individual processing stations. The
resetting procedure is highly automatic. Unlike conventional
transfer lines, a number of different work pieces can be
manufactured on the Flexible Transfer Lines.

 Flexible Machining System (FMS): It consists of several

flexible automated machine tools which are flexibly interlinked
by an automatic part handling system so that different parts
can be machined with the same machine configuration.
Different machining times at the individual stations are
compensated by central or decentralized work piece buffer
stores. Flexibility is applied to machines because of CNC control
and flexible transfer lines.

b) Based on level of flexibility

 Dedicated FMS: It is designed to produce a limited variety of

part styles. It is also called as special manufacturing system.

 Random-order FMS: It is appropriate when the part family is

large. It is equipped with general-purpose machines to deal
with the variations in product and is capable of processing parts
in various sequences.

5.3
5.1.2 Components of FMS
FMS consists of the following components.
1) Processing stations or work stations
2) Material handling and storage system
3) Computer control system
4) Human labour
1) Workstations: The equipments or workstations used in an
FMS depend on the type of work accomplished by the system. CNC
machine tools can be used in a system designed for machining
operations. However, the FMS concept is also applicable to various other
processes such as press working, forging, assembly, inspection, etc.
2) Material handling and storage system: The material
handling system used to transfer parts between stations in an FMS
include variety of conventional material transport equipment, inline
transfer machines, and industrial robots. The material handling system
is integrated with an automated storage/retrieval systems (AS/RS).

3) Computer control system: A typical FMS computer

system consists of a central computer and microcomputers controlling
the individual machines and other components. The central computer
coordinates the activities of the components to achieve smooth
overall operations of the system.

4) Human labour: Humans are needed to manage the

operations of the FMS. Human labour performs the following functions
in FMS:
 Loading raw work parts in to the system
 Unloading the finished parts from the system
 Changing and setting tools
 Equipment maintenance and repair
 NC part programming in machining system
 Overall management of the system

5.1.3 FMS layout configurations

The following are the layout configurations found in FMS.
1) Inline layout 2) Loop layout 3) Ladder layout
4) Open field layout 5) Robot centered layout

5.4
 1) In-line layout
Part transport system Partially completed
workparts
Loading Work flow Unloading
(Manual) (Manual)

Starting Processing Processing Processing Processing Completed

workparts station station station station workparts

Fig.5.9 In-line layout

In this layout, the machines and handling system are arranged
in a straight line. The work part moves from one workstation to the
next in a well–defined sequence. The work part always moves in one
direction and no back flow is allowed in this layout.

2) Loop layout
Processing Processing
station station
Part transport loop
Starting
workparts
Load/
Unload Direction of
(Manual) workflow
Completed
workparts

Processing Processing Secondary

station station handling system

Fig.5.10 Loop layout

In this layout, the workstations are arranged in a loop that is
served by a part transport system in the same shape. Parts usually
flow in one direction around the loop. The parts can be stopped and
transferred to any station. A secondary handling system is used at
each workstation. The loading/unloading stations are typically located
at one end of the loop.

3) Ladder layout
The ladder layout consists of a loop with rungs between the
straight sections of the loop, on which workstations are located. The
rung increases the possible ways of transporting work part from one
machine to the next. It eliminates the need of a secondary handling
system. This reduces average travel distance and minimizes jamming
in the handling system. Thus transport time between workstations is
considerably reduced.

5.5
 Processing
station

Processing
station Direction of
workflow

Processing
station

Starting Completed
workparts Load/ workparts
Unload
(Manual)

Fig.5.11 Ladder layout

4) Open field layout

Starting
workparts
Load/
Inspection
AGV

Unload
(Manual) station
Completed
workparts

Processing Cleaning
station station

Processing Processing
station station

Processing Processing
station station

AGV

Fig.5.12 Open field layout

This layout consists of multiple loops and ladders. This type of
layout is appropriate for processing a large family of parts. The
number of different machine types may be limited. The parts are
routed to different workstations depending on which one becomes
available first.
5.6
5) Robot centered cell layout
In this layout, one or more robots are used as the material
handling system. Industrial robots can be equipped with grippers for
the handling of rotational parts. This type of layout is often used to
process cylindrical or disk-shaped parts.
Turning
centre

Parts
Robot conveyor

Turning
centre

Fig.5.13 Robot centered cell layout

5.1.4 Workstations
Workstation is a processing or assembly equipment used in an
FMS. Following are the types of workstations found in an FMS.

1) Load / Unload stations

2) Machining stations
 Machining centres
 Turning centres
 Mill–turn centres
 Milling machine modules
 Turning modules
3) Other processing stations
 Sheet metal processing stations
 Forging stations
4) Assembly stations
5) Inspection stations
6) Other workstations
 Cleaning and chip removal systems
 Coolant delivery system
5.7
1) Load / Unload stations
The load / unload station is the physical interface between the
FMS and the rest of the factory. Loading and unloading can be
accomplished either manually or by automated handling systems. The
load / unload stations should be ergonomically designed to permit
convenient and safe movement of work parts. This station should
include a data entry unit and monitor for communication between the
operator and computer system.

2) Machining stations
The most common applications or FMS are machining
operations. So CNC machining centres are used in FMS. They possess
features such as automatic tool changing and tool storage, automatic
pallet changing and capacity for DNC. Machining centres are used for
non–rotational parts. Turning centres are used for rotational parts.
Mill–turn centres can be used for parts that are mostly rotational but
require other operations such as milling and drilling.

Milling machine modules: Special milling machine modules

can be used to achieve higher production levels than a machining
centre. It may be vertical spindle, horizontal spindle or multiple spindle.
Turning modules: Special turning modules can be designed
for the FMS for turning operations. In conventional turning, the work
piece is rotated against a tool. In FMS, the parts are held in a pallet
fixture and a turning module is designed to rotate the single point tool
around the work piece.

3) Other processing stations

The FMS concept has been applied to other processing
operations in addition to machining. One such application is sheet
metal fabrication process. The processing workstation consists of
press working operations, such as punching, shearing, bending, and
forming. FMS can also be applied in forging workstations that include
a heating furnace, a forging press and a trimming station.

4) Assembly stations
Flexible automated assembly systems are developed to replace
manual labour in the assembly of products typically made in batches.
Industrial robots are often used in this assembly stations.
5.8
5) Inspection stations
Inspection can be incorporated into an FMS, either by including
an inspection operation at a processing workstation or by including a
station specifically designed for inspection. Coordinate measuring
machines, special inspection probes and machine vision are some of
the technologies for performing inspection on FMS.

6) Other workstations
FMS possesses the following stations for performing other
operations and functions.
 Stations for cleaning parts and pallet fixtures.
 Central coolant delivery systems for the entire FMS
 Centralized chip removal system often installed below floor level.

5.1.5 Computer control system

The FMS includes a distributed computer system that is
interfaced to the workstation, material handling system and other
hardware components. It consists of a central computer and micro–
computers controlling the individual machines and other components.
The central computer coordinates the activities of the components to
achieve smooth overall operation of the system. Various functions of
FMs computer controlled system are explained below.
1) Work station control
In a fully automated FMS, the individual processing or assembly
stations operate under some form of computer control. CNC is used
to control the machine tools for a machining system.

2) Distribution of control instructions to workstations

In FMS, some form of central intelligence is required to
coordinate the processing at individual workstations. In a machining
FMS, DNC is used to create, modify, store, and download the part
programs to various machine tools.

3) Production control
The input data required for production control includes daily
production rate, number of available raw work parts and number of
suitable pallets. The production control function is carried out by
routing a suitable pallet to the load/unload area and giving
instructions to the operator for loading the desired work part.
5.9
4) Traffic control
Traffic control refers to the management of the primary
material handling system that moves work parts between stations.
This is carried out by actuating switches, stopping parts at machine
tool transfer locations and moving pallets to load/unload stations.
5) Shuttle control
Shuttle control is concerned with the operation and control of
the secondary handling system at each workstation. Each shuttle
must be coordinated with the primary handling system and
synchronized with the operation of the corresponding machine tool.
6) Work piece monitoring
It involves the monitoring of the status of each pallet in the primary
and secondary handling systems as well as the status of each work piece.
7) Tool control
Tool control is concerned with managing two aspects of the
cutting tool.

Tool location: This involves keeping track of the cutting tools

at each workstation. If a tool required for a process at the workstation
is not available, the tool control system instructs the operator to load
the required tool.
Tool life monitoring: It involves maintaining a record of the
machining time usage for each tool. When the cumulative machining
time reaches the specified life of the tool it instructs the operator to
replace the tool.
8) Performance monitoring and reporting
It involves the collection of data on the performance and
operation of the FMS. This data is periodically summarized, and
reports are prepared for management on system performance. Some
of such reports are listed below.
Availability report: This report summarizes the uptime
proportion of the workstations.

Utilization report: This report summarizes the utilization of

each workstation in the system as well as the average utilization of
the FMS for specified periods.

5.10
 Production performance reports: This report summarizes data
on daily and weekly quantities of different parts produced by the FMS.

Tooling report: This report provides information on various

aspects of tool control, such as a listing of tools at each workstation
and tool life status.

Status report: This report provides data about the present

condition of the FMS. Line supervisor requires this report to know
about the current status of system operating parameters such as
workstation utilization, number of work parts produced, available
pallets and tooling.

9) Diagnostics
The purpose of diagnostic function is to reduce breakdowns and
down time, and increase availability of the system. This involves
identification of the probable source of the problem when a malfunction
occurs in a manufacturing system. It can also be used to plan
preventive maintenance in the system and to identify future failures.

5.1.6 Applications of FMS

Some of the important FMS applications are listed below.
1) Machining operations such as milling, turning, drilling, etc.
2) Assembly of parts
3) Sheet metal press working
4) Forging
5) Welding
6) Inspection and testing

5.1.7 Benefits of FMS

The following are the benefits of using FMS
1) Increased machine utilization
2) Fewer machines are required
3) Reduced human intervention
4) Better competitive advantage
5) Reduced work-in-process inventory

5.11
 6) Reduced manufacturing lead time
7) Improved manufacturing control
8) Improved quality and reduced scrap rate
9) Reduction in factory floor space requirements
10) Better status monitoring of machines, tools, and material
handling devices
11) Reduced direct labour requirements and higher labour
productivity
12) Greater responsiveness to change

5.2 Intelligent manufacturing system

Intelligent manufacturing system is one in which computer
based Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques are used for
manufacturing products. AI can be defined as the ability of a device
to perform functions that are normally associated with human
intelligence. These functions include reasoning, planning and problem
solving. The various fields of applications of AI related to
manufacturing are
 Expert system
 Natural language understanding
 Computer vision
 Robotics
 Voice recognition
 Neural networks
 Fuzzy logic
 Decision support systems

Expert system
An expert is a person who can take good decision based on a
limited number of facts. An expert system can be defined as an
interactive computer program with an expert-like performance in a
particular problem-solving area. The major components of an expert
system are: a knowledge base, an inference engine and a user
interface.

5.12
 Rule Examples
interpreter

Knowledge Rule base

base User
Editor

Inference
engine Database

Operation Machining Time and Report

route paramter cost generation
generation selection estimation

Process
plan

Fig.5.16 Expert CAPP system

Knowledge base: It contains the system’s knowledge. It

includes both component knowledge and procedural knowledge. The
procedural knowledge is rule-based type.
Inference engine: it is also known as rule interpreter. It
decides a suitable mechanism to apply the appropriate rule in the
knowledge base to solve the problem.

User interface: These are the devices used to communicate

with an expert system. The system is able to respond with
recommendations, requisition for additional information about the
problem and so on.

Applications of AI in manufacturing
The applications of artificial intelligence in manufacturing are
explained below.
Expert system in process planning: Process planning is the
systematic determination of the methods by which a product is to be
manufactured economically and competitively. For developing
process plans, it is necessary to recognize features such as hole, slots,
etc. in the component and relate the machining operations with the
features. Expert systems approach is helpful to match features with
processes.

5.13
 Computer vision: In this system, a pictorial representation of a
scene is given to a computer. The scene is analyzed and the object in the
scene is found out by using some form of relational matching. The most
intelligent of the current vision system employs reasoning. Industrial
applications of computer vision include fields such as automated
inspection, automated guidance of material handling system, etc.

AI based scheduling in CIM environment: Scheduling

involves the allocation of specific time for various activities in
manufacturing. It serves as a guide for production and for establishing
manufacturing resource requirements in terms of manpower, facilities,
tooling and machine capacity. A knowledge-based expert system is
used to perform scheduling. The software program is capable of
reasoning and inferring new information in the solution of problems.

Decision support system in the CIM environment: In a

CIM environment, there are a series of decision support tasks ranging
from job acceptance, planning, and scheduling. In the AI based
decision support system, different program modules are used to
perform these tasks. These modules are organized in a hierarchical
structure to properly coordinate their processing and their own
decision-making.

Other applications: There are other areas of CIM where artificial

intelligence techniques have been used. Some of them include:

Use of expert systems for the selection of equipments like
robots, CNC machine, etc.
Use of AI in database management
Expert systems in material handling
Estimation of tool wear
Fault diagnosis of machines, etc.

5.3 Virtual machining

The programs for CNC machining can be automatically created
with the help of AutoCAM software packages. This method eliminates
the difficulties in writing large programs. Errors are reduced and
thereby wastage is avoided. However it is still necessary to prove the
5.14
program for its suitability. Improper programming may remove more
material or leave material on the work piece unremoved. Errors in
geometry or tool motion statements may result in a work piece whose
dimensions after machining may not be acceptable. Dry runs and
program prove out on the machine are always time consuming and
costly. Hence it is desirable to simulate the machining program on the
computer itself to verify the program.

The various modules available in the CAM software packages

are used to carry out machining on the computer workstation. Since
the machining is carried out in a virtual environment, it is called virtual
machining.

The following are the benefits of using virtual machining:

1) This enables the programmer to visualize and modify the
program until it is correct.
2) Cuts deeper than what is required are detected.
3) It is possible to straight away proceed to machining metals.
4) The problems encountered in machining like tool breakage,
collisions and tool wear due to long run times are avoided.
5) The tool library built into the system enables the programmer
to select the tool of the actual shape and dimensions.

5.4 Computer integrated material handling

Functions of handling system
The material handling and storage system in an FMS performs
the following functions.
1) Random and independent movement of work parts between
workstations.
2) Handling a variety of work part configurations.
3) Temporary storage of work parts waiting to be processed.
4) Loading and unloading of work parts with more convenient.
5) Controlling the movement of handling equipment with the help
of computer.

5.15
Material handling equipment
The material handling function in an FMS is shared between
two systems: (1) Primary handling system and (2) a secondary
handling system.

Primary material handling system: It establishes the basic

layout of the FMS. It is used for moving work parts between stations
in the system. The types of material handling equipment typically
utilized for FMS layouts are given below.

Layout Material handling system

In-line layout In-line transfer system, conveyor system,

rail guided vehicle system.
Loop layout Conveyor system, In-line towline carts.
Ladder layout Conveyor system, AGV system, rail
guided vehicle system.
Robot centered layout Industrial robots.

Secondary handling system: It consists of transfer devices,

automatic pallet changers and similar mechanisms located at the
workstations in the FMS. The function of secondary handling system
is to transfer work part from the primary system to the machine tool
or processing station. It is also used as buffer storage of parts to
minimize work change time and maximize station utilization.

Automated storage / retrieval system (AS/RS): The FMS

is integrated with an automated storage / retrieval system. The
storage / retrieval machine serves the work handling function for the
workstations. It is also used for delivering parts to and from the
storage racks.

5.5 Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV)

An automated guided vehicle is a material handling equipment,
which can be independently operated and guided along defined
pathways in the factory floor. It is normally powered by on-board
batteries.

5.16
 The material handling system that uses AGV is known as
Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS). An AGVS is suitable
where different materials are to be moved from various load points to
various unload points as in batch production and mixed model
production.

5.5.1 Types of AGV

The following are the types of AGV widely used for variety of
functions.
1) Towing vehicles
2) Unit load carriers
3) Pallet trucks
4) Fork trucks
5) Light load vehicles
6) Assembly line vehicles

1) Automated guided towing vehicle

The towing vehicle consists of one ore more trailers to form a
train. It was the first type introduced and is still widely used today. It
is generally used for moving very large load over large distances in
warehouses or factories.

Towing Unit load Pallet truck

Fork truck Light load Assembly line

Fig.5.17 Types of AGVs

2) Automated guided unit load carriers

These are used to move unit loads from one station to another.
They are equipped for automatic loading and unloading of pallets by

5.17
means of powered rollers, moving belts, mechanized lift platforms or
other devices built into the vehicle deck. The unit load carriers are
used for moving high volumes over moderate distances they are used
in ware housing and distribution systems.

3) Automated guided pallet trucks

Pallet trucks are used to transport palletized loads from floor
level and eliminate the need for fixed load stands. These are used in
distribution functions. The capacity of an automated guided pallet
truck ranges up to several thousand kilograms. Some trucks are
capable of handling two pallets rather than one.

4) Automated guided fork trucks

Fork trucks have the ability to service palletized loads both at
floor level as well as on stands. They may also be able to stack the
loads when required. These are generally used where the heights of
load transfer vary. The vehicle has the capability of positioning to any
height so that conveyors or all load stands of varying height in a given
system can be serviced.

5) Automated guided light load vehicles

Light load AGV is a relatively small vehicle with corresponding
light load capacity in the order of 250 Kg or less. These are designed
to move small loads through plants of limited size.

6) Automated guided assembly line vehicles

Assembly line AGV is the adoption of light load vehicles for
serial assembly processes. These are designed to carry a partially
completed subassemblies through a sequence of assembly
workstations to build the product.

5.5.2 Components of AGVS

The following are the major components in an automated
guided vehicle system.
1) Vehicle guidance system 2) Vehicle routing system
3) Traffic control system 4) Vehicle dispatching system
5) Safety devices

5.18
1) Vehicle guidance system
The guidance system is the method by which AGVS pathways
are defined and vehicles are controlled to flow the pathways. The
following three technologies are used for vehicle guidance.
 Guide wire method
 Paint strip method
 Self guided vehicles

Guide wire method

AGV wire
sensing unit

Factory floor
Coil

Magnetic field
Guide wire
Slot cut in floor

Fig.5.18 The principle of wire guidance used in AGV

In this method, electrical wires are placed in a rectangular slot

cut in to the factory floor. Then, the slot is filled with cement. The
guide wire is connected to a frequency generator, which emits a low-
voltage, low-current signal with a frequency in the range 1–15 KHz.
This induces a magnetic field along the pathway that can be followed
by on-board sensors in the vehicle.

The sensors are mounted on the vehicle on either side of the

guide wire. When the vehicle is located such that the guide wire is
directly between the two sensors, the intensity of magnetic field at
each sensor will be equal. If the vehicle goes one side, or if the guide
wire path changes direction, the magnetic field intensity at the two
sensors will be different. This difference is used to control the steering
motor. The motor makes required changes in vehicle direction to
equalize the two sensor signals, thereby tracking the guide wire.

5.19
Paint strips method
In this method, paint strips are used to define the pathways.
The vehicle uses an optical sensor system for tracking the pathway.
The strips can be taped, sprayed, or painted on the floor.

The fluorescent particles in the paint strip reflect on ultraviolet

light source from the vehicle. An on-board sensor detects the
reflected light in the strip and control the steering mechanism to
follow it. This method is useful when the installation of guide wires in
the floor surface is not practical. The paint strip must be kept clean
and periodically repainted.

Self guided vehicle (SGV)

Self-guided vehicle represents the latest AGVS guidance
technology. SGV operates without continuously defined pathways.
Instead, they use a combination of dead reckoning and beacons
(signaling device) located throughout the plant, which can be
identified by on-board sensors. Dead reckoning refers to the
capability of a vehicle to follow a given route in the absence of a
defined pathway in the floor.

Movement of the vehicle along the route is carried out by

computing the required number of wheel rotations in a sequence of
specified steering angles. The computations are performed by the on-
board computer in the vehicle. The location of the self-guided vehicle
is periodically verified by comparing the calculated positions with one
or more known positions. These known positions are established
using magnetic or bar coded beacons located throughout the plant
along the pathways.

2) Routing system
An AGVS layout contains multiple loops, branches, and
sidetracks, as well as pick up and drop off stations. The most
appropriate route must be selected from the alternative pathways
available. The following two methods are used to select the route.

Frequencies select method: In this method, the guide wires

leading into various paths have different frequencies. The vehicle
5.20
reads an identification code on the floor to determine its location.
Depending on its programmed destination, the vehicle selects the
correct guide path by following only one of the frequencies.

Path switch select method: In this method, the appropriate

path is selected by switching off the power in all other pathways
except the required path. The guide path layout is divided into blocks
that are electrically insulated from each other. The blocks can be
turned ON and OFF either by the vehicle itself or by a computer
control.

3) Traffic control system

The purpose of traffic control in an AGV system is to minimize
interference between vehicles and to prevent collisions. The following
two methods are used for traffic control in AGV system.

Forward sensing control: In this method, the vehicle uses

one or more on-board sensors to detect the presence of other vehicles
and obstacles in front of it. When the sensor detects an obstacle, the
vehicle stops or slows down. This system is most effective on straight
pathways.

Zone control: In this method, the AGV system layout is

divided into separate zones. The operating rule is that no vehicle is
permitted to enter a zone if that zone is already occupied by another
vehicle. By controlling the forward movement of vehicles in the
separate zones, collisions are prevented and the traffic in the overall
system is controlled.

4) Vehicle dispatching system

In an AGV system, vehicles must be dispatched in timely and
efficient manner. The following methods are used in AGV system to
dispatch vehicles.

Ob-board control panel: Each guided vehicle is equipped

with some form of on-board control panel for the purpose of manual
vehicle control, vehicle programming, and other functions. Most

5.21
commercial vehicles can be dispatched by means of this control panel
to a given station in the AGVS layout.

Remote call stations: The simplest call station is a press

button mounted at the load/unload station. This transmits a hailing
signal for any available vehicle in the neighborhood to pick up or drop
off a load.

Central computer control: This method is used to accomplish

automatic dispatching of vehicles according to a preplanned schedule
of pickups and deliveries in the layout. It also responds to calls from
various load/unload stations. The central computer issues commands
to the vehicles in the system regarding their destinations and
operations. Radio frequency is commonly used to achieve the
required communication links.

5) Safety devices
A safety feature included in most guidance systems is
automatic stopping of the vehicle if it drifts more than a short distance
from the guide path. Another safety device is obstacle detection
sensor located on each vehicle. The sensor can detect obstacles along
the forward path, including humans. An emergency bumper is also
provided at he front of the vehicle, which protrudes ahead by a
distance 300 mm or more. When the bumper makes contact with an
object, the vehicle is programmed to brake immediately.

5.5.3 Applications of AGV

The following are the major applications of AGV.
1) Driverless train operations
2) Storage and distribution
3) Assembly line application
4) Flexible manufacturing system
5) Office mail delivery
6) Hospital material transport

5.22
5.5.4 Benefits of AGV
The following are the benefits of using AGV in manufacturing.
1) Real time control of dispatching, tracking and monitoring
2) Better resource utilization
3) Increased control over material flow and movement
4) Reduced product damage
5) Less material movement noise
6) Flexibility in routing
7) Operational reliability in hazardous and special environment
8) Ability to interface with various peripheral devices such as
machine tools, robots and conveyor systems
9) High location and positional accuracy
10) Reduction in floor space
11) Reduced work-in-process inventory
12) Reduction in direct labour requirements

5.6 Automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)

In large manufacturing industries, the volume of items to be
stored and retrieved is large. The manual handling of these items
become unreliable and time consuming. In such industries,
automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) is used to control
inventories, keep track of parts and materials in process or transit. It
contains several rows of storage racks and storage and retrieval
devices. The system can be linked to other external devices such as
conveyors or AGV for transferring material to the shop floor or
palletizing stations.

5.6.1 Components of AS/RS

The following are the major components of an AS/RS:
 Storage and retrieval machine
 Storage structures
 Transport devices
 System controls

5.23
 Storage and retrieval machine (S/R machine) : The
shuttle crane or stacker crane are used as S/R machine. It can be
fully automated and easily controlled by a computer. It runs on a floor
mounted rail and guided at the top. It comes in a wide variety of sizes
and configurations.

Storage structure : The AS/RS storage racks are much higher

and interface directly with the S/R machine. AS/RS rack design must
provide for integration with S/R machine guide rails. The most
common storage structures are free standing and installed inside a
building. The specifications depend on the load to be stored and
system configuration.

Transport devices : These devices moves the loads beyond

the limit of the S/R machine. Such devices include fork lifts, roller or
chain conveyors, overhead power and free conveyors, in-floor tow-
lines, shuttle trolleys and AGV.

System controls : The functions of system controls include

the control of equipment and the control of data. It also performs
tasks like inventory control, data automation and networking control.

5.6.2 Advantages of AS/RS

The following the advantages of using an AS/RS
 Better space utilization
 Less direct and indirect labour
 Reduced inventories
 Less energy consumption
 Less product damage
 Improved working conditions
 Less equipment damage
 Improved customer service
 Better management control

5.7 Robots
Robot is a programmed multi-function manipulator designed to
move material, parts, tools or special devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of variety of tasks.

5.24
5.7.1 Basic elements of robot
An industrial robot consists of the following elements.
1) Base 2) Manipulator
3) End effectors 4) Actuators
5) Transmission elements 6) Control system
7) Sensors 8) Interfaces

Base: It is the bottom of the robot. It may be fixed or movable.

The manipulator is attached to the base.

Manipulator: It includes the body, arm and a wrist assembly.

Body and arm assembly does positioning. The wrist assembly does
orientation. Manipulator is constructed with series of links and joints.
Each joint makes one motion known as degrees of freedom. The
combination of different joints in the arm assembly gives various
robot configuration.

End effectors: It is a device attached with the robot’s wrist to

perform specific task such as work piece handling, spot welding, spray
painting, or any of a great variety of other functions. The end effectors
may be a gripper or a tool. A tool is fastened directly to the robot
wrist and becomes the end effectors. Grippers are used to hold either
work pieces or tools.

Base
Wrist
assembly

Fig.5.19 Elements of robot

Actuators: The actuators include the motors and drives that
move the links of the robot, and associated equipment.

5.25
 Transmission elements: It includes belts, pulleys, ball
screws, gearing and other mechanical components.

Control system: The control system is used to generate the

necessary signals and to coordinate the movements of eh robot.
Mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, or electronic controls can be used.
The controls may be either open loop or closed loop systems.

Sensors: These are the feed back control system devices used
in robots. It includes cameras, amplifiers and related hardware. Vision
sensors, touch sensors, stress sensors, proximity sensors, and voice
sensors are the various types of sensor used in robots.

Interfaces: These are the devices used for connecting a robot

with other robots, computer system components, production
machines, material handling devices and other related hardware. It
includes terminals, keyboards, control pendants and switches. The
communication channel provide all these interfaces to the control
system.

5.7.2 Robot configurations

Industrial robots are made in a variety of shapes and sizes, but
they can be classified a few basic characteristic features. These are
listed below:
a) Based on mechanical configuration
 Polar coordinate configuration
 Cylindrical coordinate configuration
 Cartesian coordinate configuration
 Jointed arm configuration
 SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) configuration

b) Based on the degrees of freedom (dof)

 Single dof robot
 Two dof robot
 Three dof robot
 Six dof robot

5.26
 (a) Polar coordinate (b) Cylindrical coordinate

(c) Jointed
(c) Jointed arm
ard configuration (d)
(d)Cartesian
Cartesian coordinate
coordinate

Fig.5.20 Various robot configuration

c) Based on the types of drive used
 Hydraulic drive robot
 Electric drive robot
 Pneumatic drive robot

d) Based on the control system

 Servo controlled robots
 Non–servo controlled robots

e) Based on the sensor system

 Simple and blind robot
 Vision robot
 Intelligent robot

f) Based on the application

 Material transfer robot
 Processing robot
 Assembly robot
 Inspection robot
5.27
5.7.2 Basic robot motions
The purpose of the robot is to perform a useful task. An end
effector, or hand, is attached to the end of the robot’s arm to
accomplish the task.
Rotational
traverse

Vertical
traverse Arm and body
assembly
rse
Wrist bend ave
r
lt
dia
Ra

Base
Wrist
assembly

Wrist swivel

Wrist yaw
Fig.5.19 Basic robot motions
There are six basic motions, or degrees of freedom, in a robot
to move the end effector through the required sequence of motions.
Not all robots are equipped with the ability to move in all sixe degrees.
The basic motions consist of three arm and body motions and three
wrist motions. These motions are described below.

Arm and body motions :

1. Vertical traverse : up-and- down motions of the arm, caused
by pivoting the entire arm about a horizontal axis or moving the
arm along a vertical slide.

2. Radial traverse : extension and retraction of the arm (in–and–

out movement)

3. Rotational traverse : rotation about the vertical axis (right or

left swivel of the robot arm)

5.28
Wrist motions :
4. Wrist swivel : rotation of the wrist.
5. Wrist bend : up-or-down movement of the wrist, which also
involves a rotational movement.
6. Wrist yaw : Right-or-left swivel of the wrist.

5.7.3 Robot programming method

The various methods used for programming the robot are :
1. Manual method
2. Walkthrough method
3. Leadthrough method
4. Off-line programming

1. Manual method : This method is like setting up a machine

rather than programming. This is the procedure used for simple
robots and involves setting mechanical stops, cams, switches and
relays in the robot's control unit. This method is useful in low-
technology robots for short work cycles. Example : Pick-and-place
operations.

2. Walkthrough method : In this method the programmer

manually moves the robot's arm and hand through the motion
sequence of the work cycle. Each movement is recorded into memory
for subsequent playback during production. The speed of the
movement can be controlled independently so that the programmer
does not worry about the cycle time during the walkthrough. The main
concern is getting the position sequence correct. The walkthrough
method is useful for spray painting and arc welding robots.

3. Leadthrough method : In this method a teach pendant is

used to power drive the robot through its motion sequence. The teach
pendant is usually a small hand-held device with switches and dials
to control the robot's physical movements. Each motion is recorded
into memory for future playback during the work cycle. This method
is very easy and convenient. Hence this is very popular among robot
methods.

5.29
 4. Off-line programming : This method involves the
preparation of the robot program off-line, like NC part programming.
Off-line robot programming is typically accomplished on a computer
terminal. After the program has been prepared, it is entered into the
robot memory for use during the work cycle.

Advantages of off-line programming :

 Production time is not lost due to delays in teaching the robot.
 Off-line programming can be done while the robot is still in
production on the preceding job.
 Higher utilization of the robot and the equipment.
 The robot can be integrated with CAD/CAM database and
information system.

5.7.4 Robot sensors

The robot must have humanlike senses and capabilities in order
to perform the task in a satisfactory way. These sensors include the
following :

1. Vision sensors
2. Tactile and proximity sensors
3. Voice sensors

Vision sensors
Robot vision is made possible by means of a video camera, a
sufficient light source, and a computer programmed to process image
data. The computer software enable the vision system to sense the
presence of an object and its position and orientation. Vision sensors
carry out the following operations :
 Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on a conveyor
 Recognize particular parts which are intermixed with other
objects
 Perform visual inspection tasks
 Perform assembly operations which require alignment

5.30
Tactile and proximity sensors
Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond
to contact forces between itself and other objects within its work
volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into two types :
1. Touch sensors 2. Stress sensors

Touch sensors are uses simply to indicate whether contact

has been made with an object. A simple micro-switch can be used as
touch sensor. Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude of
the contact force. Strain gauge devices are used as force-measuring
sensors.

Tactile sensors are useful in assembly and inspection

operations. In assembly, this sensors are used in alignment and
joining operations. In inspection, touch sensing would be useful in
gauging operations and dimensional measuring activities.

The proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is

close to another object. This sensors are located on or near the end
effector. Eddy-current proximity detectors and magnetic field sensors
can be used as proximity sensors. The proximity sensors can be used
to indicate the presence or absence of a work part or other object. It
is also helpful in preventing injury to the robot's human coworkers in
the factory.

Voice sensors
Voice programming can be defined as the oral communication
of commands to the robot or other machine. The robot controller is
equipped with a speech recognition system. It analyzes the voice
input and compares it wit a set of stored word patterns. When a match
is found between the input and the stored vocabulary word, the robot
performs some action which corresponds to that word. Voice sensors
are useful in robot programming to speed up the programming
procedure. It is also beneficial in hazardous working environments for
performing maintenance and repair work.

5.31
5.7.5 Applications of industrial robots
Industrial robots are used in a great variety of production
situations. The applications include the following.
1) Material transfer 2) Machine loading 3) Welding
4) Spray coating 5) Processing operations
6) Assembly 7) Inspection

1) Material transfer
Robots are used to move work pieces from one location to
another. Material transfer robot operations include the following.
 Simple pick and place operation
 Transfer of work parts from one conveyor to another conveyor
 Loading parts from a conveyor to a pallet in a required pattern
and sequence (palletizing).
 Loading parts from a conveyor into cartons or boxes.
 Loading parts from a pallet on to a conveyor (depalletizing)

2) Machine loading
Machine loading applications are material handling operations
in which the robot is required to supply a production machine with
raw work parts and to unload finished parts from the machine.
Robots are successfully used for loading and unloading operations in
the following production operations.
 Die casting  Injection moulding
 Transfer moulding  Hot forging
 Upset forging  Stamping press operations
 Machining operations such as turning and milling

3) Welding
Industrial robots are widely used for welding operations such
as spot welding and arc welding. The advantages of using robots for
welding include the following.
 Higher productivity
 Improved safety
 More consistent welds

5.32
4) Spray coating
Spray coating operations with robots involve spray application
of paint, stain, plastic powder, sound absorber or similar material on
another material surface. The advantages of using robots for spray
coating applications include the following.
 Safety  Coating consistency
 Lower material usage  Less energy used
 Greater productivity
5) Processing operations
The processing operation is performed by a specialized tool
attached to the robot’s wrist as its end effectors. These operation
include the following.
 Drilling  Riveting  Grinding
 Polishing  Deburring  Wire brushing

6) Assembly
Nowadays a number of servo-controlled robots are effectively
used for assembly operations. Robots are widely used in automobile
industries for assembling of flywheels, spring struts, front covers,
front and rear axles, steering gear, door liners, windshield, wheels,
chassis, etc.

7) Inspection
Robots equipped with mechanical probes, optical sensing
capabilities, or other measuring devices can be programmed to
perform dimensional checking and other forms of inspection
operations.

5.33
 Review questions
1) What is FMS? State the objectives.
2) Briefly explain the types of FMS.
3) Write short notes on (a) Flexible manufacturing cells (b) Flexible
transfer lines.
4) What are the components of FMS?
5) Explain about the FMS components.
6) Discuss in detail material handling and storage system.
7) Briefly explain the various types of layout configurations used in FMS.
8) Discuss any five FMS workstations.
9) Explain the computer control system of FMS workstation.
10) What are the benefits and applications of FMS?
11) Explain the intelligent manufacturing system.
12) Explain the applications of AI in manufacturing.
13) Explain virtual machining.
14) Explain the working principle of AGV.
15) Explain the different types of AGVS.
16) What are the applications of AGV?
17) What are the benefits of AGV?
18) Explain in detail the components of AS/RS.
19) What are advantages of AS/RS?
20) Define the term robot. Explain the various components of
industrial robot.
21) Classify industrial robots.
22) Explain the configurations of robot.
23) Explain the basic robot motions.
24) Explain the various robot programming methods.
25) What are robot sensors? Explain their uses in robots.
26) Explain the industrial applications of robot.
27) Briefly explain the application of robot in material handling.
28) Explain the applications of robot in welding industry.

5.34
Q & A.1
 Unit – I
INTRODUCTION OF CIM AND
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN & ANALYSIS
1. What is CIM?
Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) includes all of the
engineering functions of CAD/CAM and business functions that
are related to manufacturing.
2. What is the concept of CIM?
 The CIM concept is that all of the firm’s operations related
to manufacturing are incorporated in an integrated
computer system to assist, improve and automate the
operations.
 The output of one activity serves as the input to the next
activity, through the chain of events that starts with the
sales order and ends with the delivery of the product.
3. List out the benefits of CIM.
1) Increased machine utilization
2) Reduced direct and indirect labour.
3) Reduced manufacturing lead-time.
4) Lower in-process inventory.
5) Greater scheduling flexibility.
6) Reduced scrap and rework.
7) Increased factory capacity.
8) Higher employee morale.
9) Safer working environment.
10) Improved customer image.
4. Define CAD.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) may be defined as the use of
computer system to help in the creation, modification,
analysis, and optimization of a design.

Q & A.2
5. List out the steps involved in Shiley’s design process.
1) Recognition of need 2) Definiton of problem
3) Systhesis 4) Analysis and optimization
5) Evaluation 6) Presentation
6. List out the various activities of CAD.
1) Geometric modeling 2) Engineering analysis
3) Design review and evaluation 4) Automated drafting
7. What are the benefits of CAD?
1) Productivity improvement in design.
2) Shorter lead time.
3) More flexibility in design.
4) Fever design errors.
5) Improved design analysis.
6) Standardization of design, drafting and documentation.
7) Easier creation and modification of design.
8) Easier visualization of drawings
8. List out the components in CAD hardware.
1) Graphics terminal 2) Operator input devices
3) Central processing unit (CPU) 4) Output devices
5) Secondary storage devices
9. What is graphic workstation?
A graphic workstation is a desktop computer system with
adequate computing power specially designed for the use of
design engineer. Workstation can be used to run a collection
of software tools for helping design tasks.
10. List out the functions of graphics workstation.
1) It must generate a steady graphic image for the user.
2) It must provide digital description of the image.
3) It must translate computer commands into operating functions.
4) It must assist the process of communication between the
user and the system.

Q & A.3
11. Mention the important CAD software packages.
AutoCAD, Pro/E, IDEAS, UniGrpahics, CADian, SolidWorks,
CADKey, CATIA, ArchiCAD, Autodesk Inventor, etc.
12. What is transformation?
In computer graphics, the drawings can be modified by
performing some mathematical operations on the coordinates
of geometric elements. These operations are called
transformations. Translation, scaling, and rotation are the
basic transformations.
13. Define translation.
Translation involves moving the geometric elements from one
location to another. In matrix notation, it can be represented as
(x', y') = (x, y) + T
Where, x', y' = Coordinates of the translated points
x, y = Coordinates of the original point
m, n = Movement in the X and Y direction respectively.
T = Translation matrix = (m, n)
14. What is scaling?
Enlarging or reducing the size of a graphic element is known
as scaling. The points of an element can be scaled by the
scaling matrix as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) S
m 0
Where, S = Scaling matrix = q r
0 n
15. What is rotation?
It involves the rotation of an object about its origin by an angle 
The object is moved while rotating. In matrix notations, the
procedure will be as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) R
cos sin
Where, R = Rotation matrix = q r
–sin cos

Q & A.4
16. Write down the rotation matrix for rotating an object
about X-axis.
The rotation about X-axis by an angle  in three-dimensional
space is represented in matrix notation as follows:
(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) Rx
cos 0 sin
Where, Rx = Rotation matrix about X axis = q 0 1 0 r
–sin 0 cos

17. Define concatenation.

Concatenation is the process of combining the single
transformations as a sequence of transformations. The
combined transformations are called concatenated
transformations. Concatenated transformations are generally
performed during the editing process in a graphic model.
18. What are the techniques of geometric modeling?
1) Wireframe modeling
2) Surface modeling
3) Solid modeling
19. List out the applications of surface modeling.

1) Checking for interference between mating parts.

2) Generating cross sectional views.
3) Generating finite element meshes.
4) Generating NC tool paths for continuous path machining.
20. List out the schemes available for solid modeling.
1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
2) Boundary representation (B–rep)
3) Pure primitive instancing
4) Generalized sweep
5) Cellular decomposition
6) Hybrid scheme

Q & A.5
21. What is the basis difference between CSG and B-rep?
 In CSG, solid model is built from solid graphic primitives.
 In B-rep, solid model is obtained by creating the outline or
boundary of the object.
22. What is hybrid scheme?
Hubrid scheme is the combination of both constructive solid
geometry and boundary representation approach. It makes
use of the relative benefits of both approaches overcoming
their relative weaknesses.
23. List out the applications of solid modeling.
1) Creating hidden line drawings, sections, and shaded images.
2) Calculating mass properties such as total surface area, volume,
centre of gravity, moments of inertia, radius of gyration, etc.
3) Kinematics analysis of solid assemblies.
4) Dynamics interference analysis.
5) Process planning for manufacture.
6) CNC tool path simulation and program verification
24. What is graphic standard?
The standards used in CAD for exchanging data are called
graphics standards.
25. What are the needs for graphics standard?
1) Application program portability
2) Picture data portability
3) Text portability
4) Object database portability
26. List out the common graphics standards.

1) GKS (Graphical Kernel System)

2) PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interface for Graphics)
3) IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)
4) DXF (Drawing Exchange Format)
5) STEP (STandard for the Exchange of Product model data)
6) VDI (Virtual Device Interface)

Q & A.6
 7) VDM (Virtual Device Metafile)
8) GKSM (GKS Metafile)
9) WMF (Windows Meta File)
27. What is design for excellence?
 Design for Excellence is a system of product development
and improvement guidelines.
 The design guidelines usually propose an approach and
corresponding methods to generate and apply technical
knowledge to control, improve, or invent particular
qualities of a product.
28. What is DFMA?
DFMA (Design for Manufacturing and Assembly)is a
methodology and tool set used to determine how to simplify
a product design and manufacturing process to achieve cost
savings.
29. What is FEA? What are the phases in FEA.
 Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computer simulation
technique used in engineering analysis. It uses a
numerical technique called the finite element method.
 The phases in finite element analysis are :
o Pre-processing
o Analysis (Computation of solution)
o Post processing (Visualization)
30. Mention the FEA softwares.
ABAQUS, ANSYS, CATIA, COMSOL, FEDEM, GENOA, LS-DYNA,
NASTRAN, etc.
31. List out the applications of FEA.
 Determination of stresses and displacements.
 Heat transfer
 Solid state diffusion
 Reactions with moving boundaries
 Fluid dynamics
 Electromagnetism

Q & A.7
32. What are the advantages of FEA?
 Increased accuracy
 Enhanced design
 Better insight into critical design parameters
 Virtual prototyping
 Fewer hardware prototypes
 Faster and less expensive design cycle
 Increased productivity
 Increased revenue

Unit – II
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
AND RAPID PROTOTYPING
1. Define CAM.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) may be defined as the
effective use of computer technology in manufacturing,
planning, and control.
2. List out the functions of CAM in manufacturing planning.
 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
 Computer assisted NC part programming
 Computerized machinability data system
 Development of work standard
 Cost estimating
 Production and inventory planning
 Computer aided line balancing
3. List out the functions of CAM in manufacturing control.
 Process monitoring and control
 Quality control
 Shop floor control
 Inventory control
Q & A.8
4. List out the benefits of CAM.

1) Greater flexibility in design

2) Increased productivity
3) Greater flexibility in operations
4) Shorter lead time
5) Improved reliability
6) Reduced maintenance
7) Reduced scrap and rework
8) Better management control
5. What is Group Technology (GT)?
Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy that can
be used to group parts based on similarities in design or
manufacturing process so as to reduce the overall production
cost.
6. What is part family?
A part family is a group of parts, which are similar either due
to their geometric shape and size, or due to similar processing
steps needed in their manufacture.
7. List out the design attributes used in GT.
1) Basic external shape 2) Basic internal shape
3) Material type 4) Part functions
5) Major dimensions 6) Minor dimensions
7) Tolerances 8) Surface finish
8. List out the manufacturing attributes used in GT.
1) Major processes 2) Minor operations
3) Operation sequence 4) Major dimension
5) Surface finish 6) Machine tool
7) Fixture required 8) Cutting tools
9. What are the coding structures used in GT?
1) Hierarchical structure or Monocode structure
2) Chain type structure or Polycode structure
3) Hybrid structure or Mixed mode structure

Q & A.9
10. List out the parts classifications and coding systems.
 Opitz system
 MICLASS system
 The CODE system
 DCLASS system
 COFORM system
 The KK–3 system
11. List out the benefits of Group Technology.
1) Retrieval of existing design from the database is easy.
2) It helps in design standardization.
3) The production rate is increased.
4) The inventory and work–in–process can be reduced.
5) The material handling and movement is reduced.
6) The scrap is reduced.
7) The machine utilization is increased.
8) Manufacturing lead-time is reduced.
9) The overall plant efficiency is increased.

12. What is process planning?

Process planning involves determining the most appropriate
manufacturing and assembly processes and the sequence in
which they should be done to produce a product as per the
specifications.
13. What are the requirements for process planning?
1) Annual demand of the product or batch size.
2) The list of parts in the product.
3) Available stock sizes.
4) Details of available equipments.
5) Tools, dies, moulds, fixtures and gauges requirements.
6) Accuracy and surface finish requirements.

14. What is CAPP?

Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) is a means to
automatically develop the process plan with the help of
computer programs.

Q & A.10
15. What is the difference between variant approach and
generative approach of CAPP?
 Variant approach uses a Group Technology (GT) code to
select appropriate process plan from the existing master
process plans developed for each part family and edits to
suit the requirement of the part.
 In generative approach, a process plan is created from
scratch for each part without human intervention.
16. List out the benefits of CAPP.
1) More logical and optimal process plans.
2) Lower manufacturing costs and higher product quality.
3) The productivity of process planners is increased.
4) The lead-time for process planning is reduced.
5) Computer prepared route sheets are neat and easy to
read than manually prepared route sheets.
17. What is master production schedule?
Master production schedule is a very specific schedule of
individual products in the aggregate plan. It is a list of products
to be manufactured, when they should be completed and
delivered and in what quantities.
18. What is MRP?
A material requirement planning (MRP) is a computational
method that converts the master production schedule into a
detailed schedule for the raw material and components used
in the end products.
19. List out the benefits of MRP.
1) Reduction in inventory.
2) Quicker response to changes in demand.
3) Improved customer service.
4) Reduced setup and product changeover costs.
5) Better machine utilization.
6) Improved capacity to respond to changes in the MPS.

Q & A.11
20. What is capacity planning?
Capacity planning is concerned with determining the labour
and equipment resources needed to meet the current master
production schedule as well as the long–term future
production requirements of a company.
21. What is shop floor control?
Shop floor control is concerned with the release of production
orders to the factory, monitoring and controlling the progress
of the orders through the various work centres, and collecting
current information on the status of the orders.
22. What is MRP-II?
Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II) can be defined as
a computer based system for planning, scheduling and
controlling the materials, resources and supporting activities
needed to meet the master production schedule.
23. What is ERP?
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is one of the MRP-II
softwares used for developing an optimum manufacturing
solution.
24. Define JIT.
Just-In-Time (JIT) is a philosophy of manufacturing based on
planned elimination of all wastes and continuous improvement
of productivity.
25. Mention the activities in product development cycle.
1) Developing the product concept 2) Designing the product
3) Planning 4) Manufacturing the part
5) Marketing 6) Servicing
26. What is sequential engineering?
The traditional product development cycle is sequential. In
sequential engineering, product design, development of
manufacturing process, supporting quality and testing
activities are carried out one after another.

Q & A.12
27. What is concurrent engineering?
Concurrent engineering or simultaneous engineering is a
methodology of restructuring the product development
activity in an organization using a cross functional team. It is
a technique adopted to improve the efficiency of product
design and reduce the product design cycle time.
28. What is Rapid Prototyping (RP)?
Rapid prototyping is the automatic construction of physical
objects using additive manufacturing technology. It takes
virtual designs from computer aided design (CAD),
transforms them into thin layers, and then creates successive
layers until the model is complete.
29. List out the various prototyping technologies.
 Selective laser sintering (SLS)
 Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
 Stereolithography (SLA)
 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
 Electron beam melting (EBM)
 3D printing (3DP)
 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
30. List out the materials used in rapid prototyping.
Metal powders, Thermoplastics, Photopolymer, Paper,
Titanium alloys, etc.
31. List out the applications of rapid prototyping.

 Rapid manufacturing  Visualization

 Metal casting  Architecture
 Education  Geospatial
 Healthcare  Entertainment
 Retail  Biotechnology
 Jewellery  Footwear
 Industrial design  Automotive
 Aerospace  Archaeology
 Dental and medical industries
Q & A.13
32. List out the advantages of Stereolithography.
 Greatest accuracy
 Best surface finish
 Cost of equipment is comparatively less.
 Simple process
 Products are strong enough to be machined
 Products can be used as master patterns.
33. List out the advantages of 3D printing.
 Parts made of several materials can be built in a single process.
 Complicated three dimensional shapes can be built up.
 Printing of full colour prototypes.
 Fastest method.
 Cost of equipment is less.
 Easier to use.

Unit – III
CNC MACHINES AND COMPONENTS
1. Define numerical control.
Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a
method of automation in which various functions of machine
tools are controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.
2. What are the components of NC system.
1. Program of instructions
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool
3. Define CNC.
Computer numerical control (CNC) is defined as a NC system
that utilizes a dedicated microcomputer to perform some or all
of the basic numerical control functions. Numerical control
(NC) system is a method of automation in which various
functions of machine tools are controlled by letters, numbers
and symbols.

Q & A.14
4. List out the components in MCU.
1) Central processing unit
2) Memory
3) Input / Output interface
4) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed.
5) Programmable logic controller
5. Mention the advantages (features) of CNC machines.

1) More than one program can be stored in the CNC controllers.

2) CNC controllers have multiple data entry capabilities such as

punched tape, magnetic tape, floppy diskette, compact disc
and manual data input.

3) The part program in the MCU computer memory can be

edited and optimized at the machine site itself.

4) Linear, circular, helical, parabolic, and cubic interpolations

can be executed in a CNC system.

5) The CNC machines have the facility of simulating the part

program without actually running it on the machine tool.

6. What is DNC?
Direct Numerical Control (DNC) is a manufacturing system in
which a large number of machine tools are controlled by a
central computer through direct connections.
7. What is adaptive control?
Adaptive control is a control system that measures certain
output process variables and uses these variables for
adjusting some input parameters to achieve optimal
performance.
8. List out the benefits of adaptive control.
1) The machining time is reduced considerably.
2) The overall production rate is increased.
3) The tool life is increased.
4) The part is protected against an out–of–tolerance
conditions and possible damage.
5) The operator intervention is minimized.
Q & A.15
9. What is CNC machining centre?
The CNC machining centre is a machine tool capable of
performing multiple machining operations on work piece in
one setup under CNC system.
10. What is universal machining centre?
Some horizontal machining centres have the capability of
tilting the spindle axis from horizontal to vertical position
under computer control. These are called universal
machining centre.
11. What is CNC turning centre?
The CNC turning centre is a machine tool capable of
performing various turning and related operations, on work
piece in one setup under CNC system.
12. What is turn-mill centre?
CNC turn–mill centre is a combined machine tool which can
perform the turning as well as milling operations in the same
machine tool under CNC system.
13. List out the types of CNC EDM machines.
1) Die Sink EDM 2) Orbital EDM 3) Wire cut EDM
14. What are the applications of CNC EDM?
1) EDM is widely used for making moulds in tool and die
industries.
2) It is used for making prototype and production parts in
aerospace, automobile and electronics industries.
3) Very complicated shapes can be easily produced using EDM.
4) This method is used for producing small holes in nozzles.
5) It is used for machining hard and brittle materials like
tungsten carbide, stellite, etc.
15. What is CMM?
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is an electromechanical
system designed to determine the location, orientation,
dimensions and geometry of a component or object.

Q & A.16
16. What are the components of CMM?
1) Probe head and probe to contact the work piece surface.
2) Displacement transducers to measure the coordinate values
of each axis.
3) Mechanical structure that provides motion of the probe.
4) Drive system and control unit to move each of the three axes.
17. List out the benefits of CMM.
1) The inspection cycle time is reduced.
2) The operator errors in measurements and setup are reduced.
3) CMM is more accurate and precise than manual inspection.
4) CMM has better repeatability.
5) The operation of CMM is simple.
18. What are the advantages of DC spindle drive?
1) Easiness in controlling the speed of rotation.
2) Sufficient overload capacity.
3) Compact design.
4) Linear speed–torque characteristics.
19. What are the types of feed drives used in CNC machines?
1) DC Servomotors 2) AC Servomotors
3) Stepper motors 4) Linear motors
20. State the requirements of a good slideway system.
 Low coefficient of friction at varying slide velocities
 Minimum difference between static and dynamic friction
coefficients
 Low rate of wear
 High stiffness at the sliding joints
 Good damping capacity
 Negligible stick–slip
21. Mention the types of slideways.
1) Friction slideways (Guideways with sliding friction )
2) Anti-friction slideways (Guideways with rolling friction )
22. List out the advantages of linear motion bearings.
1) The drive equipment is more compact.
2) Smooth motion is obtained with reduced vibration and shock.
3) Stick–slip problem is completely eliminated.

Q & A.17
 4) A small quantity of lubrication is sufficient.
5) Little wears and long life.
23. State the advantages of recirculating ball screw and nut.
1) Coefficient of friction is low.
2) Transmission efficiency is very high.
3) Stick–slip phenomenon is absent.
4) Backlash is completely eliminated.
5) Little wears and long life.
24. What is ATC?
Automatic tool changer (ATC) is an important part of a CNC
machine. An ATC picks up a tool from the tool magazine and
replaces it with the tool in the spindle.
25. What is tool magazine? List out its types.
 Tool magazine is a device used in CNC machines for storing
the tools.
 The main types of tool magazines used in CNC machines are:
(1) Tool turret (2) Drum or disc type magazine
(3) Chain type magazine
26. What is transducer?
Transducers are feed back devices used for measuring the
velocity and position of the components in CN machines.
27. What is the difference between rotary encoder and
linear transducer?
 Rotary encoder measures the rotary speed of the lead screw.
 Linear transducer measures the displacement of the machine
slide from a fixed datum.

28. Define in-process probing?

In-process probing is a system used in CNC machines for
periodic checking and adjusting dimensional tolerances of the
part in process.

Q & A.18
 Unit – IV
PART PROGRAMMING
1. W
What is NC part programming?
NC part program is a detailed list of instructions that need to
be executed by the machine control unit (MCU) to achieve the
final component shape.
2. What are the the methods of creating part program?

1) Manual part programming

2) Computer aided part programming
3) Part programming using CAD/CAM (Graphical programming)
4) Manual data input – MDI (Conversational programming)
5) Voice programming (Verbal programming)
3. List out the types of motion controls used in NC.
1) Point – to – Point (Positioning)
2) Paraxial (Straight Cut)
3) Contouring (Continuous Path)
4. What is point-to-point motion control?
The objective of point-to-point control system is to move the
cutting tool to a predefined location. The speed or path by
which the movement achieved is not important.
5. What is paraxial motion control?
Paaraxial motion control system is capable of moving the
cutter parallel to one of the major axes at controlled feed rate.
This system is suitable for performing milling operation to
produce workpieces of rectangular configurations.
6. Define contouring motion control.
Contouring motion control system is capable of performing
both point-to-point and straight-cut motions. In addition, the
path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate the
desired geometry of the work pieces. Milling and turning
operations are examples of continuous path applications.

Q & A.19
7. How axes are specified in NC system?
 Z-axis : The Z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or
parallel to the spindle axis.

 X-axis :The principal motion direction of cutting tool

or the work piece is designated as X–axis.

 Y-axis : It is perpendicular to both X and Y-axes, and

the direction is identified by the right hand Cartesian
coordinate system.
8. Define zero point.
In CNC machines, tool movements are controlled by
coordinate systems. The origin of the coordinate system is
considered as zero point.
9. Differentiate : Fixed zero point and floating zero point.
In some of the CNC machines, the zero point may be located
at a fixed place and cannot be changed. This is known as fixed
zero point. Some other machines, a zero point may be
established by moving the slides so that the cutting tool is
placed in the desired position in relation to the work pieces.
This is known as floating zero point.
10. What is machine zero point or machine datum?
It is a fixed point on a machine specified by the manufacturer.
This point is the zero point for the coordinate system of the
machine controller.
11. What is workpiece zero point?
Workpiece zero point determines the work piece coordinate
system in relation to the machine zero point. This point is
chosen by the part programmer and input to the machine
controller.
12. What is tool zero point?
When machining a work piece, the tool must be controlled in
precise relationship with the work piece along the machining
path. This requires a point in the tool turret be taken as
reference point, which is known as tool zero point.

Q & A.20
13. What is machine reference point or home position?
Machine reference point is used for calibrating and controlling
the measuring system of the slides and tool movements. It is
determined by the manufacturers.
14. List out the cutting tool materials for CNC machines.
1. High Speed Steel (HSS)
2. Cemented Carbides
3. Ceramics
4. Cermets
15. What are the materials used as tool inserts?
Cemented carbide, polycrystalline, diamond, and cubic boron
nitride.
16. Mention the different shapes of tool inserts.
Round, triangle, square, rhombus and diamond are the
common shapes of tool insert.
17. Mention the two types of NC coordinate dimensioning.
 Absolute dimensioning: In absolute dimensioning, the
coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined
with respect to the origin.

 Incremental dimensioning: In incremental dimensioning,

the coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined
relative to the previous point.
18. List out the formats used in NC part programming.
1. Fixed sequential format
2. Fixed sequential format with tab ignored
3. Tab sequential format
4. Word address format
5. Word address format with TAB separation and variable
word order
19. Mention the latest format used in NC part programming.
 Word address format with TAB separation and variable
word order is the latest format used in NC part program.

Q & A.21
  This format uses a letter prefix to identify the type of word.
Repeated words can be omitted. The words are separated
by TAB, and the words in the block can be listed in any
order.
20. What are G-codes(preparatory functions)?
G-codes are preset function associated with the movement of
machine axes and the associated geometry. It prepares the
machine control unit for the instruction and data contained in
the block.
21. What are modal and non-modal G-codes?
 Modal G-codes behave as settings to the control. Once
given they remain operational till cancelled by another G-
codes from the same group.
 Non-modal G-codes remain operational in the block in
which they are programmed.
22. What are miscelleneous functions?
Miscelleneous functions operate some controls on the machine
tool and thus affect the running of the machine. The particular
machine tool must have the function that is being called.
23. Write the functions of the G-codes G21, G28, G71, G76.
G21 – Metric Input system; G28 – Return to Zero (Home)
G71 – Multiple turning cycle; G76 – Multiple thread cutting cycle
24. Give the functions of the M-codes M06, M30, M70, M98.
M06 – Tool change ; M30 – Program end and rewind;
M70 – X axis mirror ON; M98 – Subprogram Call
25. What is diameter programming?
Diameter programming is a programming method used in
turning centres in which all the movements of the tool along
X–axis is doubled to represent the diametral movement rather
than radial movement.
26. Define tool offset.
The difference between the tool tip position and the turret
datum is termed as tool offset.

Q & A.22
27. Give the syntax for tool (T-word) function.
The T word has the format Tmmnn. The first two digits (mm)
specify the turret station and the last two digits (nn) specify
the location of the tool offsets. The offset is cancelled by giving
00 in place of the offset register number.
28. What are the methods of specifying spindle feed in NC
programmin?
1) G97 – Constant surface speed 2) G98 – Constant RPM
Example:
G96 S200 (Spindle speed is set at 200 m/min)
G97 S2500 (Spindle speed is set at 2500 rpm)
29. How feed is specified in NC programming?
Feed rate can be specified in two formats
1) G98 – Feed in mm/min 2) G99 – Feed in mm/rev.
Example:
G98 F2.5 (2.5 mm / minute)
G99 F1 (0.01 mm / revolution)
G99 F1.0 (1.00 mm / revolution)
G99 F100 (1.00 mm / revolution)
30. What is the difference between G00 and G01?
 G00 is used for rapid positioning simultaneously in all the axes.
 G01 is used for linear interpolation at a given feed rate.
31. List out the various interpolation methods in NC.
 Linear interpolation
 Circular interpolation
 Helical interpolation
 Parabolic interpolation
 Cubic interpolation

32. What is linear interpolation?

Linear interpolation is used for creating straight-line path. G01
is used for linear interpolation at a given feed rate.
33. What is circular interpolation? Give its syntax.
Circular interpolation is used for generating circular arc.
Syntax: G02 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G02 X_ Z_ R_ F_

Q & A.23
 G02 – Circular Interpolation (Clockwise)
G03 – Circular Interpolation (Counter-clockwise)
X, Z - coordinate values; F- Feed rate; R-Radius
34. What is canned cycle?
Canned cycle or fixed cycle may be defined as a set of
instructions, inbuilt or stored in the system memory, to
perform a fixed sequence of tool movements. Canned cycles
are used for repetitive and commonly used machining
operations.
35. Mention the syntax for threading cycle.
Syntax : G92 X_ Z_ F_
G92 – Thread cutting canned cycle
X, Z – Coordinate values; F – Feed rate (pitch of the thread)
36. Give the syntax for stock removal cycle.
Syntax : G71 U_ R_
G71 P_ Q_ U_ W_ F_

G71 – Stock removal cycle (or) Multiple turning canned cycle

U = Depth of cut of each pass
R = Distance by which the tool will be withdrawn.
P = The sequence number of the first block.
Q = The sequence number of the last block.
U = Finishing allowance in X direction.
W = Finishing allowance in Y direction.
F = Feed rate
37. Mention the syntax for multiple threading cycle.
Syntax : G76 X_ Z_ A_ I_ K_ D_ F_
G76 – Multiple thread cutting canned cycle
X = Core diameter of the thread
Z = Length of the thread
A = Angle of the thread
I = Thread taper (usually zero)
K = Total depth of the thread in microns
D = Depth of first cut in microns
F = Feed rate (pitch)

Q & A.24
38. What is peck drilling?
The G74 code is used for peck drilling in Fanuc controller
system. We simply position the drill to a safe starting point
and then call the drilling cycle. The drill then drills to each
incremental peck depth and then retracts to clear the chips.
39. Give the syntax for peck drilling cycle.
Syntax : G74 X_ Z_ K_ F_
G74 – Peck drilling canned cycle
X = Finish diameter
Z = Finish Z – depth
K = Peck depth
F = Feed
40. What is tool length compensation?
The tools are measured in the assembled state using a tool
presetter. The difference in length of the tool from a fixed
datum is called tool length compensation.
41. What is subprogram?
Subprogram is an independent program with all the features
of a usual part program. The fixed sequence or frequently used
procedures are stored as subprograms under separate
program number.
42. What is the difference between subroutines and macros?
 Subroutines are subprograms that are temporary in
nature and will be specific to a particular main program.
 Macros are subprograms that are permanent in nature and
stored permanently in the controller memory. Therefore
macros can be called by any program.
43. Give the syntax for subroutine calling.
Syntax : M98 Prrrnnnn
M98 – Subrouting calling
rrr - number of times the subroutine is to be repeated.
nnnn - identification number of the subroutine.
44. How macros are called in NC program?
Syntax : G65 P4322 A_ B_ C_ . . . . . .
Q & A.25
 P4322 specifies the subprogram number to be called
A, B, C, etc. are word addresses used for assigning arguments.
45. What is mirror imaging?
In the part program for symmetric geometries, the blocks in
the program are repeated with small changes. The program
can be simplified by using the mirror imaging facility which
changes the sign of the dimensions of the particular axis
whose mirroring specified.
46. List out importnat NC part programming languages.
 APT (Automatically Programmed Tools)
 ADAPT (ADaptation of APT)
 EXAPT ( EXtended subset of APT)
 UNIAPT
 SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language Internally Translated)
 COMPACT II
 PROMPT
47. What are the four types of stattements in APT language?
1) Geometry statements
2) Motion statements
3) Post processor statements
4) Auxiliary statements
48. What is graphical programming?
Graphical programming is a method of part programming in
which NC part program is automatically generated with the help
of interactive computer graphics using a CAD/CAM system.
49. What is post processing?
Post processing is the process of converting the generalised
cutter location data into the specific control codes of the
machine tool.
50. What is conversational programming?
It is a type of part programming method in which the machine
operator performs the part programming task at the machine
tool. The operator manually enters the part geometry data and
motion commands directly into the MCU before running the job.
Q & A.26
51. What is verbal programming? (or) What is Voice NC
Programming?
In voice NC (VNC) programming, the part geometry definition
and machining procedures are instructed to the controller unit
through vocal communication. This method looks like a
dialogue between the programmer and the system.

Unit – V
FMS, INTEGRATED MATERIAL
HANDLING AND ROBOTICS
1. W
What is FMS?
 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) is a highly
automated GT machine cell, consisting a group of machine
tools, interconnected by automated material handling and
storage system, and controlled by a central computer.
 It is capable of processing a variety of parts
simultaneously at the various machine tools.
2. How FMS is classified?
 Flexible Turning Cell (FTC)
 Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC)
 Flexible Transfer Lines (FTL)
 Flexible Machining System (FMS)
3. List out the components of FMS.
1) Processing stations or work stations
2) Material handling and storage system
3) Computer control system
4) Human labour
4. List out the various FMS layout configurations.
1) Inline layout 2) Loop layout 3) Ladder layout
4) Open field layout 5) Robot centered layout

Q & A.27
5. What is the difference between inline layot and loop layout?
 In inline layout, the machines and handling system are
arranged in a straight line.
 In loop layout, the workstations are arranged in a loop that
is served by a part transport system in the same shape.
6. List out the benefits of FMS.
1) Increased machine utilization
2) Fewer machines are required
3) Reduced human intervention
4) Reduced work-in-process inventory
5) Reduced manufacturing lead time
6) Improved quality and reduced scrap rate
7) Reduction in factory floor space requirements
7. What is intelligent manufacturing?
Intelligent manufacturing system is one in which computer
based Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques are used for
manufacturing products.
8. Define Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
Artificial Intelligence is the ability of a device to perform
functions that are normally associated with human
intelligence. These functions include reasoning, planning and
problem solving.
9. What is an expert system?
An expert system can be defined as an interactive computer
program with an expert-like performance in a particular
problem-solving area.
10. What is virtual machining?
The programs for CNC machining can be automatically created
with the help of AutoCAM software packages. The various
modules available in the CAM software packages are used to
carry out machining on the computer workstation. Since the
machining is carried out in a virtual environment, it is called
virtual machining.

Q & A.28
11. List out the functions of material handling system.
1) Random and independent movement of work parts
between workstations.
2) Handling a variety of work part configurations.
3) Temporary storage of work parts waiting to be processed.
4) Loading and unloading of work parts with more convenient.
5) Controlling the movement of handling equipment with the
help of computer.

12. What is AGV and AGVS?

 An automated guided vehicle (AGV) is a material handling
equipment, which can be independently operated and
guided along defined pathways in the factory floor.

 The material handling system that uses AGV is known as

Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS).
13. List out the types of AGV.
1) Towing vehicles
2) Unit load carriers
3) Pallet trucks
4) Fork trucks
5) Light load vehicles
6) Assembly line vehicles
14. List out the components in AGV.
1) Vehicle guidance system 2) Vehicle routing system
3) Traffic control system 4) Vehicle dispatching system
5) Safety devices
15. Mention the technologies used for guidance in AGV.
 Guide wire method
 Paint strip method
 Self guided vehicles
16. List out the applications of AGV.
1) Driverless train operations
2) Storage and distribution
3) Assembly line application

Q & A.29
 4) Flexible manufacturing system
5) Office mail delivery
6) Hospital material transport
17. List out the benefits of AGV.
1) Real time control of dispatching, tracking and monitoring
2) Better resource utilization
3) Increased control over material flow and movement
4) Reduced product damage
5) Flexibility in routing
6) High location and positional accuracy
7) Reduction in floor space
8) Reduced work-in-process inventory

18. What is ASRS?

Automated Storage and Retrieval System (AS/RS) is used to
control inventories, keep track of parts and materials in
process or transit. It contains several rows of storage racks
and storage and retrieval devices.
19. List out the advantages of ASRS.
 Better space utilization
 Less direct and indirect labour
 Reduced inventories
 Less product damage
 Improved working conditions
 Less equipment damage
 Better management control
20. Define robot.
Robot is a programmed multi-function manipulator designed to
move material, parts, tools or special devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of variety of tasks.
21. What are the basic elements in robot?
1) Base 2) Manipulator 3) End effectors
4) Actuators 5) Transmission elements 6) Control system
7) Sensors 8) Interfaces
Q & A.30
22. What are end effectors?
End effector is a device attached with the robot’s wrist to
perform specific task such as work piece handling, spot welding,
spray painting, or any of a great variety of other functions. The
end effectors may be a gripper or a tool.
23. List out the various robot configurations.
 Polar coordinate configuration
 Cylindrical coordinate configuration
 Cartesian coordinate configuration
 Jointed arm configuration
 SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) configuration

24. Mention the various robot motions.

1. Vertical traverse 2. Radial traverse 3. Rotational traverse
4. Wrist swivel 5. Wrist bend 6. Wrist yaw
25. Mention the methods of robot programming.
1. Manual method 2. Walkthrough method
3. Leadthrough method 4. Off-line programming
26. List out the various robot sensors.
1. Vision sensors
2. Tactile and proximity sensors
3. Voice sensors
27. What are the uses of proximity and tactile sensors?
 Tactile sensors are useful in assembly and inspection
operations.
 Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is
close to another object.
28. List out the industrial applications of robot.

1) Material transfer 2) Machine loading 3) Welding

4) Spray coating 5) Processing operations
6) Assembly 7) Inspection

Q & A.31
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
MODEL QUESTION PAPER-I
Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75
PART-A
Marks 15 x 1= 15
Answer any 15 Questions-All Questions carry equal marks.
1 Define CAD.
2 List the benefits of CIM.
3 What is translation?
4 Mention the advantages of FEA.
5 Define CAM.
6 What is process planning?
7 What is concurrent engineering?
8 Mention the applications of RPT
9 Define NC.
10 Differentiate between NC and CNC.
11 What is encoder?
12 Mention the types of slide ways.
13 Mention the different formats of part program.
14 What is reference points?
15 Mention the different shapes of tool inserts.
16 What is NC dimensioning?
17 List the benefits of FMS.
18 What is AGV?
19 Define robot.
20 List the robot programming methods.

PART – B
Marks 5 x 12=60
Answer all the Questions

21 a i) Mention the basic steps of FEA. 4

ii) Explain the activities of CAD in design process. 8
(or)
b i) Compare the wire frame modeling with surface modeling. 2
ii) Explain the constructive solid geometry modeling
technique. 10

22 a i) Write briefly about Enterprise Resource Planning. 4

Q P.1
 ii) What is GT? Explain the Opitz system of coding. 8
(or)

b i) Write briefly about the Shop Floor Control. 4

ii) Explain the computer integrated production management
system. 8

23 a i) Explain the working of ATC. 4

ii) Explain the working principle of turning centre. 8
(or)
b i) What is the feed back device? 2
ii) Explain the working of linear and rotary transducers. 10

24 a i) Write briefly about conversational programming. 4

ii) Explain about the APT programming language. 8
(or)
b i) Write the procedure to create CNC manual part program. 4
ii) Write a part program to create a mirroring image in a CNC
milling machine using a sub program. 8

25 a i) Explain the working principle of AGV. 8

ii) Write briefly about ASRS. 4
(or)
b i) Write briefly on intelligent manufacturing system. 4
ii) Explain the different types of FMS. 8

Q P.2
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
MODEL QUESTION PAPER-II
Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75
PART-A
Marks 15 x 1= 15
Answer any 15 Questions-All Questions carry equal marks.
1 List the benefits of CAD.
2 What is graphic workstation?
3 What is concatenation?
4 What is the need of graphic standard?
5 List the benefits of CAM.
6 What is capacity planning?
7 List the advantages of CAPP.
8 What is sequential engineering?
9 What are the advantages of CNC machine?
10 What are the purposes of CMM?
11 What are the requirements of slide ways?
12 What is the purpose of ATC?
13 What is NC part programming?
14 What is tool offsets?
15 What is linear interpolation?
16 What is sub program?
17 What is FMS?
18 What is virtual machining?
19 List the types of sensors used in robot.
20 List the benefits of AGV

PART – B
Marks 5 x 12=60
Answer all the Questions
21 a i) Write briefly about the cost involved in design process. 4
ii) Explain the Shigley’s design process. 8
(or)
b i) What is graphic standard? 2
ii) Explain the IGES graphic standard. 10

22 a i) Write briefly about Material Requirement Planning. 4

ii) What is CAPP? Explain the generative method of CAPP. 8
(or)
Q P.3
 b i) Write briefly about the product development cycle. 4
ii) What is RPT? Explain the working of stereo lithography. 8

23 a i) Write briefly about adaptive control system. 4

ii) Explain the working principle of CNC system. 8
(or)
b i) Write briefly about the linear motion bearing. 2
ii) Explain the working principle of CMM. 10

24 a i) Write briefly about tool inserts. 4

ii) Write a part program to make M20 X 1.5 thread in CNC
lathe. 10
(or)
b i) Explain the types of motion control in CNC machine. 4
ii) Write a part program for stock removal in turning. 8

25 a i) Explain the FMS components. 8

ii) Explain the FMS layout with sketches. 4
(or)
b i) Write briefly about the basic robot motion. 4
ii) Explain the different industrial applications of robot. 8

Q P.4
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
April – 2014

Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75

[N.B : (1) Answer any fifteen questions in PART – A and division (A) or
division (B) of each question in PART – B
(2) Each question carries 1 (one) mark in PART – A and 12 (twelve)
marks in PART – B.

PART – A
1. List the benefits of CIM.
2. What is CAD?
3. What is graphics standard?
4. What is 3D rotation?
5. List the benefits of CAM.
6. What is GT?
7. What is Master Production Schedule?
8. What is sequential engineering?
9. Define DNC.
10. Mention the advantages of CNC machines.
11. What is ATC?
12. What is an encoder?
13. What is conversational programming?
14. What is a datum point?
15. What is macro?
16. Mention the syntax for threading cycle.
17. What is FMS?
18. What is virtual machining?
19. Define robot.
20. What is AGV?
PART – B

21.A) (i) Explain the activities of CIM wheel. (6)

(ii) Explain the guidelines of design for manufacture and (6)
assembly.
(OR)

Q P.5
 B) (i) Explain the activities of CAD in Shigley’s design (6)
process.
(ii) Explain the 3D rotation and 3D translation. (6)
22.A) (i) Explain the generative type CAPP. (6)
(ii) Explain the MRP-I (6)
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the CODE system. (4)
(ii) What is RPT? Explain the stereo lithography method. (8)
23.A) (i) Explain working principle of CNC system. (6)
(ii) Explain about the design considerations of NC (6)
machine tools.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the working principle of EDM die sinking (6)
machine.
(ii) Explain about the ATC. (6)
24.A) (i) Explain the NC dimensioning methods with example. (6)
(ii) Write a part program for thread cutting operation in a CNC (6)
lathe.
(OR)
B) (i) Write a part programme for pocketing in a CNC milling (6)
machine.
(ii) Explain about the tool offsets and tool compensation. (6)
25.A) (i) Explain about the FMS components. (6)
(ii) Explain the intelligent manufacturing system. (6)
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the working principle of AGV. (6)
(ii) Explain any two industrial applications of robot. (6)

Q P.6
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
October – 2014

Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75

[N.B : (1) Answer any fifteen questions in PART – A and division (A) or
division (B) of each question in PART – B
(2) Each question carries 1 (one) mark in PART – A and 12 (twelve)
marks in PART – B.

PART – A
1. What is the concept of CIM?
2. What is graphics workstation?
3. What are the techniques of geometric modelling?
4. Define graphics standard.
5. What are the three types of coding structure?
6. What is master production schedule?
7. Define concurrent engineering.
8. List out any two materials used in rapid prototyping.
9. What are the components of NC system?
10. List out any four advantages of CNC machines.
11. State any two requirements of good slide ways.
12. What is the function of encoder?
13. List out any two formats used in NC part programming.
14. What is point to point motion control?
15. What are the functions of M02 and M06?
16. What is macro?
17. What are the benefits of FMS?
18. List out any two types of AGV.
19. List out any two robot sensors.
20. What is intelligent manufacturing system?

PART – B

21.A) (i) What are the benefits of CIM? (4)

(ii) Explain the implementation of GKS in CAD (8)
workstation.
(OR)
Q P.7
 B) (i) What is transformation? Explain the translation. (4)
(ii) Explain constructive solid geometry. (8)
22.A) (i) What are the benefits of CAM? (3)
(ii) Explain with neat sketch the variant type CAPP (9)
system.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain product development cycle (8)
(ii) Describe enterprise resource planning. (4)
23.A) (i) Explain working principle of CNC system (6)
(ii) With neat sketch explain the working of re- (6)
circulating ball screw.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the working principle of wire EDM machine. (6)
(ii) Explain the working of DC servomotor. (6)
24.A) (i) Explain APT programming. (8)
(ii) Explain peck drilling cycle. (4)
(OR)
B) (i) Explain machine zero and work zero. (4)
(ii) Write a sample part program for milling. (8)
25.A) (i) Explain flexible manufacturing cell. (6)
(ii) Describe basic robot motion. (6)
(OR)
B) (i) What are the benefits of AGV? (4)
(ii) Explain industrial applications of robot. (8)

Q P.8
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
April – 2015

Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75

[N.B : (1) Answer any fifteen questions in PART – A and division (A) or
division (B) of each question in PART – B
(2) Each question carries 1 (one) mark in PART – A and 12 (twelve)
marks in PART – B.

PART – A
1. What is CAD?
2. What is concatenation?
3. What is the need of graphics standard?
4. What is graphic workstation?
5. Define CAM.
6. List the advantages of CAPP.
7. What is capacity planning?
8. What is sequential engineering?
9. What is DNC?
10. List the features of CNC machines.
11. What is the purpose of CMM?
12. What re transducers?
13. Mention the methods of part programming.
14. What is NC dimensioning?
15. What is canned cycle?
16. What is circular interpolation?
17. What is FMS?
18. What is virtual machining?
19. List the benefits of AGV.
20. Mention the methods of robot programming.

PART – B

21.A) (i) Explain the Shigley’s design process.

(ii) Explain the 2D transformations with example.
(OR)

Q P.9
 B) (i) Explain the solid modelling techniques.
(ii) Explain the IGES standard.
22.A) (i) What is group technology? Explain the methods of
grouping parts into part family.
(ii) Write short notes on : (1) Manufacturing resource
planning (2) Shop floor control.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the product development cycle.
(ii) Explain the laser sintering process of RPT. Mention its
advantages and disadvantages.
23.A) (i) Explain the working principle of CNC system.
(ii) Explain the working of ATC.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the construction and working of a CNC machining
centre.
(ii) What is a feedback device? Explain the principle of rotary
transducer?
24.A) (i) Explain about the tool materials and tool inserts of CNC
machines.
(ii) Describe about conversational programming? Explain the
concept of compensation.
(OR)
B) (i) Write the procedure to create a CNC program. With
example explain the linear interpolation.
(ii) Write a part program to explain the mirroring operation
in CNC machining centre.
25.A) (i) Explain about the components of FMS.
(ii) Explain the FMS layouts.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the working principle of AGV.
(ii) Explain the configurations of robot.

Q P.10
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
October – 2015

Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75

[N.B : (1) Answer any fifteen questions in PART – A and division (A) or
division (B) of each question in PART – B
(2) Each question carries 1 (one) mark in PART – A and 12 (twelve)
marks in PART – B.

PART – A
1. List out any four benefits of CAD.
2. Mention any four CAD software packages.
3. What is scaling?
4. Expand IGES and PHIGS.
5. What is group technology?
6. What are the types of CAPP?
7. Define capacity planning.
8. What is rapid prototyping?
9. Define numerical control.
10. What is adaptive control system?
11. What is the function of transducers?
12. What are the types of feed drives?
13. What it NC part programming?
14. What is meant by tool offset?
15. What is the difference between G00 and G01?
16. What is meant by peck drilling?
17. What are the components of FMS?
18. What is virtual machining?
19. Expand ASRS.
20. Define robot.

PART – B

21.A) (i) Explain various activities of CAD. (7)

(ii) Distinguish between boundary representation and (5)
constructive solid geometry.
(OR)
Q P.11
 B) (i) Explain with neat sketch about the CIM wheel. (8)
(ii) List out the advantages of finite element analysis. (4)
22.A) (i) Explain OPITZ classification system. (8)
(ii) What are the advantages of CAPP? 94)
(OR)
B) (i) Explain Just-In-Time manufacturing philosophy. 96)
(ii) Explain 3D printing. (6)
23.A) (ii) Distinguish between NC and CNC. (4)
(ii) Explain construction and working of coordinate (8)
measuring machines.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain construction and working principle of (8)
machining centres.
(ii) Explain the working principle of stepper motor. (4)
24.A) (i) With neat sketch explain NC coordinate system. (4)
(ii) Write a sample part-programme for producing (8)
component using CNC lathe.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain types of motion control. (6)
(ii) Explain the use of macros with a simple CNC (6)
programme.
25.A) (i) With a neat sketch explain various types of FMS (12)
layouts.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain working principle of AGV. (8)
(ii) What are the robot configurations? (4)

Q P.12
 22062 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
April – 2016

Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75

[N.B : (1) Answer any fifteen questions in PART – A and division (A) or
division (B) of each question in PART – B
(2) Each question carries 1 (one) mark in PART – A and 12 (twelve)
marks in PART – B.

PART – A
1. What is CIM?
2. What is transformation?
3. Define graphics standard.
4. What is the advantage of FEA?
5. List the benefits of CAM.
6. What is part family?
7. What is master production schedule?
8. What is concurrent engineering?
9. What is adaptive control system?
10. List the advantages of CNC machines.
11. Mention the types of slide ways.
12. What is encoder?
13. What is part programming?
14. What are the types of motions in CNC machines?
15. What is sub-program?
16. What is linear interpolation?
17. List the benefits of FMS.
18. What is AGV?
19. Define robot.
20. Mention the types of robot sensors.

PART – B

21.A) (i) Explain the activities of CAD in design process. (6)

(ii) Explain any two types of CAD systems. (6)
(OR)

Q P.13
 B) (i) Explain the guidelines of design for manufacturing and (6)
assembly.
(ii) What is finite element analysis? Explain the basic steps. (6)
22.A) (i) What are coding structures? Explain the MICLASS (6)
system.
(ii) What is rapid prototyping technology? Explain the (6)
working principle of stereo lithography process.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the generative type CAPP. (6)
(ii) Explain the computer integrated production (6)
management system.
23.A) (i) Explain the construction and working of a CNC turning (6)
centre.
(ii) Write short notes on friction slide ways and (6)
antifriction slide ways.
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the construction and working of a die sinking EDM. (6)
(ii) Explain about the machine axes conventions of turning (6)
centre and machining centre.
24.A) (i) Explain the APT programming. (6)
(ii) Explain the types of NC dimensioning. Explain with example. (6)
(OR)
B) (i) Explain about the datum points of CNC. (6)
(ii) Write a part program to create a thread of M24x1.2 (6)
in a CNC lathe.
25.A) (i) Write short notes on : (a) Flexible manufacturing cells (6)
(b) Flexible transfer lines.
(ii) Explain the different types AGVS. (6)
(OR)
B) (i) Explain the methods of robot programming. (6)
(ii) Explain the application of robot in welding industry. (6)

Q P.14