CADCAM Min

LECTURE NOTES
ON
INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM
2023 – 2024
III B. Tech I Semester

Mr. K.RAJASEKHAR, Assistant Professor
ANAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AND SCIENCES, TIRUPATI
(AUTONOMOUS)
Venkatapuram village, Renigunta mandal, Tirupati – 517 506
Department of Mechanical Engineering

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND
SCIENCES, TIRUPATI (AUTONOMOUS)
Year: III Semester : I Branch of Study : ME
Subject Code Subject Name L T P Credits

20APE0302 Introduction to CAD/CAM 3 0 0 3
Course Outcomes:
CO: 1 Understand the basic concepts components of CAD/CAM concepts of Graphics
Techniques.
CO: 2 Understand the concepts of Geometric representation methods.
CO: 3 Understand and apply Numerical CNC Part Programming methods.
CO: 4 Understand the concepts of Group technology and techniques, production flow
Analysis.
CO: 5 Understand the concepts of FMS and its elements.
UNIT I
Introduction: Definition and scope of CAD/CAM- Computers in industrial manufacturing,
design process Computer Aided Design (CAD)-Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)-
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Graphics: Data base for graphic modeling-transformation geometry-3D transformations –
Clipping-hidden line removal-Colour-shading.
UNIT II
Geometric modelling Parametric representation of curves, solids & surfaces. Geometric
construction methods-Constraint based modeling- Wireframe, Surface- Bezier , B-Spline
Surfaces and Solid- Constructive Solid Geometry, Boundary representation and Cellular
Decomposition.
UNIT III
NC Control production systems: Introduction to NC, CNC, DNC - Manual part Programming –
Computer Assisted Part Programming – Examples using NC codes- Adaptive Control – Canned
cycles and subroutines – CAD/ CAM approach to NC part programming – APT language
UNIT IV
Role of information systems in manufacturing Discrete part manufacture-information requirements
of a production organization-manufacturing strategies Integration requirement – Group
Technology-coding-Production flow analysis-computer part programming CAPP implementation
techniques.
UNIT V
Automated manufacturing systems Flexible Manufacturing systems (FMS) – the FMS concepts
– transfer systems – head changing FMS – Introduction to Rapid prototyping, Knowledge Based
Engineering, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality – automated guided vehicle-Robots-automated
storage and retrieval systems - computer aided quality controlCMM-Non contact inspection
methods.
Text Books:
1. P.N.Rao, CAD/CAM: Principles &Applications-3rd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. CAD/CAM Concepts & applications/Alavala/PHI
Reference Books:
1. CAD/CAM Theory and Practice / IbrahimZeid / TMH.
2. CAD/CAM/CIM Radha Krishnan & Subramanian / New age
3. Principles of computer Aided Design and Manufacturing / Fanlc / Amirouche / Pearson.
4. Computer Numerical Control Concepts and Programming / Warrens & Seames / Thomson
Performance
List of PO no. and keyword Competency
Indicator
COs
CO: 1 PO 1: Engineering knowledge 1.6 1.3.1
CO: 2 PO 5: Modern tool usage 5.2 5.2.2
CO: 3 PO 2: Problem analysis 2.5 2.1.2
CO: 4 PO 5: Modern tool usage: 5.2 5.2.2
CO: 5 PO 7: Environment and sustainability 7.4 7.4.1
ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &
SCIENCES(AUTONOMOUS)
Karakambadi Road, Venkatapuram (Vi), Tirupati
COURSE OUTCOMES & COURSE OBJECTIVES

Name of the Faculty : K. Rajasekhar
Subject : Introduction to CAD/CAM
Subject Code : 20APE0302
Class & Branch / Specialization : III B.TECH I SEM Mechanical Engineering
S.No Course Objectives

1. Understand the basic concepts components of CAD/CAM concepts of Graphics
Techniques.
2. Understand the concepts of Geometric representation methods.
3. Understand and apply Numerical CNC Part Programming methods.
4. Understand the concepts of Group technology and techniques, production

flow Analysis.
5. Understand the concepts of FMS and its elements.
Signature of Faculty Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

Date : Date : Date :
UNIT I
Introduction: Definition and scope of CAD/CAM- Computers in industrial manufacturing, design
process Computer Aided Design (CAD)-Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)- Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) Graphics: Data base for graphic modeling-transformation geometry-3D
transformations – Clipping-hidden line removal- Colour-shading.
INTRODUCTION:
In today’s global competition, industries cannot survive unless they introduce new products or existing
ones with:
– Better quality
– Lower cost
– Shorter lead time
Computer aided design (CAD): CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in
creation, modification, analysis and optimization
Computer aided machining (CAM): CAM can be defined as the use of computer systems to plan,
manage and control a manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect computer interface with the
plant’s production resources.
 3D CAD data can be read by CAM software which takes 3D data & CNC machine parameters
as inputs and delivers a tool path that cuts metal as per the part designs.
 The tool path so generated can be simulated on the screen to evaluate tool gauging so that the
machining run is perfect.
Computer Integrated manufacturing (CIM):
• Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is manufacturing supported by computers. It is
the total integration of Computer Aided Design / Manufacturing and also other business
operations and databases.
• Definition: CIM is the integration of total manufacturing enterprise by using integrated
systems and data communication coupled with new managerial philosophies that improve
organizational and personnel efficiency.
• The CIM concept is that all the operations related to the production function in an
integrated computer system to assist, enhance and /or automate the operations.
• The computer system is spread throughout the firm, touching all the activities that support
manufacturing.
• In this integrated computer system, the output of one activity serves as the input to the next
activity, through the chain of events that starts with the sales order and finishes with
shipment of the product.
Figure 1 Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM

Figure 2 Computerized elements of CIM system
• Customer orders are initial y entered by the company‟s sales force into a
computerized order-entry system. The orders contain the specifications
describing the product.
• The specifications serves as input to the design
• New products are designed on a CAD system. The components that comprise
product are designed, the BOM is complied, and assembly dwgs are prepared.
• The output of design serves as input to mfg. engg, where process planning,
tool design and similar activities are accomplished to prepare for production
• The output of mfg. engg. Provides input to the PPC, where MRP and
scheduling is performed
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE):
• Computer-aided Engineering analysis (often referred to as CAE) is the
application of computer software in engineering to analyze the robustness and
performance of components and assemblies.
• It encompasses simulation, validation and optimization of products and
manufacturing tools.
• Parts and assemblies designed in CAD software can be „analyzed‟ for their
field performances right on the computer screen.
• Most of the olden-day destructive testing methods have found mathematical
replacements in the modern-day CAE software.
• CAE software delivers results that help analyzing designs.
• Analysis tools are available for
• static stress-strain,
• deflection,
• thermal,
• flow,
• motion,
• vibration
• This allows designers to “design-right-the-first-time”.
• Use of computer systems to analyze CAD geometry
• Allows designer to simulate and study how the product will behave, allowing
for optimization
• Finite-element method (FEM)
• Divides model into interconnected elements
• Solves continuous field problems
Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing):
Figure 3 Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing)
• Driven by customers and markets which demand the product

• In some cases, design functions are performed by the customer and the
product is manufactured by a different firm.
• In other cases, design and manufacturing is accomplished by the same firm
1. The product cycle begins with a concept, an idea of a product.
2. This concept refined, analyzed, improved and translated into a plan for the
product through the design engineering process.
3. The plan is documented by drafting a set of engineering drawings showing how
the product is made and providing a set of specifications indicating how the
product should perform
4. A process plan is formulated which specifies sequence of production operations
required to make the product.
5. New equipment and tools sometimes be acquired to produce the new product.
6. Scheduling provides a plan that commits the company to manufacture of certain
quantities of the product by certain dates.
7. Once all these plans are formulated product goes into production.
8. It is followed by quality testing and delivery to the customer.
Product Cycle revised with CAD/CAM overlaid:
 Computer aided design and computer automated drafting are utilized in
conceptualization, design and documentation of the product.
 Computers are used in process planning and scheduling to perform these functions
more efficiently.
 Computers are used in production to monitor and control the manufacturing
operations.
 In quality control, computer are used to perform inspections and performance
tests on the product and its components
Figure 4 Product Cycle revised with CAD/CAM overlaid
Mathematical Model for product life cycle:
 Let T1 be the time required to produce 1 unit of product.
 This includes sum of individual process times plus time to assemble,
inspect and package a single product.
 T2 be time associated with planning and setting for each batch of
production
 This include the ordering of raw materials by purchasing department,
time required in production planning to schedule the batch, setup times
for each operation etc.
 T3 be the time required for designing the product and for all other
activities that are accomplished once for each different product.
 These include process planning, cost estimating and pricing, building of
special tools and fixtures.
 B be the number of batches produced throughout the product life cycle.
 Q be the number of units produced in each batch.
 The aggregate time spent on the product throughout its life cycle can be
The average time spent on each unit of product during its life cycle.
 In mass and batch production the T2 and T3 terms can be spread over a
large number of units.
 Their relative values, therefore becomes less important as the production
quantities increase. The T1 term becomes most important term.
 In job shop manufacturing, the T2 and T3 terms can become significant
because the quantities are so low.
Relationship between CAD/CAM & Automation:
• The goal of CAD/CAM and automation is to reduce the various time elements
in product life cycle.
• With this there is increase in productivity and improve in standard of living.
• The automation technology is concerned with reducing the T1 and T2
Elements, with emphasize on the unit production cost (T1).
• The CAD/CAM technology is concerned with all the three terms but is
perhaps focused on the T3 and T2 terms in the life cycle model.
• CAD/CAM has made important contribution towards integrating the functions
of design and manufacturing
The manufacturing database from CAD/CAM:
In the conventional manufacturing cycle practiced for so many years in industry,
• Engineering drawings were Prepared by design draftsman and then used by
manufacturing engineer to prepare process plan (“Route Sheet”)
• The activities involved in the designing the product were separated from the
activities associated with process planning.
• Essentially a two-step procedure was employed.
• This was both time consuming and involved duplication of efforts by design
and manufacturing personnel
• In an integrated CAD/CAM system, a direct link is established between
product design and manufacturing.
• It is goal of CAD/CAM not only to automate certain design phases of design
and certain phases of mfg., but also to automate the transition from design to
manufacturing.
• Computer- based systems have been developed which create much of the data
and documentation required to plan and manage the mfg. operations for the
product.
• The manufacturing data base is an integrated CAD/CAM data base.
• It includes all the data on the product generated during design (geometry data,
BOM , material specifications) as well as additional data required for mfg.,
much of which based on the product design
Fig 5. The manufacturing database from CAD/CAM

Benefits of CAD:
• Productivity improvement in Design
• Shorter lead times
• Reduced engineering personnel requirement
• Customer modifications are easier to make
• Rapid response of the design analysis
• Improved accuracy of design
• Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
• Provide better functional analysis to reduce prototype testing
• Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
• Assistance in preparation of documentation
• Minimized transcription errors
• Designs have more standardization
• Fewer errors in NC part programming
• Better communication interfaces and greater understanding among engineers,
designers, drafters, management and different project groups.
Computer Graphics Software:
• The graphic software is the collection of programs written to make it
convenient for user to operate the computer graphics system.
• It includes programs to generate images on the CRT screen, to manipulate the
images, and to accomplish various types interaction between the user and the
system.
• Some other programs for implementing specialized functions of CAD/CAM
are
1. Design analysis programs (FEA & kinematic simulation)
2. Manufacturing planning programs (e.g. automated process planning and
numerical control part programming )
Ground rules in Designing Software:
1. Simplicity : The graphics software should be easy to use
2. Consistency: The package should operate in a consistent and predictable way
to the user
3. Completeness: There should be no inconvenient omissions in the set of
graphics function
4. Robustness : The graphics system should be tolerant of minor instances of
misuse by the operator
5. Performance: Within limitations imposed by the system hardware, the
performance should be exploited as much as possible by software. Graphics
program should be efficient and speed of response should be fast and
consistent.
6. Economy: Graphics programs should not be so large or expensive as to make
their use prohibitive
The software configuration of a graphics system:
In the operation of the graphics system by the user, a variety of activities take place,
which can be divided into three types
• Interact with the graphics terminal to create and alter images on the screen
• Construct a model of something physical out of the images on the screen. The
models are sometimes called as application models
• Enter the model into computer memory and/or secondary storage.
Graphics software:
The graphics software can be divided into three modules
• The graphics package
• The application program
• The application data base
Application Program
• It controls the storage of data into and retrieves data out of application
database
• The application program is driven by the user through the graphics package
• The application program is implemented by the user to construct the model of
a physical entity whose image to be viewed on the graphics screen.
• Application programs are written for particular problem areas.
• Problem areas in engineering design would include arch, construction, mech.
Components, ext, chem, aerospace.
• Problem areas other than deign include flight simulators, graphical display of
data, mathematical analysis, and even artwork
Graphics Package
• The graphics package is the software support between the user and the
graphics terminal.
• It manages the graphical interaction between the user and the system
• It also serves as a s/w support between the user and the application software
• The graphics package consist of input subroutines and output subroutines
• The input subroutine accepts the input commands and data from the user and
forward them to the application program
• The output subroutines control the display terminal (or other output device)
and converts the application models into 2D or 3D graphics pictures.
Application data base
• The database contains mathematical, numerical and logical definitions of the
application models, such as electronic ckts, mechanical components,
automobile bodies, and so forth.
• It also contains alphanumeric information associated with the models, such as
BOM, mass properties and other data.
• The contents of the data base can be readily displayed on the CRT or plotted
out in hard copy form.
Functions of a Graphics package:
• Generation of graphics elements
• Transformations
• Display control and windowing function
• Segmenting functions
• User input functions
Generation of graphics elements
• A graphic element in computer graphics is a basic image entity such as a dot
(or point), line segment, circle, and so forth
• The collection of elements in the system could also include alphanumeric
characters and special symbols
• There is often a special hardware component in the graphics system associated
with the display of many of the elements.
• This speeds up the process of generating the element
• The user can construct the application model out of collection of elements
• The term primitive is used in reference to the graphics element
• E.g. sphere, cube, or cylinder
• In 3D wire frame models and solid modelling, primitives are used as building
blocks.
Transformations
• Transformations are used to change the image on the display screen
• Transformations are applied to graphics elements in order to aid the user in
constructing an application model
• It includes enlargement and reduction of the image by a process called scaling,
repositioning the image or translation, and rotation.
Display control and windowing
• This provides the user with the ability to view the image from the desired
angle and at the desired magnification
• Another aspect of display control is hidden line removal.
Segmenting function
• Segmenting provides user with the capability to selectively replace, delete or
otherwise modify portions of the image.
• The term segment refers to a particular portion of the image which has been
identified for the purpose of modifying it.
• Storage type CRT is unsuited to segmenting function.
User input output functions
• User input functions constitute a critical set of functions in the graphics
package because they permit the operator to enter commands or data to the
system.
• The entry is accomplished by means of operator input devices.
Constructing the geometry:
• The use of graphics elements
• Defining the graphics elements
• Editing the geometry
The use of graphics elements
 The graphics system accomplishes the definition of the model by constructing it
out of graphics elements
 These elements are called by the user during the construction process and added
one by one, to create the model
 There are several aspects about this construction process.
1. Each new element is being called but before it is added to the model, the user
can specify its size, its position and orientation.
These specifications are necessary to form the model to proper shape and size For
this purpose various transformations are utilized
2. Graphics element can be subtracted as well as added
Another way of saying this is that the model can be formed out of negative
elements as well as positive elements.
3. A third feature available during model building is the capability to group

several elements together into units which are sometimes called cells
A cell in this context, refers to a combination of elements which can be called
to use anywhere in the model e.g. a bolt is to be used in several places in
mechanical assembly
Define the graphics elements
• The user has variety of ways to call a particular graphic element and position it
on the geometric model
• Points, lines, arcs , circles can be defined in various ways through interaction
with the ICG system
• E.g. point can be defined simply by x, y and z coordinates. A polygon would
be defined as an ordered set of points representing the corners of the polygon
Editing the geometry
• A CAD provides system provides editing capabilities to make corrections and
adjustments in the geometric model
• When developing the model, the user must be able to delete, move, copy and
rotate the components of the model.
• The editing involves selecting the particular portion of the model, and
executing the appropriate command
Editing features in CAD
1. Move an item. This involves the translation of item from one place to
another
2. Duplication an item at another location. The copy function is similar to
move function except it preserves a copy of an item at its original location
3. Rotate an object. This is the rotation transformation, in which the item is
rotated through specified angle from its original orientation
4. Mirror an item. This crates a mirror image of an item about a specified
plane.
5. Delete an item. This causes selected segment of the model to be removed
from the screen and from the database.
6. Trim an line or other component
7. Scale an item
 The method of selecting the segment of the model varies from system to system
1. With cursor control common method is for a rectangle to be formed on the CRT
screen around the model segment. The rectangle is defines by entering the upper
left and lower right corners of the rectangle
2. It involves light pen to be placed over the component t be selected
 The computer must some how show indicate to the user which portion of the
model has been selected
 This includes placing mark on the segment, making segment brighter than the rest
of the image, and making the segment blink.
Transformations
• 2-D Transformations
• 3-D Transformations
Two-dimensional Transformations
• To locate a point in a two-axis Cartesian system, the x and y coordinates are
specified.
• These coordinate can be treated together as a 1 x 2 matrix : (x, y), e.g. the
matrix (1,4) would be interpreted to be point which is 1 unit from the origin in
the x-direction and 4 units from the origin in the y-direction.
• This method of representation can be extended further to define a line as a
2 x 2 matrix by giving x and y coordinates of the two end points of the line.
The notation would be,
Translation
• Translation involves moving the element from one location to another
x‟= x + m, y‟ = y + n
Where,
x‟, y‟ = coordinates of the translated point

x, y = coordinates of the original point
m, n= movements in the x and y direction
In the matrix notation this can be representedas,(x‟,
y‟) = (x, y) + T
Where,
T = (m, n), the transformation matrix
• Scaling
Scaling of an element is used to enlarge it or reduce its size. The scaling need
not necessarily be done equally in x and y directions. e.g. a circle can be
transformed into ellipse by using unequal x and y scaling factors.
The points of an element can be scaled by scaling factor as follows:
(x‟, y‟) = (x, y ) S
Where
• This would produce an alternation in the size of the element by the factor m in
the x-direction and by the factor n in the y direction
• It also repositions the element
• If the scaling factor is <1 , it is moved closer to origin
• If the scaling factor is >1 , it is moved farther from the origin
Rotation
In this transformation, the points of an object are rotated about the origin by
anangle θ
For a positive angle, this rotation is in the counter clockwise direction
This accomplishes rotation of the object by the same angle, but it also
Moves the object. In matrix notation the procedure will be as follows:
(x‟, y‟) = (x, y) R
Where
Example : Translation
Consider the line defined by,
Suppose the line to be translate in space by 2 units in x direction and 3 units in the y
direction.
Example : Scaling
• Apply scaling factor of 2 to the line
The new line will be,
Example: Rotation
Rotate the line about origin by 30°
The new line would be defined as:

The new line will be,
3 Dimensional Transformation
• Transformations by matrix methods can be extended to three dimensional
space.
Translation
• The translation matrix for a point defined in three dimensional matrix would
be, T = (m, n, p)
And would be applied by adding increments m, n and p to the respective
coordinates of each of the points defining the three-dimensional geometry
elements
Scaling
The scaling transformation is given by,
For equal values of m, n and p, the scaling is linear

Rotation
• Rotation in three dimensions can be defined for each of the axes
• Rotation about z axis by angle θ is accomplished by the matrix
• Rotation about y axis by angle θ is accomplished by the matrix
 Rotation about x axis by angle θ is accomplished by the matrix
Concatenation
• Single transformations can be combined as a sequence of transformations.
This is called as concatenation, and the combined transformations are called
concatenated transformations.
• During editing process when a graphics model is being developed , the use of
concatenated transformation is quite common
• More than one transformations are usually requires to accomplish the desired
transformation
e.g.
1. Rotation of the element about an arbitrary point the element
2. Magnifying the element but maintaining the location of one of its points in the
same location
• In the first case transformations would be: translation to the origin, then
rotation about the origin, then translation back to original location
• In the second case , the element would be scaled (magnified) followed by a
translation to locate the desired point as needed
• The objective of the concatenation is to accomplish a series of image
manipulations as a single transformation
• The concatenation is the product of the two transformation matrix
• It is important that order of matrix multiplication be the same as the order in
which the transformations are to be carried out.
Example: Concatenation
• A point to be scaled by a factor of 2 and rotated by 45°. Suppose point under
consideration was (3, 1). This may be one of the several points defining a
geometric element
• First accomplish the transformations sequentially,
First consider the scaling,
(x‟, y ‟) = (x, y)S
Next rotation can be

performed (x”, y”) = ( x‟, y‟)
R
The same result can be accomplished by concatenating the two transformation

matrices, The product of the two matrices would be
Now applying this concatenated transformation to the original matrix

Homogeneous representation:
• In order to concatenate the transformations matrices, all transformation
matricesshould be multiplicative type.
• However, the translation matrix is vector additive while all other
are matrixmultiplications.
• It is desirable, to express all geometric transformations in form that,
they can beconcatenated by matrix multiplication only.
• In homogeneous representation, an n-dimensional space is mapped into (n+1)
dimensional space.
• Thus a 2 dimensional point [x, y] is represented with the homogeneous
coordinatetriple (xh,yh,h)
Where,
• Thus, a general homogeneous coordinate can also be written as (h.x, h.y, h).
• For two-dimensional geometric transformations, homogeneous parameter
h to be anynonzero value.
• Thus, there is an infinite number of equivalent homogeneous
representations for eachcoordinate point (x, y)
• A convenient choice is simply to set h=1.
• Each two-dimensional position is then represented with coordinates (x, y, 1)
• This facilitates the computer graphics operations where the concatenation
of multipletransformations can be easily carried out.
• The translation matrix in multiplication form can be given as,
The transformation operation can be written as
The scaling matrix in multiplication form can be given as,

The rotation matrix in multiplication form can be given as,
A square ABCD of side 50 units having one of its vertex at A(10,10) is to be

scaled by 0.8 along x axis and 1.2 along y-axis. The model is then rotated
about origin by 30° in anticlockwise direction. Perform the necessary
transformations using homogeneous transformation matrix and show them on
graph paper.
Viewing & Clipping
The primary use of clipping in computer graphics is to remove objects, lines, or line segments
that are outside the viewing pane. The viewing transformation is insensitive to the position of
points relative to the viewing volume − especially those points behind the viewer − and it is
necessary to remove these points before generating the view.
Point Clipping
Clipping a point from a given window is very easy. Consider the following figure, where the
rectangle indicates the window. Point clipping tells us whether the given point X,Y is within
the given window or not; and decides whether we will use the minimum and maximum
coordinates of the window.
The X-coordinate of the given point is inside the window, if X lies in between Wx1 ≤ X ≤
Wx2. Same way, Y coordinate of the given point is inside the window, if Y lies in between
Wy1 ≤ Y ≤ Wy2.
Line Clipping
The concept of line clipping is same as point clipping. In line clipping, we will cut the portion
of line which is outside of window and keep only the portion that is inside the window.
Cohen-Sutherland Line Clippings
This algorithm uses the clipping window as shown in the following figure. The minimum
coordinate for the clipping region is (XWmin,YWmin) and the maximum coordinate for the
clipping region is (XWmax,YWmax)
.
We will use 4-bits to divide the entire region. These 4 bits represent the Top, Bottom,
Right, and Left of the region as shown in the following figure. Here,
the TOP and LEFT bit is set to 1 because it is the TOP-LEFT corner.
There are 3 possibilities for the line −
 Line can be completely inside the window This line should be accepted.
 Line can be completely outside of the window This line will be completely
removed from the region.
 Line can be partially inside the window we will find intersection point and draw
only that portion of line that is inside region.
Algorithm
Step 1 − Assign a region code for each endpoints.
Step 2 − If both endpoints have a region code 0000 then accept this line.
Step 3 − Else, perform the logical AND operation for both region codes.
Step 3.1 − If the result is not 0000, then reject the line.
Step 3.2 − Else you need clipping.
Step 3.2.1 − Choose an endpoint of the line that is outside the window.
Step 3.2.2 − Find the intersection point at the window boundary base on region
code.
Step 3.2.3 − Replace endpoint with the intersection point and update the region
code.
Step 3.2.4 − Repeat step 2 until we find a clipped line either trivially accepted or
trivially rejected.
Step 4 − Repeat step 1 for other lines.
Cyrus-Beck Line Clipping Algorithm
This algorithm is more efficient than Cohen-Sutherland algorithm. It employs
parametric line representation and simple dot products.
Parametric equation of line is −
P0P1:P(t) = P0 + t(P1 - P0)

Let Ni be the outward normal edge Ei. Now pick any arbitrary point PEi on edge Ei then the
dot product Ni.[Pt – PEi] determines whether the point Pt
is “inside the clip edge” or “outside” the clip edge or “on” the clip edge.
The point Pt is inside if Ni.[Pt– PEi] < 0
The point Pt is outside if Ni.[Pt– PEi] > 0
The point Pt is on the edge if Ni.[Pt – PEi] = 0 Intersection point
Ni.[Pt – PEi] = 0
Ni.[ P0 + t(P1 - P0) – PEi] = 0 Replacing P(t with P0 + t(P1 - P0))
Ni.[P0 – PEi] + Ni.t[P1 - P0] = 0
Ni.[P0 – PEi] + Ni∙tD = 0 (substituting D for [P1 - P0])
Ni.[P0 – PEi] = - Ni∙tD
The equation for t becomes,

It is valid for the following conditions −
Ni ≠ 0 error cannot happen
D ≠ 0 (P1 ≠ P0)
Ni∙D ≠ 0 (P0P1 not parallel to Ei)
COLOUR -SHADING
Shading is concerned with the implementation of the illumination model
at the pixel points or polygon surfaces of the graphics objects. In particular, in Computer Graphics,
Shading is a method used to create or enhance the illusion of depth in an image by varying the amount
of darkness in the image.
Shading is referred to as the implementation of the illumination model at the pixel points or
polygon surfaces of the graphics objects.
Shading model is used to compute the intensities and colors to display the surface. The
shading model has two primary ingredients: properties of the surface and properties of the
illumination falling on it. The principal surface property is its reflectance, which determines
how much of the incident light is reflected. If a surface has different reflectance for the light
of different wavelengths, it will appear to be colored.
An object illumination is also significant in computing intensity. The scene may have to save
illumination that is uniform from all direction, called diffuse illumination.
Shading models determine the shade of a point on the surface of an object in terms of a
number of attributes. The shading Mode can be decomposed into three parts, a contribution
from diffuse illumination, the contribution for one or more specific light sources and a
transparency effect. Each of these effects contributes to shading term E which is summed to
find the total energy coming from a point on an object. This is the energy a display should
generate to present a realistic image of the object. The energy comes not from a point on the
surface but a small area around the point.
The simplest form of shading considers only diffuse illumination:
Epd=Rp Id
where Epd is the energy coming from point P due to diffuse illumination. I d is the diffuse
illumination falling on the entire scene, and R p is the reflectance coefficient at P which ranges
from shading contribution from specific light sources will cause the shade of a surface to vary
as to its orientation concerning the light sources changes and will also include specular
reflection effects. In the above figure, a point P on a surface, with light arriving at an angle of
incidence i, the angle between the surface normal N p and a ray to the light source. If the
energy Ips arriving from the light source is reflected uniformly in all directions, called diffuse
reflection, we have
Eps=(Rp cos i)Ips
This equation shows the reduction in the intensity of a surface as it's tipped obliquely to the
light source. If the angle of incidence i exceeds90°, the surface is hidden from the light source
and we must set Epsto zero.
Constant Intensity Shading
A fast and straightforward method for rendering an object with polygon surfaces is constant
intensity shading, also called Flat Shading. In this method, a single intensity is calculated for
each polygon. All points over the surface of the polygon are then displayed with the same
intensity value. Constant Shading can be useful for quickly displaying the general
appearances of the curved surface as shown in fig:
In general, flat shading of polygon facets provides an accurate rendering for an object if all of
the following assumptions are valid:-
The object is a polyhedron and is not an approximation of an object with a curved surface.
All light sources illuminating the objects are sufficiently far from the surface so that N. L and
the attenuation function are constant over the surface (where N is the unit normal to a surface
and L is the unit direction vector to the point light source from a position on the surface).
The viewing position is sufficiently far from the surface so that V. R is constant over the
surface (where V is the unit vector pointer to the viewer from the surface position and R
represent a unit vector in the direction of ideal specular reflection).
Gouraud shading
This Intensity-Interpolation scheme, developed by Gouraud and usually referred to as

Gouraud Shading, renders a polygon surface by linear interpolating intensity value across the
surface. Intensity values for each polygon are coordinate with the value of adjacent polygons
along the common edges, thus eliminating the intensity discontinuities that can occur in flat
shading.
Each polygon surface is rendered with Gouraud Shading by performing the following
calculations:
1. Determining the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.

2. Apply an illumination model to each vertex to determine the vertex intensity.
3. Linear interpolate the vertex intensities over the surface of the polygon.
At each polygon vertex, we obtain a normal vector by averaging the surface normals of all
polygons staring that vertex as shown in fig:
Once we have the vertex normals, we can determine the intensity at the vertices from a
lighting model.
Following figures demonstrate the next step: Interpolating intensities along the polygon
edges. For each scan line, the intensities at the intersection of the scan line with a polygon
edge are linearly interpolated from the intensities at the edge endpoints. For example:
In fig, the polygon edge with endpoint vertices at position 1 and 2 is intersected by the
scanline at point 4. A fast method for obtaining the intensities at point 4 is to interpolate
between intensities I1 and I2 using only the vertical displacement of the scan line.
Fig : For Gourand shading , the intesity at point 4 is linearly interpolated from the intensities
at verticies 1 and 2 .The intenssity at point is linearly interploted from intensities at vertices 2 and 3.
An interior point P is then assigned an intensity value that is linerly interpolated from intensities at
position 4 and 5.
Similarly, the intensity at the right intersection of this scan line (point 5) is interpolated from the
intensity values at vertices 2 and 3. Once these bounding intensities are established for a scan line, an
interior point (such as point P in the previous fig) is interpolated from the bounding intensities at point
4 and 5 as
Incremental calculations are used to obtain successive edge intensity values between scan lines and to
obtain successive intensities along a scan line as shown in fig:
If the intensity at edge position (x, y) is interpolated as
Then we can obtain the intensity along this edge for the next scan line, Y-1 as
Similar calculations are used to obtain intensities at successive horizontal pixel positions
along each scan line.
When surfaces are to be rendered in color, the intensities of each color component is
calculated at the vertices. Gouraud Shading can be connected with a hidden-surface algorithm
to fill in the visible polygons along each scan-line. An example of an object-shaded with the
Gouraud method appears in the following figure
Gouraud Shading discards the intensity discontinuities associated with the constant-shading model,
but it has some other deficiencies. Highlights on the surface are sometimes displayed with anomalous
shapes, and the linear intensity interpolation can cause bright or dark intensity streaks, called Match
bands, to appear on the surface. These effects can be decreased by dividing the surface into a higher
number of polygon faces or by using other methods, such as Phong shading, that requires more
calculations.
Phong Shading
A more accurate method for rendering a polygon surface is to interpolate the normal vector
and then apply the illumination model to each surface point. This method developed by
Phong Bui Tuong is called Phong Shading or normal vector Interpolation Shading. It displays
more realistic highlights on a surface and greatly reduces the Match-band effect.
A polygon surface is rendered using Phong shading by carrying out the following steps:
1. Determine the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.

2. Linearly & interpolate the vertex normals over the surface of the polygon.
3. Apply an illumination model along each scan line to calculate projected pixel intensities for
the surface points.
Interpolation of the surface normal along a polynomial edge between two vertices as shown in fig:
Incremental methods are used to evaluate normals between scan lines and along each scan
line. At each pixel position along a scan line, the illumination model is applied to determine
the surface intensity at that point.
Intensity calculations using an approximated normal vector at each point along the scan line
produce more accurate results than the direct interpolation of intensities, as in Gouraud
Shading. The trade-off, however, is that phong shading requires considerably more
calculations.
LECTURE NOTES
ON
2023 – 2024

ANAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AND SCIENCES, TIRUPATI
(AUTONOMOUS)

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND
SCIENCES, TIRUPATI (AUTONOMOUS)

Course Outcomes:
Techniques.
Analysis.
UNIT I
UNIT II
construction methods-Constraint based modeling- Wireframe, Surface- Bezier , B-Spline
Decomposition.
UNIT III
Computer Assisted Part Programming – Examples using NC codes- Adaptive Control – Canned
cycles and subroutines – CAD/ CAM approach to NC part programming – APT language
UNIT IV
techniques.
UNIT V
methods.
Text Books:
Reference Books:
Performance
Indicator
COs
ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &
SCIENCES(AUTONOMOUS)


1. Understand the basic concepts components of CAD/CAM concepts of Graphics
Techniques.
4. Understand the concepts of Group technology and techniques, production

flow Analysis.

UNIT II
Geometric modelling parametric representation of curves, solids & surfaces. Geometric construction
methods-Constraint based modeling- Wireframe, Surface- Bezier, B-Spline Surfaces and Solid-
Constructive Solid Geometry, Boundary representation and Cellular Decomposition.
GEOMETRIC MODELING
INTRODUCTION
Geometric modeling is a branch of applied mathematical and computational geometry

that studies methods and algorithms for mathematical description of shapes
The shapes studied in Geometric modeling are mostly 2-Dimensional or 3-Dimensional
although many of its tools and principles can be applied to sets of any finite dimension. Most
Geometric modeling is done with computer and computer-based applications. 2-Dimensions
models are important in computer typography (The art and technique of arranging type in order
to make language visible) and technical drawings. 3-Dimensional models are central to CAD
and CAD many applied technical fields. Such as civil, mechanical, architecture, geology,
medical image processing.
NEED OF GEOMETRIC MODELING
For manufacturing automobile engine it require around 10,000 drawings models in

various departments with different styles. Once models are prepared using any CAD software,
these models can be used in almost all departments of the organization which includes-
1. Designing the parts and assemblies and then performing tolerance analysis of the
assemblies.
2. Preparation of production drawings of individual parts, subassemblies, assemblies, tooling
and jig-fixtures.
3. Making structural, thermal and kinetic analysis.
4. Considering volume of parts and after extracting material properties from material library,
cost estimation can be easily done.
5. Process plans are also prepared for all the components.
6. Using CAM software’s, we can model as input for CNC programming.
7. Programming the movement of the components from one station to another is possible using
various material devices such as robots, conveyors, automated guided vehicles.
8. Using coordinate measuring machine (CMM) dimensional and geometric accuracies are
checked by extracting various dimensions and parametric from the models only.
9. Other supporting activities such as material requirement and procurement, preparation of bill
of materials, manufacturing resource requirement, planning and scheduling, analysis.
With competitions products etc are also possible once geometric models are available
thus for all these activities, geometric models become the central that will be manipulate at all
these storages. While modeling, geometric models are prepared in such a way that the other
modules such as CAM, CAE, Mechanism systems are able to use this information in the most
optimal and efficient way.
REQUIREMENTS OF GEOMETRIC MODELING
The requirement of geometric modeling is manifold. The conceptual design is the basis of
the generation of geometric model. The choice of the geometric model depends on the
mechanical functions to be performed by it. A valid geometric model is created by CAD system
and its model database is stored. The database of geometric modeling is used for engineering
analysis and for design optimization. Design testing and evaluation may necessitate changing the
geometric model before finalizing it. When the final design is achieved, it is documented and
used for subsequent manufacturing applications, quality and cost analysis.
Good geometric model is designed based in the following important guidelines-
1. Modeling method must be easy to use
2. Completeness of part representation
3. Representation should be able to represent a useful set of geometric objects
4. Model should not create any ambiguity (The ability to express more than one interpretation)
to users. A given representation should correspond to one and only one solid
5. To represent the solid normally there should only unique way. With this one can compare
two identical solid representations
6. A geometric model must be very accurate. There should not be any approximation
7. Geometric modeling should not create any invalid or impossible models
8. The various transformations such as move, rotation, scale etc and manipulations such as
union, intersect, subtract etc should able to be performed on geometric model
9. A good representation should be compact enough for saving space and allow for efficient
algorithms to determine desired physical characteristics
10. Geometric model should have shading and rendering (Generation an image for a model by
means of a computer program) capability to give realistic effect to the model
GEOMETRIC MODELS
The geometric models are broadly classified on the basis of geometric construction into the
Following categories
1. Two Dimensional (2D)
2. Three Dimensional (3D)
Two Dimensional (2D)

The 2D modeling includes the construction of geometrical faces, plane drawings, 2D
views (Top, Front, Right, and Light views) of objects. Presently, the application of 2D model
is limited to drafting, sheet metal manufacturing, Spot welding, Laser cutting etc.
Three dimensional (3D)
The 3D modeling is widely used for engineering applications. It provides all the
information required for animation, design analysis and manufacturing. The 3D objects are
shown in below figure.
The 3D models are further sub-divided into three groups:

1. WIREFRAME MODELING:
Wireframe modeling is the oldest and simplest methods of geometric modeling which
can be used to store model mathematically in the computer memory. It contains information
about the locations of all the points (vertices) and edges in space coordinates. Various
wireframe entities are points, lines, planer arcs, circle, curves etc. Each vertex is defined by x,
y, z coordinates. Edges are defined by a pair of vertices and faces are defined as three or more
edges. Thus, wireframe is a collection of edges, there is no skin defining the area between the
edges. This is the lowest level of modeling and has serious limitations. But it some applications
such as tool path simulation it is very convenient to use wireframe models.
Advantages of wireframe models:
1. It is simple methods and requires less memory space
2. It forms the basis for surface and solid modeling
3. Manipulations in the model can be done easily and quickly
Disadvantages:
1. One of the serious limitations in the ambiguity of orientation and viewing plane
2. Cannot model complex curve surfaces
3. Does not represent an actual solid (no surface and volume)
4. Physical properties such as mass, surface area, volume, center of gravity etc. are not
possible to calculate
5. Wireframe models has no knowledge of surface faces; therefore, it will not detect
interface between two matting components and this is serious drawback especially in
component assembly, kinematic analysis, NC tool and robot arm simulation
2. SURFACE MODELING:
Surface modeling is the next stage of wireframe modeling. In wireframe modeling

models are unable to represent complex surfaces of objects like car, ship, aero plane, wings,
castings etc. only a surface profile of these objects. A surface model represents the skin of an
object. These skins have no thickness or material type. Surface models define the surface
properties, as well as the edges of objects. These are often capable of clearly representing the
solid from the manufacturing. However, no information regarding the interior of the solid
model would be available which could be relevant for generating the NC cutter data. Further
the calculation of properties such as mass and inertia etc would be difficult. Surface modeling
facilities would be available as part of the modeling technique and would be used when such
surface is present in the product for design. For example, this method is used mode for
specific non-analytical surfaces, called sculptures surfaces such as those used for modeling the
car bodies and ship-hulls. There are a number of mathematical techniques available for
handling these surfaces such as Bezier and B-splines.
Advantage:
1. Eliminates much ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in wireframe models by hiding
lines not seen
2. Renders the model for better visualization and presentation, objects appear more realistic
3. Provides the surface geometry for CAM, NC machine
4. Provides the geometry needed by the manufacturing engineer for mould and die design
5. This can be used to design and analysis complex free-formed surfaces of ship hulls,
aero plane fuselages and bodies
6. Surface properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can be assigned and
demonstrated
Disadvantages:
1. Provides no information about the inside of an object
2. Curved surfaces need a fine mesh to be accurate
3. Provides wrong results if mesh is too coarse
4. Complicated computation, depending on the number of surfaces
3. SOLID MODELING:
Solid modeling is the most powerful of 3D modeling technique. This includes vertices
(nodes), edges, surfaces, weight and volume. This model consisting of the complete description
of the solid in a certain form is the most ideal representation, as all the information requires at
every stage of product cycle can be obtained with technique. Defining an object with a solid
model is the easiest of the available three modeling techniques. The model is a complete and
unambiguous representation of a precisely enclosed and filled volume. Solid model contain
bath geometric and available to represent the solid, but geometry two techniques are very
famous, these are constructive solid geometry (CSG) and boundary representation (B-rep)
Advantages:
1. Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, centre of gravity and moment of inertia can
be determined quickly
2. It allows the design engineer to develop and evaluate alternative concepts for parts and
assemblies while the design is still a theoretical model.
3. Solid models are non-ambiguous
4. Easily exported to different FEM programs for analysis
5. It can be used in newly manufacturing techniques; CIM, CAM, design for manufacturing
(DFM)
6. 2D standard drawings, assembly drawings and exploded drawings are generated from the
model.
Disadvantage:
1. More intensive computation than wireframe and surface modeling

2. Requires more powerful computers (faster with the more memory)
DIFFERENCE AMONG WIREFRAME, SURFACE AND SOLID MODELING
Parameter Wireframe model Surface model Solid model
1. Computer memory Less Moderate Large
Points, line, circle,

arc, ellipse, synthetic Plane, revolve, Solid primitives as
curves, such as ruled, tabulated, cone, cube, wedge,
2. Entities used
Bezier, hermite, B- free form surfaces cylinder, sphere etc
spline etc.
3. Input data required More Moderate Less

4. Automatic
orthographic, Impossible Impossible Easily possible
perspective, isometric
view generation
5. NC code generation Not possible Automatic possible Automatic possible
Not possible to
6. Interference between Can detect Can detect
matting parts detect
7. Rendering and shadow Not possible possible possible

effect
Not possible done Possible done
Not possible
8. Cross sectioning manually automatically
9. Elimination of hidden Done manually May be possible Possible

lines
10. Calculation of physical Possible to Possible to calculate
properties such as
Not possible calculate some all properties required
volume, surface area,
center of gravity, M.I properties for analysis
etc
11. Design parameters Not possible Not possible Possible
optimization
12. Generation of assembly
and detail drawings Not possible Not possible Possible
from model and vice
versa
Drafting, design,
manufacturing,
13. CAD/CAM/CAE Drafting Drafting, design analysis, assembly,
modules mechanism,
optimization
CURVE REPRESENTATION
• Curve is defined as the locus of point moving with one-degree freedom.

• A curve can be represented by following two methods either by storing its analytical
equation or by storing an array of co-ordinates of various points
Curves can be described mathematically by following methods:
I. Non-parametric form
a) Explicit form
b) Implicit form
II. Parametric form
I. Non-parametric form: In this, the object is described by its co-ordinates with respect tocurrent
reference frame in use.
a) Explicit form: In this, the co-ordinates of y and z of a point on curve are expressed as
twoseparate functions of x as independent variable.
P = [x y z]
= [x f(x) g(x)]
b) Implicit form: In this, the co-ordinates of x, y and z of a point on curve are related
together by two functions.
F (x, y, z) = 0
G (x, y, z) = 0
Limitation of nonparametric representation of curves are:
1. If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near vertical, its value becomes infinity
or very large, a difficult condition to deal with both computationally and
programming-wise. Other ill-defined mathematical conditions may result.
2. Shapes of most engineering objects are intrinsically independent of any coordinate
system. What determines the shape of an object is the relationship between its data
points themselves and not between these points and some arbitrary coordinate system.
3. If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight-line segments, the
computations involved could be extensive.
Parametric form:
In this, a parameter is introduced and the co-ordinates of x, y and z are expressed as functions
of this parameters. This parameter acts as a local co-ordinate for points on curve.
P (u) = [x y Z ]
= [x (u) y (u) z (u)]
Classification of Curves
 Curves can be classified as shown below mainly in two categories:
1. Analytical Curves:
 The curves which are defined by the analytical equations are known as analytical
curves.
 Examples: line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola etc.
2. Synthetic Curves:
 The curves which are defined by set of data points are known as synthetic curves.
 Combination of polynomial segments to represent a desired curve is called a
synthetic curve.
 These curves can be conveniently twisted, shaped or bent by changing the control
points.
 Examples: Cubic spline curve, B-spline curve, Bezier curve etc.
 Synthetic curves take up where the analytic curves leave – the latter are not that
efficient at geometric design of mechanical parts.
 Need for synthetic curves arise in two occasions:
 When a curve is represented by a collection of measured data points,
 When an existing curve must change to meet new design requirements the
designer needs a curve representation that is directly related to the data
points and is flexible enough to bend, twist or change the shape by
changing one or more data points.
 Some examples of complex geometric design are: Car bodies, Ship hulls, Airplane
fuselage and wings, Propeller blades, Shoe insoles, aesthetically designed bottles
etc.
 When the curve pass through all the data points, then the curve is known as
Interpolant curve. It sounds more logical but can be more unstable and ringing.
 When a smooth curve is approximated through the data points, then the curve is
known as approximation curve. It turns out to be convenient.
(a) Interpolation
(b) Approximation
Fig.2.1Interpolant and Approximated Curves
 Synthetic curve pass through defined data points and can thus represented by
polynomial equations.
 The parametric form for any synthetic curve is:
P u C 3u3 C 2 u2 C 1u C 0
where, u = Parameter and Ci = Polynomial coefficients

Parametric representation of analytical curve
 Lines
 A line can be represented in a parametric form by an input of two endpoints or by one
point and a length and direction. Besides these, modifiers and filters can be used to
represent these lines. The two important methods of establishing equations for lines
are considered.
A line connecting two endpoints in parametric form, having the values of parameter u as 0
and 1 at the endpoints:
Fig 2.2 Line between Two Endpoints
 Consider a line between two given endpoints P1 (x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) as shown
in Fig. 2.2. The position vectors for these two points would be P 1 and P2. Consider any
point P (x, y, z) on the line P1 P2.
 Let a parametric system be introduced such that the point P is represented by the
parameter u such that its values are 0 and 1 at endpoints P1 and P2 respectively.
 From ∆OPP1, we can express the vector between endpoints P1 and P as P - P1. This
vector represents the parameter u.
The mapping between the Cartesian and parametric space can be done by the following
relation:
Distance of P from P1 in Cartesian space Endpoint Length in Cartesian space


Distance of P from P1 in parametric space Endpoint Length in parametric space
P P1 P2 P1

u 1
P P1  u  P2 P1 
P  P1 u  P2 P1  where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
 This equation represents the vector equation of the line in parametric form. In scalar
form, it can be written as:
x  x1  u  x2  x1 
y  y1  u  y2  y1 
z  z1  u  z2  z1  where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
 Any point on the above line or its extension can be found by substituting the value of
Parameter u. The tangent vector of the line would be represented by:
P'  P2 P1
 In scalar form these would have the coordinates expressed by the following equations:
x '  x2  x1
y '  y2  y1
z'  z2  z1
 It can be seen that the tangent vector is independent of the parameter u, thus
representing the constant slope of the line. Above equations are sufficient to represent
all properties of the line for CAD/CAM representation. The length L and direction
vector n can be calculated using the following equations :
A line passing through a point and defined by a length and direction:

Consider a case, where a line is to pass through a point P1 and has its length L and direction
vector n defined as input as shown in Fig. 2.3. The computation of the endpoint of this line needs to be
done based on the above inputs. As seen earlier,
Once the user inputs P1, L and n , the endpoint can be calculated as per the above equation. The
two endpoints can then be expressed in parametric form with values of parameter u as 0 and 1.
Fig. 2.3 Line passing through a point and defined by a Length and Direction
Parallel Lines
Fig. 2.4 Parallel Lines
 Assume that the existing line has the two endpoints P1 and P2, a length L1, and a
direction defined by the unit vector length L2 and endpoints P3 and P4.

The unit vector n1 is given by
 The unit vector for the parallel line will be same as unit vector for the existing line.
 The equation of parallel line becomes,

P  P3 u  P4 P3 



Distance of a point from line
Example 2.1: For the position vectors P1[1 2] and P2[4 3], determine the parametric
representation of line segment between them. Also determine the slope and tangent vector of
line segment.
A parametric representation of line is
P  P1 u  P2 P1 
= [1 2] + u ([4 3] – [1 2])
= [1 2] + u [3 1]
Parametric representation of x and y components are
x(u) = x1 + u (x2 – x1)
= 1 + 3u
y(u) = y1 + u (y2 – y1)
=2+u
The tangent vector is obtained by differentiating P(u)
P’(u) = *x’(u) y’(u)+
= [3 1]
The slope of line segment is
Circles
Fig. 2.7 Circle in Parametric Form
 A circle is represented in the CAD/CAM database by storing the values of its center and
its radius. In a parametric form, a circle shown in Fig. 2.7, can be represented by the
following set of equations:
x  xc  R Cos u
y  yc  R Sin u
z  zc
where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 2ᴫ
 In this case the parameter u represents the angle measured from the X axis to any point P
on the circumference of the circle. By incrementing the values of u from 0 to 2ᴫ, the
intermediate points on the circle can be worked out.
 These points can then be connected by straight lines for the purpose of display. However,
this method of computation is inefficient as it requires trigonometric evaluation of
functions.
 A convenient method to determine the different points on the circle is to use the
incremental equations. Consider any point Pn (xn, yn, zn) on the circle.
Let the subsequent incremental point be Pn+1 (xn+1, yn+1, zn+1). From the above
equation, we get:
 Thus, the circle can start from an arbitrary point and successive points with equal spacing
can be calculated. Cos ∆u & Sin ∆u have to be cal
culated only once, this eliminates the computations of trigonometric functions for each
point.
 This algorithm is useful for hardware implementation to speed up the circle generation &
display.
 If two endpoints of diameter of circle are given, then the center & radius of circle are
calculated as below.
Ellipse
 Mathematically the ellipse is a curve generated by a point moving in space such that
at any position the sum of its distances from two fixed points (foci) is constant and
equal to the major diameter. Each focus is located on the major axis of the ellipse at a
distance from its center equal to (A and B are the major and minor radii).
Circular holes and forms become ellipses when they are viewed obliquely relative to
their planes
Fig. 2.8 Ellipse Defined by a Center, Major and Minor Axes
 However, four conditions (points and/or tangent vectors) are required to define the
geometric shape of an ellipse.
 Fig. 2.8 shows an ellipse with point Pc as the center and the lengths of half of the
major and minor axes are A and B respectively. The parametric equation of an ellipse
can be written as assuming the plane of the ellipse is the XY plane.
 The parameter u is the angle as in the case of a circle. However, for a point P shown
in the figure, it is not the angle between the line PP c and the major axis of the ellipse.
Instead, it is defined as shown.
 To find point P on the ellipse that corresponds to an angle u, the two concentric
circles C1 and C2 are constructed with centers at Pc and radii of A and B respectively. A
radial line is constructed at the angle u to intersect both circles at points P 1 and P2
respectively.
If a line parallel to the minor axis is drawn from P1 and a line parallel to the major axis is drawn
from P2, the intersection of these two lines defines the point P.
x  xc  A cosu

y  yc  B sinu 0  u  2
z  Zc

Similar development as in the case of a circle results in the following recursive relationships
which are useful for generating points on the ellipse for display purposes without excessive
evaluations of trigonometric functions:
If the ellipse major axis is inclined with an angle α relative to the x axis as shown inFig. 2.8,
the ellipse equation becomes
x  xc  A cosu cos  B sinu sin
y  yc  A cosu sin  B sinu cos

Z=Zc
Parabola
 The parabola is defined mathematically as a curve generated by a point that moves
such that its distance from a fixed point (the focus PF) is always equal to its distance
to a fixed line (the directrix) as shown in Fig. 2.9.
 The vertex Pv is the intersection point of the parabola with its axis of symmetry. It is
located midway between directrix and focus. Focus lies on the axis of symmetry.
 Useful applications of the parabolic curve in engineering design include its use in
parabolic sound and light reflectors, radar antennas and in bridge arches.
 Three conditions are required to define a parabola, a parabolic curve, or a parabolic
arc. The default plane of a parabola is the XY plane of the current WCS at the time of
construction.
 The database of a parabola usually stores the coordinates of its vertex, distances y HW
and yLW,that define its endpoints as shown in Fig. 2.9, the distance A between the
focus and the vertex (the focal distance) and the orientation angle α.
 Unlike the ellipse, the parabola is not a closed curve. Thus, the two endpoints
determine the amount of the parabola to be displayed.
CREC Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 2.9 Basic geometry of Parabola
 Assuming the local coordinate system of the parabola as shown in Fig. 2.9, its
parametric equation can be written as
x  xv  Au2 
y  yv  2Au 0  u  
z  zv 




 If the range of the y coordinate is limited to yHW and yLW for positive and negative
values respectively, the corresponding u values become
y
uH HW
2A
yLW
uL 
2A
 The recursive relationships to generate points on the parabola are obtained by
substituting un + Δu for points n + 1. This gives
xn1  xn (yn  yv )u  A (u)2
yn1  yn  2A u
zn1  zn
Hyperbolas
A hyperbola is described mathematically as a curve generated by a point moving suchthat at any
position the difference of its distances from the fixed points (foci) F and F' is a constant and equal
to the transverse axis of the hyperbola
Fig. 2.10 Hyperbola Geometry

 Fig. 2.10 shows the geometry of a hyperbola.
 The parametric equation of a hyperbola is given by
x  xv  Acoshu
y  yv  Bsinhu
z  zv
 This equation is based on the nonparametric implicit equation of the hyperbola

which can be written as
(x  xv )2 (y  yv )2 
 
2 2
1
A B
by utilizing the identity cosh2u – sinh2u = 1.
Conics
 Conic curves or conic sections form the most general form of quadratic curves. Lines,
circles, ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas are all special forms of conic curves. They
all can be generated when a right circular cone of revolution is cut by planes at
different angles relative to the cone axis-thus the derivation of the name conics.
 Straight lines result from intersecting a cone with a plane parallel to its axis and
passing through its vertex. Circles results when the cone is sectioned by a plane
perpendicular to its axis while ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas are generated when
the plane is inclined to the axis by various angles.
Parametric representation of synthetic curve
 Analytic curves, are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design requirements of
mechanical parts. Products such as car bodies, ship hulls, airplane fuselage and
wings, propeller blades, shoe insoles and bottles are a few examples that require
free-form, or synthetic, curves and surfaces.
 The need for synthetic curves in design arises on two occasions: when a curve is
represented by a collection of measured data points and when an existing curve must
change to meet new design requirements.
 In the latter occasion, the designer would need a curve representation that is directly
related to the data points and is flexible enough to bend, twist, or change the curve
shape by changing one or more data points.
 Data points are usually called control points and the curve itself is called an
interpolant if it passes through all the data points.
Fig. 2.11 Various Orders of Continuity of Curves

 Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a curve-fitting problem to construct a
smooth curve that passes through given data points. Therefore, polynomials are the
typical form of these curves.
 Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to impose various
degrees of smoothness of the resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes
important when a complex curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced
together end to end.
 Zero-order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve. First (C1)- and second
(C2)-order continuities imply slope and curvature continuous curves respectively.
 A C1 curve is the minimum acceptable curve for engineering design. Fig. 2.11 shows
ageometrical interpretation of these orders of continuity.
 A cubic polynomial is the minimum order polynomial that can guarantee the
generation of C0, C1, or C2 curves. In addition, the cubic polynomial is the lowest-
degree polynomial that permits inflection within a curve segment and that allows
representation of nonplanar (twisted) three dimensional curves in space.
 Higher-order polynomials are not commonly used in CAD/CAM because they tend to
oscillate about control points, are computationally inconvenient and are uneconomical
of storing curve and surface representations in the computer.
 The type of input data and its influence on the control of the resulting synthetic curve
determine the use and effectiveness of the curve in design.
 For example, curve segments that require positions of control points and/or tangent
vectors at these points are easier to deal with and gather data for than those that might
require curvature information.
 Also, the designer may prefer to control the shape of the curve locally instead of
globally by changing the control point(s). If changing a control point results in
changing the curve locally in the vicinity of that point, local control of the curve is
achieved; otherwise global control results.
 Major CAD/CAM systems provide three types of synthetic curves: Hermite cubic
spline, Bezier and B-spline curves. The cubic spline curve passes through the data
points and therefore is an interpolant.
 Bezier and B-spline curves in general approximate the data points, that is, they do not
pass through them. Under certain conditions, the B-spline curve can be an interpolant.
Both the cubic spline and Bezier curves have a first-order continuity and the B-spline
curve has a second-order continuity.
Hermite Cubic Spline Curve:
 They are used to interpolate the given data but not to design free-form curves. Splines
derive their name from “French curves or splines”
 It connects two data (end) points and utilizes a cubic equation.
 Four conditions are required to determine the coefficients of the equation – two end
points and the two tangent vectors at these two points.
 It passes through the control points and therefore it is an Interpolant. It has only up to
C1 continuity.
 The curve cannot be modified locally, i.e., when a data point is moved, the entire
curve is affected, resulting in a global control.
 The order of the curve is always constant (cubic), regardless of the number of data
points. Increase in the number of data points increases shape flexibility, however, this
requires more data points, creating more splines that are joined together (only two
data points and slopes are utilized for each spline).
Fig. 2.12 Hermite Cubic Spline Curve
Changing the values of endpoints or tangent vectors would modify the shape of the
curve.
Bezier Curves
 Cubic splines are based on interpolation techniques. Curves resulting from these
techniques pass through the given points.
 Another alternative to create curves is to use approximation techniques which
produce curves that do not pass through the given data points. Instead, these points
are used to control the shape of the resulting curves.
 Most often, approximation techniques are preferred over interpolation techniques in
curve design due to the added flexibility and the additional intuitive feel provided
by the former. Bezier and B-spline curves are examples based on approximation
techniques.
 As its mathematics show shortly, the major differences between the Bezier curve and
the cubic spline curve are:
1. The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points only. First derivatives
are not used in the curve development as in the case of the cubic spline. This allows
the designer a much better feel for the relationship between input (points) and output
(curve).
2. The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the number of
points defining it; n + 1 points define an nth degree curve which permits higher- order
continuity. This is not the case for cubic splines where the degree is always cubic for
a spline segment.
3. The Bezier curve is smoother than the cubic spline because it has higher order
derivatives.
Fig. 2.15 Beizer Curve
 The Bezier curve is defined in terms of (n+1) points. This points are called as
control points, where n is the degree of the curve.
 If n=3 control points are 4, as shown in the Fig 2.15.
 These control points form the vertices of the control polygon or Bezier characteristic
polygon.
 The control or Bezier characteristic polygon uniquely defines the curve.
Properties of Beizer Curve:
 The degree of polynomial defining the curve segment is one less than the no. of
defining polygon points (n-1).
 The curve follows the shape of the defining polygon.
 Only the first and last control points or vertices of polygon actually lie on curve.
 The other vertices define order & shape of the curve. (see Fig. 3.8)
Fig. 2.16 Same data points but different orders for Beizer Curve
 The curve is also always tangent to first and last segments of polygon.
 The same Beizer curve would be generated, if the sequence of the points is
changed from P0 – P1 – P2 – P3 to P3 – P2 – P1 – P0.
 The flexibility of the shape would increase with increase in number of vertices
of the polygon.
It is having global control on the shape of the curve.
Fig. 2.17 Same Typical Examples of Beizer Curve
 Mathematically, for n + 1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the

following polynomial of degree n:
Spline Curve:
 B-Spline curves are proper and powerful generalization of Bezier curve.
 They are very similar to Bezier curve and are also defined with the help of
characteristic polygon.
 The major advantage of B-Spline curve is due to its ability to control the curve
shapelocally, as opposed to global control (see Fig. 2.20).
Fig. 2.20 Local Control of a B-Spline Curve
 B-Spline curves allow a local control over the shape of the spline curve.
 B-Spline curves allow us to vary the control points without changing the
degree ofthe polynomial (i.e. number of control points can be added or
subtracted).
 The degree of the curve is independent of the number of control points
(i.e. fourcontrol points can generate a linear, quadratic or cubic curve).
 It gives better control over the shape of curve.
 They are more complex compared to Bezier curves.
 B-spline curve defined by n + 1 control points Pi is given by
n
P(u)  PiNi ,k (u), 0  u  umax (2.28)
i 0
Decomposition
Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive solid geometry has a number of practical uses. It is used in cases where simple geometric
objects are desired, or where mathematical accuracy is important. Nearly all engineering CAD packages use
CSG (where it may be useful for representing tool cuts, and features where parts must fit
together).Constructive solid geometry (CSG; formerly called computational binary solid geometry) is a
technique used in solid modeling. Constructive solid geometry allows a modeler to create a complex surface
or object by using Boolean operators to combine simpler objects, potentially generating visually complex
objects by combining a few primitive ones. In 3D computer graphics and CAD, CSG is often used in
procedural modeling. CSG can also be performed on polygonal meshes, and may or may not be procedural
and/or parametric. Contrast CSG with polygon mesh modeling and box modeling. The simplest solid objects
used for the representation are called geometric primitives. Typically they are the objects of simple shape:
cuboids, cylinders, prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones. The set of allowable primitives is limited by each
software package. Some software packages allow CSG on curved objects while other packages do not. An
object is constructed from primitives by means of allowable operations, which are typically Boolean
operations on sets: union, intersection and difference, as well as geometric transformations of those sets. A
primitive can typically be described by a procedure which accepts some number of parameters; for example,
a sphere may be described by the coordinates of its center point, along with a radius value. These primitives
can be combined into compound objects using operations like these:
Combining these elementary operations, it is possible to build up objects with high complexity starting from
simple ones.
Ray tracing
Rendering of constructive solid geometry is particularly simple when ray tracing. Ray tracers intersect a ray
with both primitives that are being operated on, apply the operator to the intersection intervals along the 1D
ray, and then take the point closest to the camera along the ray as being the result.
Applications:
Constructive solid geometry has a number of practical uses. It is used in cases where simple geometric
objects are desired, or where mathematical accuracy is important. Nearly all engineering CAD packages use
CSG (where it may be useful for representing tool cuts, and features where parts must fit together).
The Quake engine and Unreal Engine both use this system, as does Hammer (the native Source
engine level editor), and Torque Game Engine/Torque Game Engine Advanced. CSG is popular
because a modeler can use a set of relatively simple objects to create very complicated geometry.
When CSG is procedural or parametric, the user can revise their complex geometry by changing
the position of objects or by changing the Boolean operation used to combine those objects.
One of the advantages of CSG is that it can easily assure that objects are "solid" or water-tight if
all of the primitive shapes are water-tight. This can be important for some manufacturing or
engineering computation applications. By comparison, when creating geometry based upon
boundary representations, additional topological data is required, or consistency checks must be
performed to assure that the given boundary description specifies a valid solid object.
A convenient property of CSG shapes is that it is easy to classify arbitrary points as being either
inside or outside the shape created by CSG. The point is simply classified against all the
underlying primitives and the resulting boolean expression is evaluated. This is a desirable quality
for some applications such as ray tracing.
Constructive solid geometry usually starts with a small set of primitives such as blocks, pyramids
spheres and cones .two objects reinitially created and combined using some et operation to create
a new object .this object can then be combined with another primitive to make abother new object
.This process continuous until modeling complete
Boundary representation
In solid modeling and computer-aided design, boundary representation (often abbreviated B-rep or
BREP) is a method for representing a 3D shape by defining the limits of its volume. A solid is represented
as a collection of connected surface elements, which define the boundary between interior and exterior
points.
A boundary representation of a model comprises topological components (faces, edges and vertices) and the
connections between them, along with geometric definitions for those components (surfaces, curves and
points, respectively). A face is a bounded portion of a surface; an edge is a bounded piece of a curve and a
vertex lies at a point. Other elements are the shell (a set of connected faces), the loop (a circuit of edges
bounding a face) and loop-edge links (also known as winged edge links or half-edges) which are used to
create the edge circuits.In solid modeling and computer-aided design, boundary representation (often
abbreviated B-rep or BREP) is a method for representing a 3D shape by defining the limits of
its volume. A solid is represented as a collection of connected surface elements, which define the
boundary between interior and exterior points.
B-Rep or boundary representation is a rendering technique for solid modeling .It is

popular approach to create a model of a physical object .Brep is that a three
dimensional object model is enclosed by surfaces or faces and has its own interior
and exterior .It describes the shape as a collection of surfaces which separate its
interior from exterior environment .it is suitable for complex designs ,polygon facets
are one of the examples of boundary representation.
These are the following primitives of B-Rep
1.vertices : it is a point where two or more edges meet with another
2.edges : it is a line or curve enclosed between two vertices
3. faces : it is a surface or plane of a solid
4.loop:It is a hole in a face
5.genus: it is through a hole in a solid
CELLULAR DECOMPOSITION:
Cell decomposition makes use of bottom up construction in which complex shapes are created from simple
primitives by sticking them together but the cells must not intersect while sharing single point, edge or face.
In cellular decomposition, an object may be represented as the addition of cells into which it may be
decomposed. Each cell decomposition system described a set of primitive cells that are typically
parameterized and are frequently curved. Cell decomposition differs from primitive instancing in that we
may compose more complicated objects from simple, primitive ones as a bottom up fashion by gluing them
together. The glue operation may be thought of as a limited form union in which the objects should not
intersect. Further limitation on gluing cells frequently require that two cells share a single point, edge or face.
Although cell –decomposition representation of an object is unambiguous .Cell decompositions are also hard
to validate, as each pair of cells should potentially be tested for intersection. cell decomposition is significant
for use in finite element analysis.
LECTURE NOTES
ON
2022 – 2023
ANAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYAND

SCIENCES, TIRUPATI
(AUTONOMOUS)

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES, TIRUPATI
(AUTONOMOUS)

Course Outcomes:
Techniques.
Analysis.
UNIT I
UNIT II
construction methods-Constraint based modeling- Wireframe, Surface- Bezier , B-Spline Surfaces
and Solid- Constructive Solid Geometry, Boundary representation and Cellular Decomposition.
UNIT III
Computer Assisted Part Programming – Examples using NC codes- Adaptive Control – Canned cycles
and subroutines – CAD/ CAM approach to NC part programming – APT language
UNIT IV
techniques.
UNIT V
methods.
Text Books:
Reference Books:
Performance
Indicator
COs
ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &SCIENCES(AUTONOMOUS)


1. Understand the basic concepts components of CAD/CAM concepts of Graphics Techniques.
4. Understand the concepts of Group technology and techniques, production flow Analysis.

NC Control production systems: Introduction to NC, CNC, DNC - Manual
part Programming – Computer Assisted Part Programming – Examples
using NC codes- Adaptive Control – Canned cycles and subroutines – CAD/
CAM approach to NC part programming – APT language
UNIT -3
Numerical control can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which the
process is controlled by numbers, letters, and symbols. In NC, the numbers form a program of
changes, the program of instructions is changed. This capability to change the program for each
new job is what gives NC its flexibility. It is much easier to write new programs than to make major
changes in the production equipment.
NC MODES:
NC Technology has been applied to a wide variety operation, including drafting,

assembly, inspection, sheet metal, press working and spot welding. However, numerical control
finds its principle applications in metal machining processes. The machined work parts are designed
in various sizes and shapes, and most machined parts produced in industry today are made in small
to medium size batches. To produce each part a sequence of drilling operations may be required, or
a series of turning or milling operations. The suitability of NC for these kinds of jobs is the reason for
the tremendous growth of numerical control in the metal working industry over the last 25 years.
NC ELEMENTS:
An operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic components:
1. program of instructions
2.controller unit, also called a machine control unit (MCU)
3.Machine tool or other controlled process
The general relationship among the three components is illustrated in the figure. The program of
instructions serves as the input to the controller unit, which in turn commands the machine tool or
other process to be controlled. We will discuss the three components in the sections below:
Program of instructions:
The program of instructions is the detailed step by step set of directions which tell the machine
Tool what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some type of input medium that can
be interpreted by controller unit. The most common input medium today is 1-in wide punched tape.
over the years, other forms of input media have been used, including punched cards, magnetic
tape, and even 35-mm motion picture film.
There are two other methods of input to the NC system which should be mentioned. The first is by
manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit. This method is called manual data input,
abbreviated MDI, and is appropriate only for relatively simple jobs where the order will not be
repeated. The second other method of input is by means.
Figure three basic components of a numerical control system:

a) Program of instructions
b) Controller unit
c) Machine tool of a direct link with a computer. This is called direct numerical control or DNC,. The
program of instructions is prepared by some one called a part programmer. The programmer’s job is to
provide a set of detailed instructions by which the sequence of processing steps is to be performed. For a
machining operation, the processing steps involve the relative movement between the cutting tool and the
workpiece.
Controller unit:
The second basic component of the NC system is the controller unit. This consists
of the electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program and instructions and convert
into mechanical actions of the machine tool. The typical elements of a conventional NC controller
unit include the tape reader, a data buffer signal output channels to the machine tool, and the
sequence controls to coordinate the overall operation of the foregoing elements. It should be noted
that nearly all modern NC systems today are sold with a microcomputer as the controller unit. This
type of NC is called computer numerical control (CNC).
The tape reader is an electromechanical device for winding and reading the punched tape
containing the program of instructions. The data contained on the tape are read in to the data
buffer. The purpose of this device is to store the input instructions in logical blocks of information. A
block of information usually represents one complete step in the sequence of processing elements.
For example, one block may be the data required to move the machine table to a certain
position and drill a hole at that location.
The signal output channels are connected to the serve motors and other controls in the
machine tool from the controller unit. To make certain that the instructions have been properly
executed by the machine, feed back data are sent back to the controller via the feedback channels.
The most important function of this return loop is to assure that the table and work part have been
properly located with respect to the tool.
Sequence controls coordinate the activities of the other elements of the controller unit. The
tape reader is actuated to read data into the buffer from the tape, signals are sent to and from the
machine tool, and so on. These types of operations must be synchronized and this is the function of
the sequence controls.
Another element NC system, which may be physically part of the controller unit or part of
the machine tool, is the control panel. The control panel or control console contains the dials and
switches by which the machine operator runs the NC system. It may also contain data displays to
provide information the operator.
Although NC system is an automatic system, the human operator is still needed to turn the
machine on an off, to change tools (some NC systems automatic tool changers), to load and unload
the machine and to perform various other duties. To be able to discharge these duties, the operator
must be able to control the system, and this is done through the control panel.
NUMERICAL CONTROL ELEMENTS:
The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other controlled
process. It is a part of the NC system which performs useful work. In the most
common example of an NC system, one designed to perform machining operations,
the machine tool consists of the workable spindle as well as the motors and controls
necessary to drive them. It also includes the cutting tools, work fixtures, and other
auxiliary equipment needed in the machining operation.
NC machines range in complexity from simple tape- controlled drill presses to highly
sophisticated and versatile machining centers. The NC machining center was first
introduced in the late 1950’s. It is a multifunction machine which incorporates several
time saving features into a single piece of automated production equipment. First, a
machining center is capable of performing a variety of different operations: drilling,
tapping, reaming, milling, and boring. Second, it has capacity to change tools
automatically under tape command. A variety of machining operations means that a
variety of cutting tools are required. The tools are kept in a tool drum or other
holding device. When the tape calls a particular tool, the drum rotates to position the
tool for insertion into the spindle. The automatic tool changer then grasps the tool
and places it into the spindle chuck. A third capability of the NC machining center is
workpiece positioning. The machine table can orient the job so that it can be
machined on several surfaces, as required. Finally, a fourth feature possessed by
some machining centers is the presence of two tables or pallets on which the
workpiece can be fixtured. While the machining sequence is being performed on one
work part , the operator can be unloading the previously completed piece , and
loading the next one. This improves the machine tool utilization because the machine
does not have to stand idle during loading and unloading of the work parts.
NC MACHINE TOOL AND THEIR STRUCTURE:
To utilize numerical control in manufacturing, the following steps must be
accomplished.
1. process planning: The engineering drawing of the work part must be interpreted in
terms of the manufacturing processes to be used. This step is Referred to as process
planning an it is concerned with the preparation of a route sheet. The route sheet is a
listing of the sequence of operations which must be performed on the work part. It is
called a route sheet
Because it also lists the machines through which the part must be routed in order to
accomplish the sequence of operations. We assume that some of the operations will
be performed on one or more NC machines.
2.part programming: A part programmer plans the process for the portions of the job
to be accomplished by NC. Part programmers are knowledgeable about the
machining process and they have been trained to program for numerical control.
They are responsible for planning the sequence of machining steps to be performed
by NC and to document these in a special format .There are two ways to program for
NC:
MANUAL PART PROGRAMMING, COMPUTER ASSISTED PART PROGRAMMING

In manual part programming, the machining instructions are prepared on a form
called a part program manuscript. The manuscript is a listing of the relative cutter /
workpiece positions which must be followed to machine the part.
In computer assisted part programming much of the tedious computational work
required in manual part programming is transferred to the computer. This is
especially appropriate for complex workpiece geometries and jobs with many
machining steps. Use of the computer in these situations results in significant savings
in part programming time.
3. Tape preparation: A punched tape is prepared from the part programmers NC
process plan. In manual part programming, the punched tape is prepared directly
from the part program manuscript on a type writer like device equipped with tape
punching capability. In computer assisted part programming, the computer interprets
the list of part programming instructions, performs the necessary calculations to
convert this into a detailed set of machine tool motion commands, and then controls
a tape punch device to prepare the tape for the specific NC machine.
4.Tape verification: After the punched tape has been prepared, a method is usually
provided for checking the accuracy of the tape. Sometimes the tape is checked by
running it through a computer program which plots the various tool movements (or
table movements) on paper. In this way, major errors in the tape can be discovered.
The “acid test “of the tape involves trying it out on the machine tool to make the
part. A foam or plastic material is sometimes used for this tryout. Programming errors
are not uncommon, and it may require about
three attempts before the tape is correct and
ready to use in production. The final step in the NC
procedure to use the NC tape in production. This
involves ordering the raw work parts specifying
and preparing the tooling and any special fixturing that may be required, and setting
up the NC machine tool for the job. The machine tool operators function during
production is to load the raw work part in the machine and establish the starting
position of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. The NC system then takes over
and machines the part according to the instructions on tape. When the part is
completed, the operator removes it from the machine and loads the next.
NC COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
In order for the part programmer to plan the sequence
of positions and movements of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece, it is
necessary to establish a standard axis system by which the relative positions can be
specified. Using an NC drill press as an example , the drill spindle is in a fixed vertical
position, and the table is moved and controlled relative to the spindle .However to
make things easier for the programmer , we adapt the view point that the workpiece
is stationary while the drill bit is moved relative to it. Accordingly, the coordinate
system of axis is established with respect to the machine table.
Two axes, x and y, are defined in the plane of the table, as shown in figure. The z axis
is perpendicular to this plane and movement in the z direction is controlled by the
vertical motion of the spindle. The positive and negative directions of motion of tool
relative to table along these axes as shown in figure . A NC drill presses are classified
as either two -axis or three axis -machines, depending on whether or not they have
the capability to control the z-axis. A numerical control milling machine and similar
machine tools (boring mill for example) use an axis system similar to that of the drill
press. However, in addition to the three linear axes, these machines may possess
the capacity to control one or more rotational axes. Three rotational axes
are defined in NC: the a, b, c axes. These axes specify angles about the x, y
and z axes respectively. To distinguish positive from negative angular
motions, the “right hand rule” can be used. Using the right hand with the
thumb pointing in the positive linear axis direction (x,y or z) the fingers of
the hand are curled to point in the positive rotational direction.
For turning operations, two axes are normally all that are required to
command the movement of the tool relative to the rotating workpiece. The
z axis is the axis of rotation of the work part, and x axis defines the radial
location of the cutting tool. This arrangement is illustrated in figure.
The purpose of the coordinate system is to provide a means of locating the
tool in relation to the workpiece. Depending on the NC machine, the part
programmer may have several different options available for specifying this
location.
Manual Part Programming
In manual programming, the part programmer specifies the machining
instructions on a form called a manuscript. Manuscripts come in various
forms, depending on the machine tool and tape format to be used. For
example, the manuscript form for a two-axis point-to-point drilling machine
would be different than one for a three-axis contouring machine. As
mentioned, the manuscript is a listing of the relative tool and workpiece
locations. It also includes other data, such as preparatory commands,
miscellaneous instructions, and speed/feed specifications, all of which are
needed to operate the machine under tape control. The manuscript
is designed so that the NC tape can be typed directly from it on a Flexo
writer or similar tape- punch device. We shall divide manual programming
jobs into two categories : point-to-point jobs and contouring jobs. Except for
complex work parts with many holes to be drilled, manual programming is
ideally suited for point-to-point applications. On the other hand, except for
the simplest milling and turning jobs, manual programming can become
quite time-consuming for applications requiring continuous-path control of
the tool. Accordingly, we shall only concern
ourselves with manual part programming for point-to-point operations in
this chapter. Manual contour programming requires such tedious and
detailed calculations that the space needed for the topic would be more
than is warranted by the basic purpose of this book, which is to survey the
field of automated manufacturing systems.
COMPUTER ASSISTED PART PROGRAMMING
Computer Assisted Part Programming was relatively simple, it was a suitable

application for manual programming. Most parts machined on NC systems are
considerably more complex. In the more complicated point-to-point jobs and
in contouring applications, manual part programming becomes an extremely
tedious task and subject to error. In these instances it is much more appropriate
to employ the high-speed digital computer to assist in the part programming
process. Many part programming language systems have been developed to
automatically perform most of the calculations which the programmer would
otherwise be forced to do. This saves time and results in a more accurate and
more efficient part program.
The part programmer’s job
The difference in the part programmer’s job between manual programming and
computer- assisted programming is this. With manual programming, a manuscript
is used which is formatted so that the NC tape can be typed directly from it. With
computer-assisted part programming, the machining instructions are written in
English-like statements of the NC programming language, which are then
processed by the computer to prepare the tape. The computer automatically
punches the tape in the proper tape format for the particular NC machine.
When utilizing one of the NC programming languages, part programming can be
summarized as consisting basically of two tasks :
1. Defining the geometry of the work part

2. Specifying the tool path and/or operation sequence
Let us now consider these two tasks in computer-assisted part
programming. Our frame ofreference will be for a contouring application,
but the concepts apply for a positioning
application as well.
Fig: 1 Basic Geomentry Element
WORK PART GEOMETRY DEFINITION:
No matter how complicated the work part may appear, it is composed of basic
geometric elements. Using a relatively simple work part to illustrate, consider the
component shown in Figure 1. Although somewhat irregular in overall
appearance, the outline of the part consists of intersecting straight lines and a
partial circle. The holes in the part can be expressed in terms of the center
location and radius of the hole. Nearly any component that can be conceived by a
designer can be described by points, straight lines, planes, circles, cylinders, and
other mathematically defined surfaces. It is the part programmer’s task to
enumerate the component elements out of which the work part is formed. Each
geometric element must be identified and the dimensions and location of the
element explicitly defined. Using the APT programming language as an example,
the following statement might be used to define a point :
P1 – POINT/6.0, 1.125,0
The point is identified by the symbol P1 and is located at x = 6.0, y = 1.125, and
z = 0.Similarly, a circle in the x–y plane might be defined by the APT statement
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P1 , RADIUS, 1.12
The center of circle C1 is Pi (previously defined) and the radius is 1.125.
The various geometric elements in the drawing of Figure 9.7 would be
identified in a similar fashion by the part programmer.
TOOL PATH CONSTRUCTION
After defining the work part geometry, the programmer must next construct the
path that the cutter will follow to machine the part. This tool path specification
involves a detailed step-by- step sequence of cutter moves. The moves are made
along the geometry elements which have previously been defined. To illustrate,
using Figure 1 and the APT language, the following statement could be used to
command the tool to make a left turn from line L2 onto line L3 : GOLFT/L3, PAST,
L1
This assumes the tool was previously located at the intersection of lines L2 and L3
and had just finished a cut along L2. The statement directs the tool to cut along L3
until it just passes line L1. By using statements similar to the above, the tool can
be directed to machine along the work part surfaces, to go to point locations, to
drill holes at those point locations, and so on. In addition to geometry definition
and tool path specification, the part programmer also provides other commands
to the NC system. However, let us await Section 9.5, where we will consider a
wide range of possible APT statements.
The computer’s job

The computer’s job in computer-assisted part programming consists of the
following steps:
1. Input translation
2. Arithmetic calculations
3. Cutter offset computation
4. Post processor
The sequence of these steps and their relationships to the part programmer and
the machine toolare illustrated in Figure 2
Fig.2 Steps in Computer Assisted Part Programming
INPUT TRANSLATION: The part programmer enters the program using the
APT or other language. The input translation component converts the coded
instructions contained in the program into computer-usable form,
preparatory to further processing.
ARITHMETIC CALCULATIONS: The arithmetic calculations unit of the system

consists of a comprehensive set of subroutines for solving the mathematics
required to generate the part surface. These subroutines are called by the various
part programming language statements. The arithmetic unit is really the
fundamental element in the part programming package. This unit frees the
programmer from the time-consuming geometry and trigonometry calculations to
concentrate on the work part processing.
CUTTER OFFSET COMPUTATION: When we described the second task of the part
programmer as that of constructing the tool path, we ignored one basic factor the
size of the cutting tool. The actual tool path is different from the part outline. I is
is because the tool path is the path taken by the center of the cutter. It is at the
periphery of the cutter that machining takes place.
The purpose of the cutter offset computation is to offset the tool path from the
desired part surface by the radius of the cutter. This means that the part
programmer can define the exact part outline in his geometry statements. Thanks
to the cutter offset calculation provided by the programming system, he need not
concern himself with this task. The cutter offset problem is illustrated in Figure 3
POST PROCESSOR. As we have noted previously, NC machine tool systems are

different. They have different features and capabilities. They use different NC
tape formats. Nearly all of the part programming languages, including APT, are
designed to be general-purpose languages, not limited to one or two machine
tool types. Therefore, the final task of the computer in computer-assisted part
programming is to take the general instructions and make them specific to a
particular machine tool system. The unit that performs this task is called a
post processor.
The post processor is really a separate computer program that has been written
to prepare the punched tape for a specific machine tool. The input to the post
processor is the output from the other three components: a series of cutter
locations and other instructions. This is referred to as the CLFILE or CLDATA (CL
stands for cutter location). The output of the post processor is the NC tape
written in the correct format for the machine on which it is to be used.
Fig.3 Cutter Offset Problem in computer-assisted part programming
Structure of Part Program

A part program is simply an NC program used to manufacture a part. Part programming for NC
maybe performed manually (manual part programming) or by the aid of a computer
(Computer-aided partprogramming).
Many programming languages have been developed for part programming. The
first that used Englishlikestatements and one of the most popular languages is
called APT (for Automatically
ProgrammedTools). Many variations of APT have been developed, including
ADAPT (ADaptation of APT), EXAPT(a European flavor of APT), UNIAPT (APT
controller for smaller computer systems), etc.
NC programming for complex parts are generated using advanced computer

programs (CAD/CAMprograms), which create automatically the machine code (so
called G-code) in a graphic environment.Machine code is also largely used for
manual part programming of simple shapes and is covered inthe present section.
Machine code
The structure of a NC program written in machine code is standardized and for

a two-axis NC systemhas the following format:
NC program block consists of a number of program words. The NC program is

executed block by block:each next block is entered in the system and executed
only after entirely completing thecurrent block.
Each program word is an ordered set of characteristics, letters and numbers, to

specify a singleaction ofthe machine tool. Program words fall into two
categories,
Œ modal, which are active in the block in which they are specified and
remain active in thesubsequent blocks until another program word overrides
them;
• non-modal, which are only active in the block in which they are specified.
Some of the most important program words are as follows
 sequence numbers (N****)

Sequence numbers are a means of identifying program blocks. In some
systems they are not required although sequence numbers are needed in
most canned cycles (coveredlater in this section);
 preparatory functions (also G-codes) (G**)
Preparatory functions are used to set up the mode in which the rest
of the operationis to be executed.
Some of examples of G-codes are given in the table:

G00 Positioning (not cutting)
G01 Linear interpolation
G02 Clockwise circular interpolation
G03 Counterclockwise circular interpolation
G20 Inch data input
G21 Metric data input
G54 Workpart coordinate
presetG80 Canned cycle cancel
G81-89 Canned cycles
G90 Absolute programming
G91 Incremental programming
 Dimension words (D****.***), where D stands for X, Z, U, or WDimension words

specify the coordinate positions of the programmed path. X andZ specify the absolute
coordinates, and U and W specify the incremental coordinates(absolute and
incrementalprogramming are explained later in this section);
 Arc center coordinates (D****.***), where D stands for I, or KArc center coordinates
specify the incremental coordinate position of the arc center (I inthe direction of X-
axis,and K in the direction of Z-axis), measured from the arc startingpoint;
 Feed function (F**.**)

Specifies the velocity of feed motion;
 Spindle control function (S****)

Specifies spindle rotational speed in revolutions per minute, or cutting
velocity in meterper minute depending on the type of NC system and
machine tool;
 Tool calls (F**.**)

The tool call word is used to access the required tool. It also gives the
information for theradial compensation of tool corner wear for each new run of
the program (and eachnew part);
 Miscellaneous functions (M**)

The M-function performs miscellaneous machine actions such as these listed in
thetable:
M00 Program stop

M02 Program end
M03 Start spindle CW
M04 Start spindle CCW
M05 Stop spindle
M06 Execute tool change
M07 Turn coolant on
M25 Open chuck
M26 Close chuck
Program points
The NC system must know where the part is positioned in the work space. The procedure for
defining the work coordinate system (WPC) is called work piece coordinate setting. Two
important factors deal with work piece coordinate setting,
Œ where the part datum (the origin of the WPC) is situated with
respect to the work piece;
• Where the part datum is situated with respect to the machine tool.
•
The WPC origin may be located at any part of the work piece, but to avoid
dimensional recalculations and respectively errors, the good programmers will
chose the WPC origin at the point, from where the part features are
dimensioned:
•
Fig:4 Selection of Work Piece Coordinate origin
The methods for locating the positions of the WPC origin with respect to the
machine tool varies for each machine tool. Some systems use a zero-set button
to set the WPC origin. On other types of NC systems, the WPC is set with a G54
or a G92 code followed by X, and Z dimensions.
The G54 code tells the machine where the position of the WPC measured
from the machine zero point is. Machine zero point (machine datum) is a
fixed point on the machine tool and cannot be programmed or altered.
Fig:5 Setting of WPC
Another important point is the program start point (also tool home position).
This point is selected by the programmer at some distance from the work
piece, not too far to save some time when the tool returns home, and not too
close to allow for safe indexing of the tool turret when the cutting tool is
changed. The program, therefore the new part machining, starts and ends
with the tool at home position, but the tool needs also to be returned to
home whenever a tool change take place during the program execution.
Linear and circular interpolation
A G01 linear interpolation code moves the tool to a position with coordinates
defined with program words in a straight, including angular line at the specified
with F-code feed rate. The command is modal and is active until either a G00, or
G02, or G03 overrides it.
NC system are capable of commanding a circular motion. Arc movement is known
as circular interpola-tion and is carried out with a G02 (clockwise circular
interpolation) or G03 (counter clockwise circular interpolation) codes. The arc
radius is specified either by the incremental dimensional words I and K, which
defines the position of arc centerpoint with respect to the arc start point, or
directly by the radius R-code. In both methods, the program block, which starts
with a G02 or G03 codes must also include the coordinates of the arc end point. If
R-code is used, arcs less than 180o are given a positive radius and arcs more than
180o are given a negativeradius value:
Fig:6 Linear and circular interpolation.
TOOL LENGTH COMPENSATION
Tool length compensation is instated with a G43 word. Included within the G43 command is an
H-word that specifies the offset number in which the tool length compensation value is stored.
You must also include a Z-word in the G43 command, telling the machine where you want the
tool tip to be positioned.
Cutting tools used on machining centers differ from one another. For one thing,
there are a variety of cutting tool types that are used on machining centers,
including center drills, spot drills, drills, taps, reamers, boring bars, end mills, and
face mills (among many others). Each type of tool requires a different way of
gripping the actual cutting tool in its holder. Some tools (like some straight shank
tools) use a collet system. Others (like end mills) use a set- screw to hold the
cutting tool in place. Yet others (like face mills and taps) require a very special
style of tool Holder–designed especially for the cutting tool.
Fig:7 Tool Length compensation

Tool length compensation will allow you to write programs even though you
don’t know how long the cutting tools will be at production time.
Tool’s Length Will Vary from Each Time it is Assembled
When a cutting tool is assembled more than once (even with the same
components), its length will usually vary. Consider, for examples, straight shank
tools that are placed in collet holders. Each time you assemble the tool, it will be
of a different length. Tool length compensation will allow you to use the same
program over and over again, even though each tool’s length changes from one
time the job is run to the next.
Tool Data is Entered Separately from the Program
The same program will work regardless of how long each cutting tool is. The
program tells the control where to look for the length of each tool. During
setup, the setup person (or someone) assembles and measures each cutting
tool. The length of each tool is then placed in the appropriate location (a tool
offset register).
Sizing and Trial Machining Must Often be Done
The importance of being able to trial machine in order to machine the first
work piece correctly. And during a given tool’s life a tool will wear and cause
the surface being machined to change. Tool length compensation allows the
setup person and operator to easily hold size for Z-axis related dimensions
(pocket depths, hole-depths, etc.). The program need not be changed when
work piece dimensions must be adjusted.
CUTTER RADIUS COMPENSATION
Cutter Radius Compensation also known as CRC, is a function of the CNC

controller to automatically shift the tool from the cutter center line to the cutter
edge along the programmed cutter path. If it were not for CRC the cutter path
locations would have to be calculated to the cutter center line. Cutter Radius
Compensation (CRC) can be used to program continuous path milling operations.
There are a few special rules that must be applied to the programming method
when using CRC.
1) The point before the CRC approach and exit from the contour cut must be equal to
orgreater than the cutter radius.
2) CRC can only be started and stopped along linear motion.
3) CRC can only be applied to 2 axis of motion at a time.
4) The use of more than one non motion block in a row is not allowed.
Three main advantages to using Cutter Radius Compensation (CRC)

programming
1) The programmer can use point values that are directly along the cutter path rather than
having to calculate the tool center.
2) During production runs, cutters of different sizes can be used such as undersize tools when
the original size tool is no longer available. It is a simple radius offset value change in the
machine control to achieve this. The programming will remain the same.
3) A program section or operation can be used over and over with different tools to create
roughing passes and finish passes. This is done by changing the radius offset value and using
multiple offsets.
TOOL NOSE RADIUS COMPENSATION
During processing of the work piece contour, due to the tool radius, tip and a half
Diameter of the existence of the tool tip and work piece center or
imaginary contours do not coincide. If the digital system does not have
automatic tool radius compensation function can only be converted into
contour programming tool center path, and then processed. When the tool
wear, heavy wear, tool change, to re-calculate the tool center path, modify
the program. However, when the numerical control system with automatic tool
radius compensation function, you can just press the work piece contour
programming,
CNC system will automatically calculate the tool center path, deviate from the
contour of the tool with a radius value, even if the tool wear, heavy wear, tool
change, also need to modify the radius of the tool deviate from the
contour value that offsets, tool radius compensation automatically,
without modifying the program.
CNC lathe programming is based on imaginary tip movement; the actual tip
location is a small circular, conical surface and in the turning arc will produce
processing errors. If the use of nose radius compensation, pre-tip to tip radius and
arc parameters such as input to the tool position within the database, according
to work piece contour programming, numerical control system automatically
calculates the tool center trajectory, the control center path for cutting knives
processing, eliminating the tip of the arc caused by processing errors. You can
also modify the value to eliminate abrasion tool wear or tool failure caused by
processing errors.
Similarly, in CNC milling, the tool radius offset pre-register in the specified
register, the use of the tool radius compensation commands, by adjusting the
tool radius compensation value to compensate for tool wear, in order to eliminate
the tool wear caused by processing errors . At the same time even if a
replacement tool or tool re-grinding, as long as the contour is the same,
processing the same coordinate system, you can use the original program. At the
same time as the application can also adjust the tool radius compensation
amount to the same profile using the same procedures under the same
conditions, rough and finish.
Cycles
The repetitive program (and machining) sequence is called a cycle. Cycles are
classified into two principlegroups,
Œ canned cycles (also fixed cycles), and user-defined cycles (sub-routines).
Canned cycles are an inbuilt feature of the NC system. The usage of canned
cycles makes easier programmingfor threading, drilling holes and other repetitive
machining tasks. The next figure illustrates athread cutting canned cycle:
Fig:7 Threaded canned cycle
User sub-routines are useful, when the necessary canned cycle is not available.
The user subroutine is a NC program, which describes a sequence of
operations, which is often repeated when machining particular part. The sub-
routine is called from the main NC program with a M98 command.
A special type of user-defined cycles is so-called macros, which are generic cycles
with parametric variables. The macro is called from the main program with a set
of numerical values for these variables. This allow to use one and the same macro
to machine different in size, but similar in shape components. Programming with
macros is often referred to as a parametric programming.
Mirror Image
The mirroring command is used when features of components shares symmetry

about one or more axes and are also dimensionally identical. By using this code
components can be machined using a single set of data and length of programs
can be reduced.
G10 cancellation of mirroring

image G11 Mirror image on X
axis
G12 Mirror image on Y
axisG13 Mirror image
on Z axis
Fig. 8 Illustrative Example for mirroring
Parametric Programming
Parametric programming can be compared to any computer programming

language like BASIC, C Language, and PASCAL. However, this programming
language resides right in the CNC control and can be accessed at G code level,
meaning you can combine manual programming techniques with parametric
programming techniques. Computer-related features like variables, arithmetic,
logic statements, and looping are available. Like computer programming
languages, parametric programming comes in several versions. The most popular
is Custom Macro B (used by Fanuc and Fanuc-compatible controls). Others include
User Task (from Okuma), Q Routine (from Sodick), and Advanced Programming
Language [APL] (from G& L)
In addition to having many computer-related features, most versions of

parametric programming have extensive CNC-related features. Custom macro, for
example, allows the CNC user to access many things about the CNC control (tool
offsets, axis position, alarms, generate G codes, and program protection) right
from within a CNC program. These things are impossible with only normal G code
programming techniques.
Applications:
Many companies have excellent applications for custom macro and don't even
know it. Of course, if you don't even know you have an application for something,
it's impossible to even consider using it. While these applications are covered in
much greater detail during our video course and CD-rom course, applications for
custom macro fall into five basic categories.
Example:
To stress what can be done with parametric programming, we show a simple
example written incustom macro B for a machining center application. It will
machine a mill a hole of any size at any location. Notice how similar this program
is to a program written in BASIC.
Program
O0001 (Program number)
#100=1. (Diameter of end
mill)#101=3.0 (X position
of hole) #102=1.5 (Y
position of hole)
#103=.5 (Depth of counter
bored hole) #104=400 (Speed in
RPM)
#105=3.5 (Feed rate in IPM)
#106=3. (Tool length offset
number)
#107=2.0 (Diameter of counter bored hole)
G90 G54 S#104 M03 (Select abs mode, coordinate system, start
spindle) G00 X#101 Y#102 (Rapid to hole center)
G43 H#106 Z.1 (Instate tool length compensation, rapid to
approach Z position) G01 Z-#103 F[#105 / 2]
Y[#102 + #107 / 2 - #100 / 2] F#105
G02 J-[#107 / 2 - #100
/ 2]G01 Y#102
G00
Z.1
M30
Automatically Programmed Tool (APT)
The API language was the product of the MIT developmental work on NC
programming systems. Its development began in June 1956, and it was first used
in production around 1959. Today it is the most widely used language in the
United States. Although first intended as a contouring language, modern versions
of APT can be used for both positioning and continuous- path programming and
continuous-path programming in up to five axes.
AUTOSPOT (AUTOMATIC SYSTEM FOR POSITIONNING TOOLS). This was

developed
by IBM and first introduced in 1962 for PTP programming. Today’s version of
AUTOSPOT canbe used for contouring as well.
SPLIT (SUNDSTRAND PROCESSING LANGUAGE INTERNALLY TRANSLATED). This

is a proprietary system intended for Sundstrand’s machine tools. It can handle up
to five axis positioning and possesses contouring capability as well. One of the
unusual features of SPLIT is that the post processor is built into the program. Each
machine tool uses its own SPLIT package, thus obviating the need for a special
post processor.
COMPACT II. This is a package available from Manufacturing Data Systems, Inc.
(MDSI), a firm based in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The NC language is similar to SPLIT
in many of its features. MDSI leases the COMPACT II system to its users on a
time-sharing basis. The part programmer uses a remote terminal to feed the
program into one of the MDSI computers, which in tum produces the NC tape.
ADAPT (ADAPTATION OF APT). Several part programming languages are based directly
onthe APT program One of these is ADAPT, which was developed by IBM under Air
Forcecontract. It was intended to provide many of the features of AFT but to utilize a
significantly smaller computer. ADAPT is not as powerful as APT, but can be used to
program for bothpositioning and contouring jobs.
EXAPT (EXENDED SUBSET OF APT). This was developed in Germany starting around 1964
and is based on the APT language. Itere are three versions: EXAPT I designed for
positioning (drilling and also straight-cut milling), EXAPT ll designed for turning, and EXAPT
III designed for limited contouring operations. One of the important features of EXAPT is
that it attempts to compute optimum feeds and speeds automatically.
PART PROGRAMMING USING CAD/CAM
A CAD/CAM system is a computer interactive graphics system equipped with software to

accomplish certain tasks in design and manufacturing functions. One of the important
tasks performed on a CAD/CAM system is NC part programming. In this method of part
programming, portions of the procedure usually done by the part programmer are
instead done by the computer. The two main tasks of a part programmer in a computer
assisted programming are (a) defining the part geometry and (b) specifying the tool path.
The proposed methodology
is used to automate both of these tasks.
Part geometry definition:
The fundamental objective of CAD/CAM system is to integrate the design engineering

andmanufacturing engineering functions. Certainly one of the important design
functions is to design the individual components of the product. If a CAD/CAM system is
used, a computer g raphics model of each part is developed by the designer and stored
in the CAD/CAM database. That model contains all of the geometric, dimensional and
material specifications for the part.
When the same CAD/CAM system, or a CAM system that has access to the same CAD
databasein which the part model resides, is used to perform NC part programming it
makes little sense to re create the geometry of the part during the programming
procedure. Instead, the programmer has the capability to retrieve the part geometry
model from the storage and to use that model to construct the appropriate cutter path.
The significant advantage of using CAD/CAM in this way is that it eliminates one of the
time consuming steps in computer assisted part programming geometry definition.
After the part geometry has been retrieved, the usual procedure is to label the geometric
elements that will be used during part programming. These labels are the variable names
(symbols) given to the lines circles and surfaces that comprise the part. Most systems
have the capacity to automatically label the geometry elements of the part and to display
the labels on the dias.
If the NC programmer does not have access to the data base, then the NC Programming
must be defined. This is done by using similar interactive graphics techniques that the
product designer would use to design the part. Points are defined in a coordinate system
using the computer graphics system, lines and circles are defined from the points,
surfaces are defined, and so forth,
to construct a geometric model of the part. The advantage of using the interactive
graphics system over conventional computer assisted part programming is that the
programmer receives immediate visual verification of the definitions being created. This
tends to improve the speed and accuracy of the geometry definition process.
Tool path generation using CAD/CAM:
The second task of the NC programmer in computer assisted part programming is tool
path Specification. The first step in specifying the tool path is to select the cutting
tool for theoperation. Most CAD/CAM systems have tool libraries that can be called by
the programmer to identify what tools are available in the tool crib. The programmer
must decide which of the available tools is most appropriate for the operation under
consideration and specify it for the tool path. This permits the tool diameter and other
dimensions to be entered automatically fortool offset calculations. If the desired cutting
tool is not available in the library, an appropriate tool can be specified by the
programmer. It then becomes part of the library for future use.
The next step is tool path definition. There are differences in capabilities of the various
CAD/CAM systems, which result in different approaches for generating the tool path. The
most basic approach involves the use of the interactive graphics system to enter the
motion
Commands one by one, similar to computer assisted part programming. Individual
statements inAPT or other part programming language are entered and the CAD/CAM
system provides animmediate graphic display of the action resulting from the
command, thereby validating the statement. A more advanced approach for generating
tool path commands is to use one of the automatic software modules available on the
CAD/CAM system. These modules have beendeveloped to accomplish a number of
common machining cycles for milling, drilling andturning. They are subroutines in the NC
programming package that can be called and the Required parameters given to execute
the machining cycle.
Computer Automated part programming:
In the CAD/CAM approach to NC part programming, several aspects of the procedure are
automated. In the future, it should be possible to automate the complete NC part
programming procedure. The proposed system is an automated system where the input is
a geometric model of a part that has been defined during product design and the output
is a NC part program. The system possesses sufficient logic and decision making capability
to accomplish NC part programming for the entire part without human assistance.
This can most readily be done for certain NC processes that involve well defined, relatively
medium complex part geometries. Special algorithms have been developed to process
the design data and generate the NC program.

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LECTURE NOTES

III B. Tech I Semester

ANAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject Code Subject Name L T P Credits

COURSE OUTCOMES & COURSE OBJECTIVES

S.No Course Objectives

2. Understand the concepts of Geometric representation methods.

3. Understand and apply Numerical CNC Part Programming methods.

4. Understand the concepts of Group technology and techniques, production

5. Understand the concepts of FMS and its elements.

Signature of Faculty Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

Figure 1 Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM

Figure 3 Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing)

• Driven by customers and markets which demand the product

Fig 5. The manufacturing database from CAD/CAM

3. A third feature available during model building is the capability to group

x‟, y‟ = coordinates of the translated point

The new line will be,

The new line would be defined as:

For equal values of m, n and p, the scaling is linear

• Rotation about y axis by angle θ is accomplished by the matrix

 Rotation about x axis by angle θ is accomplished by the matrix

Next rotation can be

The same result can be accomplished by concatenating the two transformation

Now applying this concatenated transformation to the original matrix

The transformation operation can be written as

The scaling matrix in multiplication form can be given as,

The rotation matrix in multiplication form can be given as,

The transformation operation can be written as

A square ABCD of side 50 units having one of its vertex at A(10,10) is to be

Parametric equation of line is −

P0P1:P(t) = P0 + t(P1 - P0)

The point Pt is inside if Ni.[Pt– PEi] < 0

The point Pt is outside if Ni.[Pt– PEi] > 0

The point Pt is on the edge if Ni.[Pt – PEi] = 0 Intersection point

Ni.[ P0 + t(P1 - P0) – PEi] = 0 Replacing P(t with P0 + t(P1 - P0))

Ni.[P0 – PEi] + Ni.t[P1 - P0] = 0

Ni.[P0 – PEi] + Ni∙tD = 0 (substituting D for [P1 - P0])

Ni.[P0 – PEi] = - Ni∙tD

The equation for t becomes,

Ni ≠ 0 error cannot happen

Ni∙D ≠ 0 (P0P1 not parallel to Ei)

Eps=(Rp cos i)Ips

Constant Intensity Shading

This Intensity-Interpolation scheme, developed by Gouraud and usually referred to as

1. Determining the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.

1. Determine the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.

III B. Tech I Semester

ANAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject Code Subject Name L T P Credits

COURSE OUTCOMES & COURSE OBJECTIVES

S.No Course Objectives

2. Understand the concepts of Geometric representation methods.

3. Understand and apply Numerical CNC Part Programming methods.

4. Understand the concepts of Group technology and techniques, production

5. Understand the concepts of FMS and its elements.

Signature of Faculty Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

 Dimension words (D**.*), where D stands for X, Z, U, or WDimension words

 Feed function (F.)