Graph Theory

Dr. Mitesh S. Joshi.

March 16, 2022

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Contents
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Edges and Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Directed edge of a graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Undirected edge of a graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Directed graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Undirected graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Mixed graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Initial and Terminal vertex of an edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 Incidence relation of an edge and vertices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.10 Loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.11 Parallel edges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.12 Multiple graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.13 Simple graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.14 Weighted graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.15 Isolated vertex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.16 Null graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.17 Isomorphic graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.18 The necessary condition for two graphs to be Isomorphic . . . . . 10
1.19 In-degree, Out-degree and Total degree of a Vertex. . . . . . . . . 10
1.20 In-degree, Out-degree and Total degree of a Set. . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.21 Subgraph of a graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.22 Properties of a graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.23 Converse of a digraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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1 Introduction

1.1 Graph
Definition 1.1. A graph G = (V, E, φ) consists of a non-empty set V called the
set of nodes (points, vertices) of a graph, E is said to be set of edges of a graph,
and φ is a mapping from the set of edges E to a set of ordered or unordered
elements of V.

Figure 1: Directed graph

1.2 Edges and Vertices

Definition 1.2. If an edge x ∈ E associated with an ordered pair (u, v) or an
unordered pair (u, v), where u, v ∈ V , then we say that the edge x connects or
joins the nodes u and v. Any pair of nodes which are connected by an edge in a
graph is called adjacent nodes.

1.3 Directed edge of a graph.

Definition 1.3. In a graph G = (V, E), an edge which is associated with an
ordered pair (u, v) of V × V is called a directed edge of G.

Figure 2: Nodes, directed edge and Undirected edge.

1.4 Undirected edge of a graph.

Definition 1.4. In a graph G = (V, E), an edge which is associated with an
unordered pair (u, v) of V × V is called an undirected edge of G.

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1.5 Directed graph.
Definition 1.5. A graph in which every edge is directed is called a digraph or a
directed graph.

1.6 Undirected graph.

Definition 1.6. A graph in which every edge is undirected is called an undirected
graph.

Figure 3: Undirected graph, Directed graph

1.7 Mixed graph.

Definition 1.7. A graph in which some edges are directed and some edges are
undirected, is called a Mixed graph.

1.8 Initial and Terminal vertex of an edge

Definition 1.8. Let G = (V, E) be a graph and let x ∈ E be a directed edge
associated with the ordered pair of nodes (u, v). Then the edge x is said to be
initiating or originating in the node u and terminating in the node v. The nodes
u and v are called initial and terminal nodes of the edge x.

1.9 Incidence relation of an edge and vertices.

Definition 1.9. An edge x ∈ E which joins the nodes u and v, whether it be
directed or undirected, is said to be incident to the nodes u and v.

1.10 Loop.
Definition 1.10. An edge of a graph which joins a node to itself is called a loop
or sling.

Remark: The direction of a loop is of no significance; hence it can be considered

either as directed or undirected.

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1.11 Parallel edges.
Definition 1.11. In a directed or undirected graphs, certain pair of nodes are
joined by more than one edge. Such edges are called parallel edges.

1.12 Multiple graph.

Definition 1.12. A graph which contains some parallel edges is called a Multiple
graph.

Figure 4: Undirected Multiple graphs

Figure 5: Directed Multiple graphs

1.13 Simple graph.

Definition 1.13. A graph which contain no more than one directed edge is called
a Simple graph. In other words, A graph which has neither self loops nor parallel
edges is called a simple graph.

Definition 1.14. A graph is called regular if all vertices in it have same degree.

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Figure 6: Simple Graph

Figure 7: Simple Graph

Figure 8: Regular Graph

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1.14 Weighted graph.
Definition 1.15. A graph in which weights are assigned to every edge is called a
weighted graph.

Figure 9: Weighted graphs with multiplicity

Figure 10: Weighted graph with weights

1.15 Isolated vertex.

Definition 1.16. In a graph, a node which is not adjacent to any other nodes of a
graph is called an isolated vertex.

Figure 11: Isolated Vertex

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1.16 Null graph.
Definition 1.17. A graph containing only isolated nodes is called a a Null graph.

Figure 12: Null graph

1.17 Isomorphic graphs

Definition 1.18. Two graphs are Isomorphic if there exists a one-to-one corre-
spondence between the nodes of two graphs which preserves adjacency of the
nodes as well as the direction of edges, if any.

Figure 13: Isomorphic Graphs

Figure 14: Isomorphic Graphs

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Figure 15: Isomorphic Graphs

Figure 16: Isomorphic Graphs

Figure 17: Isomorphic Graphs

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1.18 The necessary condition for two graphs to be Isomorphic
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Two graphs G and G are isomorphic then they must have

1. The same number of vertices

2. Same number of edges

3. An equal number of vertices with a given degree.

However, these conditions are not sufficient.

Figure 18: Not Isomorphic Graphs

1.19 In-degree, Out-degree and Total degree of a Vertex.

Definition 1.19. [In-degree, Out-degree and Total degree of a Vertex.]

1. In a directed graph for any node v, the number of edges which have v as
their initial node is called out-degree of the node v.

2. The number of edges which have v as their terminal node is called the in-
degree of the node v.

3. The sum of out-degree and in-degree of a node v is called a total degree of

a node v.

Remark:

1. In an undirected graph, a total degree or degree of a node v is equal to the

number of edges incident with v.

2. The total degree of an isolated node is 0 (zero) .

1.20 In-degree, Out-degree and Total degree of a Set.

Definition 1.20. [In-degree, Out-degree and Total degree of a Set.] Let G =
(V, E) be a directed graph and X ⊆ V be a subset of nodes. Then

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 1. the number of edges of G which have their initial node in X, but their
terminal node not in X, is called out-degree of X.

2. Similarly, the number of edges of G which have their terminal node in X,

but their initial node not in X, is called in-degree of X.

3. The sum of out-degree and in-degree of X is called a total degree of a set

X.

Theorem 1.21. The sum of degrees of the nodes of graph is twice the number of
edges in it. In case of directed graph, the sum of total degrees of all the nodes of
a graph is equal to the twice the number of edges in it. Also, the number of odd
vertices is always even.

Proof. Since each edge is associated with two vertices, therefore each edge con-
tributes one degree to each vertex adjacent to it.

∴ The total number of degrees of vertices= 2(Number of edges in it).

Let G = (V, E) and the set V = {v1 , v2 , . . . . . . , vn } and e be the total number
edges then the sum of total degrees of vertices of V

d(v1 ) + d(v2 ) + . . . . . . + d(vn ) = 2e. (1)

The above equation can be rewritten as,

n
X
d(vi ) = 2e. (2)
i=1
X X
⇒ d(vi ) + d(vk ) = 2e. (3)
odd even
X
Since, d(vk ) = 2k =the sum of degrees of the vertices with even degree.
even
Hence, X
d(vi ) = 2e − 2k = 2(e − k). (4)
odd

Thus, the number vertices with odd degree is always even.

1.21 Subgraph of a graph.

Definition 1.22. Let V (H) be the set of nodes of a graph H and V (G) be the set
of nodes of a graph G such that V (H) ⊆ V (G). If in addition every edge of H is
also an edge of G, then the graph H is called a subgraph of G, which is express
by writing H ⊆ G.

Remark: The graph G, and the null graph obtained by deleting all the edges of G
are the subgraph of a Graph G.

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1.22 Properties of a graph.
Definition 1.23. A simple digraph G = (V, E) is called reflexive, symmetric,transitive,
antisymmetric if the relation E is reflexive, symmetric,transitive, antisymmet-
ric. If the graph G = (V, E) is reflexive, symmetric,transitive then E must be an
equivalence relation on V .

1.23 Converse of a digraph.

The converse of a digraph G = (V, E) is to be digraph Ḡ = (V, Ē) in which the
relation Ē is the converse of the relation E.
Theorem 1.24. The sum of in-degrees of all the nodes of a simple digraph is equal
to the sum of out-degrees of all the nodes and this sum is equal to the number of
edges in it.

Proof. Let the graph G = (V, E) be simple and G does not contain any self-loops
and parallel edges. Since, each edge is incident to exactly two vertices, each edge
will contribute one degree to each vertex. Hence, each contribute degree 1, to
in-degree of any one vertex and degree 1 to out-degree of one vertex.
X X
d(vi ) = d(vi) (5)
In−degree Out−degree

also,
X X
∴ d(vi ) = d(vi) = Total number of edges of G = e. (6)
In−degree Out−degree

References
[1] Engineering Mathematics Vol.-I and II. A.P Verma and M. N. Mehta. Stu-
dent manual SVNIT, Surat.
[2] Erwin Kreyszig: Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th edition, John
Wiley and Sons, (2008).
[3] George B. Thomas, Jr. Ross L. Finley: Calculus with analytical Geometry,
9th edition Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. (2004)
[4] Howard Anton: Calculus, A new horizon, 6th edition, John Willey and
Sons, (2006)
[5] Michael D. Greenberg. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Prentice-Hall
International, Inc. NJ.

Acknowledgment
I am very much thankful to Prof. P. A. Gajjar, Head of the department, Nottingham
university, Kazakhstan for his valuable guidance for the preparation of this topic.

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