Microcontroller

Overview
A microcomputer made on a single semiconductor chip is called single-chip microcomputer. Since,
single chip microcomputers are generally used in control applications, they are also
called microcontrollers.

Microcontroller contains all essential components of a microcomputer such as CPU, RAM, ROM/EPROM,
I/O lines etc. Some single chip microcontrollers contain devices to perform specific functions such as
DMA channels, A/D converter, serial port, pulse width modulation, etc.

Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller

Microprocessors Microcontrollers

It is used for big applications. It is used to execute a single task within an

application.

Microprocessor is the heart of computer system. It is the heart of the embedded system.

It is just a processor. Memory and I/O Microcontroller contains external processor

components have to be having to be connected along with internal memory and I/O
externally. components.

Since I/O and memory connected externally, the Since I/O and memory present internally, the
circuit becomes large. circuit is small.

Can't be used in compact systems and hence Can be used in compact systems and
inefficient. microcontroller is an efficient technique.

Cost of entire system increases. Cost of entire system is low.

Power consumption is high. Power consumption is low.

Most of the microprocessors do not have power Most of the microcontrollers have power
saving modes. saving mode.

Difficult to replace. Easy to replace.

Mainly used in personal computers. Used mainly in washing machine, MP3 players.

Consider the block diagram of microcontroller:

Basic components of Microcontroller
o Arithmetic and Logic unit (ALU) - ALU inside a microcontroller used to perform the
arithmetic and logic operation. It performs the logic operation on the data stored inside a
register.
o Accumulator -Accumulator is the register inside which the intermediate arithmetic and logical
operation data is stored.
o Working registers - Registers are the storage device used to store the data inside a
microcontroller in different address location.
o Program counter - Program counter is used for counting the number of program executed
inside a microcontroller.
o Stack pointer - Stack pointer act as a pointer to the certain address. It is a register used to
store the address of the last program request made by the processor inside a stack.
o Clock circuit - Clock circuit is used for generate the clock pulse required as a reference signal
for the microcontroller.
o Interrupt circuit - Interrupt circuit is used for generating the interrupt signal when the
higher priority process required to be served first on basis of priority by microcontroller.
o Internal ROM - Internal ROM is read only memory used to store the information in
embedded system. It acts as a main memory for storing the instruction and data inside a
microcontroller.
o I/O ports - I/O ports are used for connecting input devices like sensor, keyboard etc with
input ports and output devices like LCD, buzzer etc with output ports available in
microcontroller.
Embedded Systems 
Embedded System is a system composed of hardware, application software and real time operating
system. It can be small independent system or large combinational system.

Our Embedded System tutorial includes all topics of Embedded System such as characteristics,
designing, processors, microcontrollers, tools, addressing modes, assembly language, interrupts,
embedded c programming, led blinking, serial communication, lcd programming, keyboard
programming, project implementation etc.

What is Embedded System

An Embedded System is a system that has software embedded into computer-hardware, which
makes a system dedicated for a variety of application or specific part of an application or product or
part of a larger system.

An embedded system can be a small independent system or a large combinational system. It is a

microcontroller-based control system used to perform a specific task of operation.

An embedded system is a combination of three major components:

o Hardware: Hardware is physically used component that is physically connected with an

embedded system. It comprises of microcontroller based integrated circuit, power supply, LCD
display etc.
o Application software: Application software allows the user to perform varieties of application
to be run on an embedded system by changing the code installed in an embedded system.
o Real Time Operating system (RTOS): RTOS supervises the way an embedded system
work. It act as an interface between hardware and application software which supervises the
application software and provide mechanism to let the processor run on the basis of
scheduling for controlling the effect of latencies.
Designing of an embedded system
Basic Structure of an Embedded System

Let's see the block diagram shows the basic structure of an embedded system.

o Sensor: Sensor used for sensing the change in environment condition and it generate the
electric signal on the basis of change in environment condition. Therefore it is also called as
transducers for providing electric input signal on the basis of change in environment condition.
o A-D Converter: An analog-to-digital converter is a device that converts analog electric input
signal into its equivalent digital signal for further processing in an embedded system.
o Processor & ASICs: Processor used for processing the signal and data to execute desired set
of instructions with high-speed of operation.

Application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) is an integrated circuit designed to perform task
specific operation inside an embedded system.
o D-A Converter: A digital-to-analog converter is a device that converts digital electric input
signal into its equivalent analog signal for further processing in an embedded system.
o Actuators: Actuators is a comparator used for comparing the analog input signal level to
desired output signal level for providing the error free output from the system.

Design steps required for the development of Embedded

System
Designing steps required for embedded system are different from the design process of another
electronic system.

Let's see a flow chart represent the design steps required in the development of an embedded system:
Designing of an embedded system
Basic Structure of an Embedded System

Let's see the block diagram shows the basic structure of an embedded system.
 o Sensor: Sensor used for sensing the change in environment condition and it generate the
electric signal on the basis of change in environment condition. Therefore it is also called as
transducers for providing electric input signal on the basis of change in environment condition.
o A-D Converter: An analog-to-digital converter is a device that converts analog electric input
signal into its equivalent digital signal for further processing in an embedded system.
o Processor & ASICs: Processor used for processing the signal and data to execute desired set
of instructions with high-speed of operation.

Application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) is an integrated circuit designed to perform task
specific operation inside an embedded system.
o D-A Converter: A digital-to-analog converter is a device that converts digital electric input
signal into its equivalent analog signal for further processing in an embedded system.
o Actuators: Actuators is a comparator used for comparing the analog input signal level to
desired output signal level for providing the error free output from the system.

Design steps required for the development of Embedded

System
Designing steps required for embedded system are different from the design process of another
electronic system.

Let's see a flow chart represent the design steps required in the development of an embedded system:
What is an Internet of Things (IoT)
Let's us look closely at our mobile device which contains GPS Tracking, Mobile Gyroscope, Adaptive
brightness, Voice detection, Face detection etc. These components have their own individual features,
but what about if these all communicate with each other to provide a better environment? For
example, the phone brightness is adjusted based on my GPS location or my direction.
Connecting everyday things embedded with electronics, software, and sensors to internet enabling to
collect and exchange data without human interaction called as the Internet of Things (IoT).

The term "Things" in the Internet of Things refers to anything and everything in day to day life which
is accessed or connected through the internet.

IoT is an advanced automation and analytics system which deals with artificial intelligence, sensor,
networking, electronic, cloud messaging etc. to deliver complete systems for the product or services.
The system created by IoT has greater transparency, control, and performance.

As we have a platform such as a cloud that contains all the data through which we connect all the
things around us. For example, a house, where we can connect our home appliances such as air
conditioner, light, etc. through each other and all these things are managed at the same platform.
Since we have a platform, we can connect our car, track its fuel meter, speed level, and also track the
location of the car.

If there is a common platform where all these things can connect to each other would be great
because based on my preference, I can set the room temperature. For example, if I love the room
temperature to to be set at 25 or 26-degree Celsius when I reach back home from my office, then
according to my car location, my AC would start before 10 minutes I arrive at home. This can be done
through the Internet of Things (IoT).
How does Internet of Thing (IoT) Work?
The working of IoT is different for different IoT echo system (architecture). However, the key concept
of there working are similar. The entire working process of IoT starts with the device themselves, such
as smartphones, digital watches, electronic appliances, which securely communicate with the IoT
platform. The platforms collect and analyze the data from all multiple devices and platforms and
transfer the most valuable data with applications to devices.

Embedded Devices (System) in (IoT)

It is essential to know about the embedded devices while learning the IoT or building the projects on
IoT. The embedded devices are the objects that build the unique computing system. These systems
may or may not connect to the Internet.

An embedded device system generally runs as a single application. However, these devices can
connect through the internet connection, and able communicate through other network devices.

Embedded System Hardware

The embedded system can be of type microcontroller or type microprocessor. Both of these types
contain an integrated circuit (IC).
The essential component of the embedded system is a RISC family microcontroller like Motorola
68HC11, PIC 16F84, Atmel 8051 and many more. The most important factor that differentiates these
microcontrollers with the microprocessor like 8085 is their internal read and writable memory. The
essential embedded device components and system architecture are specified below.

Fig: Basic Embedded System

Embedded System Software

The embedded system that uses the devices for the operating system is based on the language
platform, mainly where the real-time operation would be performed. Manufacturers build embedded
software in electronics, e.g., cars, telephones, modems, appliances, etc. The embedded system
software can be as simple as lighting controls running using an 8-bit microcontroller. It can also be
complicated software for missiles, process control systems, airplanes etc.

IoT Decision Framework

The IoT decision framework provides a structured approach to create a powerful IoT product strategy.
The IoT decision framework is all about the strategic decision making. The IoT Decision Framework
helps us to understand the areas where we need to make decisions and ensures consistency across all
of our strategic business decision, technical and more.

The IoT decision framework is much more important as the product or services communicates over
networks goes through five different layers of complexity of technology.

1. Device Hardware
 2. Device Software
3. Communications
4. Cloud Platform
5. Cloud Application

Decision Area
The IoT decision framework pays attention to six key decision areas in any IoT product. These decision
areas are:

1. User Experience (UX)

2. Data
3. Business
4. Technology
5. Security
6. Standards & Regulations

Each of these decision areas is evaluated at each of the IoT Technology Stack. The User Experience
will be evaluated at Device Hardware, Device Software and so to provide the better user experience.
Then at the next step Data Decision Area, we have to explore data considerations for all the stages of
IoT Technology Stack.
Decision Area of the IoT Decision Framework

Let's see each of the Decision Area of IoT Decision Framework in detail:

1. User Experience Decision Area: This is the area where we concentrate about who are the
users, what are their requirements and how to provide a great experience at each step of IoT
stack without worrying about the technical details.
2. Data Decision Area: In this area, we make the overall data strategy such as the data flow
over the entire IoT stack to fulfill the user's requirements.
3. Business Decision Area: Based on the previous decisions area, we make the decision how
product or services will became financial potential. At each of the IoT Stack level are
monetized about the costs of providing services.
4. Technology Decision Area: In this area, we work with the technology for each layer to
facilitate the final solution.
5. Security Decision Area: After going through the implementation of technology it is
important to decide and provide the security at each stage of the IoT Stack.
6. Standards & Regulations Decision Area: At the last stage of IoT Decision Area, we identify
the standards and regulations of product or services that will affect your product at each layer
of the IoT Stack.

Internet of Things (IoT) in Healthcare

IoT technology brings numerous applications in healthcare, from remote monitoring to smart sensors
to medical device integration. It keeps the patients safe and healthy as well as improves the physician
delivers care towards the patients.
Healthcare devices collect diverse data from a large set of real-world cases that increases the accuracy
and the size of medical data.

Factor affecting IoT Healthcare Application

There are various factors that affect the IoT healthcare application. Some of them are mention below:

o Continuous Research: It requires continuous research in every field (smart devices, fast
communication channel, etc.) of healthcare to provide a fast and better facility for patients.
o Smart Devices: Need to use the smart device in the healthcare system. IoT opens the
potential of current technology and leads us toward new and better medical device solutions.
o Better Care: Using IoT technology, healthcare professionals get the enormous data of the
patient, analysis the data and facilitate better care to the patient.
o Medical Information Distribution: IoT technology makes a transparency of information and
distributes the accurate and current information to patients. This leads the fewer accidents
from miscommunication, better preventive care, and improved patient satisfaction.

Simple Healthcare System Architecture

The application of the Internet of Things (IoT ) in healthcare transforms it into more smart, fast and
more accurate. There is different IoT architecture in healthcare that brings start health care system.
Product Infrastructure: IoT product infrastructure such as hardware/software component read the
sensors signals and display them to a dedicated device.

Sensors: IoT in healthcare has different sensors devices such as pulse-oximeter, electrocardiogram,

thermometer, fluid level sensor, sphygmomanometer (blood pressure) that read the current patient
situation (data).

Connectivity: IoT system provides better connectivity (using Bluetooth, WiFi, etc.) of devices or
sensors from microcontroller to server and vice-versa to read data.

Analytics: Healthcare system analyzes the data from sensors and correlates to get healthy
parameters of the patient and on the basis of their analyze data they can upgrade the patient health.

Application Platform: IoT system access information to healthcare professionals on their monitor

device for all patients with all details.
IoT challenges in Healthcare
o Data security & privacy
o Integration: multiple devices & protocols
o Data overload & accuracy
o Cost

Robotics
Robotics is the term used in artificial intelligence that deals with a study of creating intelligent and
efficient robots.

What are Robots

Robots are multifunctional, re-programmable, automatic industrial machine designed for replacing
human in hazardous work.

Robots can be work as:-

o An automatic machine sweeper

o In space
o A machine removing mines in a war field
 o An automatic car for a child to play with
o In military, etc.

Objective
The aim of the robot is to manipulate the objects by perceiving, moving, picking, modifying the
physical properties of object.

What is Robotics
Robotics is a branch of Artificial Intelligence (AI), it is mainly composed of electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering and computer science engineering for construction, designing and

application of robots.

Robotics is science of building or designing an application of robots. The aim of robotics is to design an
efficient robot.

Aspects of Robotics
o The robots have electrical components for providing power and control the machinery.
o They have mechanical construction, shape, or form designed to accomplish a particular
task.
o It contains some type of computer program that determines what, when and how a robot
does something.

Components of Robot
Consider the robot structure showing different components of robots are:
Consider the key components of robotics are:-
o Power Supply - The working power to the robot is provided by batteries, hydraulic, solar
power, or pneumatic power sources.
o Actuators - Actuators are the energy conversion device used inside a robot. The major
function of actuators is to convert energy into movement.
o Electric motors (DC/AC)- Motors are electromechanical component used for converting
electrical energy into its equivalent mechanical energy. In robots motors are used for providing
rotational movement.
o Sensors - Sensors provide real time information on the task environment. Robots are
equipped with tactile sensor it imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human
fingerprints and a vision sensor is used for computing the depth in the environment.
o Controller - Controller is a part of robot that coordinates all motion of the mechanical system.
It also receives an input from immediate environment through various sensors. The heart of
robot's controller is a microprocessor linked with the input/output and monitoring device. The
command issued by the controller activates the motion control mechanism, consisting of
various controller, actuators and amplifier.
Artificial Intelligence in Robotics
With the invention of machines or computers, their capability to perform different tasks went on
increasing exponentially. Humans have developed the power of computer systems in terms of diverse
working domains, with increasing speed, and reducing size with respect to time.

What is Artificial Intelligence

According to the founder of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is "The engineering and science
developed intelligent machine, especially an intelligent computer programs".

It is a way of developing a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or software that think intelligently,

in a similar manner the intelligent humans think.

Artificial Intelligence is implemented by studying how human brain thinks and how humans decide,
learn, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the result of this study as a basis of
developing intelligent systems and software.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

o For Implementing Human Intelligence in Machines - Creating systems that understand,
learn, think and behave like humans.
o For Developing Expert Systems - The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
explain, demonstrate, and advice its users.

Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

o Expert Systems - There are various applications which integrate machine, special information
and software to impart advising and reasoning. These systems provide explanation and advice
to the users.
o Gaming - AI plays major role in strategic games such as poker, chess, tic-tac-toe, etc. Using
artificial intelligence the machine can think of large number of possible moves based on
general knowledge.
o Natural Language Processing - Using natural language processing it is possible to interact
with a computer that can understand natural language spoken by humans.
o Vision systems - These systems interpret, understand, and comprehend a visual input on the
computer.
o Intelligent Robots - Robots are designed for performing the tasks given by a human. They
have sensors embedded to detect physical data from the outside environment such as heat,
light, sound, pressure, etc. They have multiple sensors, efficient processors and large memory,
to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable to learn from their mistakes and they can
easily adapt to the new environment.
Artificial Intelligence Research Areas
The working domain of artificial intelligence is huge in width and breadth. Therefore before proceeding
further considers the prospering and common research areas in the domain of artificial intelligence
are:-

o Expert System - In artificial intelligence, an expert system are used for solving complex
problems by reasoning about knowledge, represented primarily by if-then rules rather than by
conventional procedural code. In general, an expert system is a computer system that uses
the decision-making capability of a human expert.
o Neural Networks - Neural networks are system of interconnected ?neurons? which exchange
messages between each other. In machine learning artificial neural networks (ANNs) belongs
to a family of model inspired by biological neural networks (the nervous system of animals,
present inside a brain) and are used for approximate functions or estimate a large number of
inputs which are generally unknown.
o Robotics - Robotics is a branch of Artificial Intelligence (AI), it is mainly composed of
electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and computer science engineering for
 construction, designing and application of robots. Robotics is science of building or designing
an application of robots. The aim of robotics is to design an efficient robot.
o Fuzzy logic - Fuzzy logic was introduced in 1965 as a proposal of fuzzy set theory. It is
applied to various fields, from artificial intelligence to control theory. Fuzzy logic is a form of
many-valued logic in which truth table values of variable may be real number between 0 and
1.
o Natural Language Processing - Natural language processing (NLP) is a method of
communicating with an intelligent system by using a natural language such as English. The
input and output of NLP system is speech and written text.

Voice and Speech Recognition

Voice and Speech both terms are common in expert systems, natural language processing and
robotics. As these terms are used interchangeably, their objectives are different.

The differences between voice and speech recognition are given below:

Voice Recognition Speech Recognition

The aim of voice recognition is to recognize WHO is The aim of speech recognition is to understand and
speaking. comprehend WHAT was spoken.

This recognition system requires training as it is person This recognition system does not require training as
oriented. speaker dependent.

It is used for identifying a person by analyzing its voice, It is used for hand-free computing, menu navigation
tone, pitch, and accent, etc.

Speaker dependent Voice Recognition systems are easy to Speaker independent Speech Recognition systems ar
develop. to develop.

Robotics hardware designing using Eagle Software

This software is Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor (EAGLE) used for PCB designing. To design
an electronic circuit schematic and layout on Printed Circuit Board (PCB) eagle software is used.

Eagle is a PCB design software package consists of a PCB editor, a schematic editor and an auto router
module. This software also provides wide variety of library components, but library editor is also
provided for design new parts or modify the existing one.

Why use Eagle:

Eagle is PCB CAD software used for designing hardware of the system. Consider the few reasons why
Eagle is preferred over other hardware designing tools:-

o Lightweight - It is lightweight software which requires anywhere from 50-200MB of disk
space. The installer package is about 25MB. So you can download to install to run for making
a PCB very quick.
o Cross-platform - Eagle can run on Windows, LINUX, MAC. This is a feature not too many
other PCB design software provide.
o Free/Low-Cost - The free version of EAGLE provides enough utilization for designing of any
PCB using toolbar of software.

Drawing the Schematic:

Using this software we can draw the schematics of Power Supply, an Atmel AtMega16 Microcontroller,
LCD, Motor Driver IC (L293D) and remaining I/O- pins connected to headers.

Consider the Eagle Toolbar for editing the schematic of the circuit is,
Using the above tools the desired operation can be performed for drawing schematic structure of the
circuit. When adding the components you will notice a small black cross on each device. It is the origin
or handle of the device used for manipulate the device with various tools.