Aim of the Experiment: To obtain the particle size by laser

Objective:

 To determine the concept of diffraction

 To determine the size of the particles using the given laser source
 To learn about the characteristics of Lasers
 To study the various type of Lasers

Apparatus required: laser source; Screen; Meter Scale; Glass Plate; particle (Lycopodium
Powder)

Formula:

Grain Size is given by

2d = nλD/xn metre

where

n is the order of diffraction

λ is the wavelength of laser light in metre

D is the distance between glass plate and the screen in metre

xn is the distance between central bright spot and the nth fringe in metre

Procedure:

Figure 1: Experiment set-up for the measurement of particle size

Figure 2: Schematic
diagram of set-up

When LASER is passed through a glass plate spread with fine micro particles, the beam gets
diffracted by the particles and circular rings are obtained on the screen as shown in Figure. By
measuring the radii of the rings and the distance between the glass plate and the screen, the size
of the particle can be determined.

Figure 3: Diffraction pattern on the screen

Due to the diffraction of laser by particle different order of spectrum are obtained. The position
of the fringe 1st order, 2nd order upto nth order are noted.

Sprinkle the fine micro particles (Lycopodium ) on the glass plate.

2. Mount the LASER source on a stand

3. Place a screen in front of the LASER source at some distance

4. Mount the glass plate on a separate stand and place it between the LASER source and the
screen.

5. Switch ON the laser source and allow the beam to pass through the glass plate.

6. Adjust the distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen to get a clear circular fringe
pattern (diffraction pattern) on the screen. The intensity is found to decrease from zeroth order
(central spot) to higher orders.
7. Measure the distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen using metre scale.

8. Measure the distance (xn) of the first order, second order and so on from the central bright
spot (radii of the rings).

9. Repeat the experiment by varying the distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen and
the readings are tabulated.
Aim of the Experiment: To obtain the wavelength of a laser source by using grating

Objective: To understand the physical processes that is occurring that give rise to the diffraction
phenomenon.

Apparatus required: Laser source; Grating; Meter Scale; Screen

Theory: A diffraction grating consists of a transparent material into which a very large number of
uniformly spaced wires have been embedded. As the light impinges on the grating, the light
waves that fall between the wires propagate straight on through. The light that impinges on the
wires, however, is absorbed or reflected backward. At certain points in the forward direction the
light passing through the spaces (or slits) in between the wires will be in phase, and will
constructively interfere. Whenever the difference in pathlength between the light passing through
different slits is an integral number of wavelengths of the incident light, the light from each of
these slits will be in phase, and then it will form an image at the specified location.
Mathematically, the relation is simple:

d sin θ = mλ

where d is the distance between adjacent slits (which is the same is the distance between adjacent
wires), θ is the angle the re-created image makes with the normal to the grating surface, λ is the
wavelength of the light, and m = 0, 1, 2, . . . is an integer.

Experimental set-up for measuring the wavelength using a diffraction grating

Procedure:

 Put the scale in the horizontal position.

 Grating is placed between the screen and the source.
 Measure the distance between the scale and grating.
  Keep the laser, Grating, 50th mark on the scale in the straight line.
 Note down the distance between the scale (screen) and the Grating as X.
 Laser gets diffracted and two spots are observed on the scale on the both side of the
center mark.
 Measure the length of the first spot to the right and the first spot to left from the center
mark.
 Also, measure the length of the second spot on both sides from the center mark.

 Repeat the Experiments for various values of X.

Calculate the angle of Diffraction using the following formula

Formula:

Y
tanθ=
X

θ=tan−1 ( YX )
where Y = average distance between the orders of spots

X = Distance between screen and the grating

sinθ
λ= nm
mN

where θ is the angle of diffraction in degrees

 m is the order of spectrum

N is the no. of lines per meter in the grating

λ is the wavelength of the laser source

S.No. Distance Distance AC=sqrt(AB2+BC2) Sinθ =

between the between the (10-2m) BC/AC
grating and central spot
centre spot and first
AB (10-2m) order BC
(10-2m)
1
2
3
4
5

Mean Sinθ =

Result:

Wavelength of the laser λ= m

Aim of the Experiment: To obtain forbidden energy gap of semiconductor

Objective: To determine the energy band gap of a given semiconductor by measuring its

electrical resistivity as a function of temperature by a four probe method.

Apparatus Required:

(1) A semiconductor crystal piece mounted on a non conducting bottom surface is placed under
four spring loaded contact probes spaced equally.

Dimensions are

Sample thickness (w): 0.5mm,

Probe separation (s): 2mm

(2) Oven with a thermocouple

(3) PID temperature controller with display.

(4) Constant current source.

(5) Microvolt meter.

Procedure

(1) Gently remove the sample holder out the oven and carefully check the sample position,
contacts of the leads, separation between the leads and the thickness of the sample.

(2) Identify the voltage and the current leads.

(3) Having placed the sample holder inside the oven, switch on the current source

and the voltmeter.

(4) Set a constant current (e.g. 5 mA) to flow through two outer probes and turn on the oven
power supply. The sample heating begins automatically with temperature indication on the
display. Measure the voltage drop across the middle two probes at the temperature interval of ~
5°C up to 180°C

Result:

Calculate the electrical resistivity ( ρ0 ) using the relation:

ρ V
0= × 2 πS
I
where ‘s’ is the probe separation.

Use to determine the electrical resistivity from relation

ρ ρ0
0=
G

where G is a function dependent on the (W/S) ratio and known as correction factor when
measurements are carried out on a thin slice non conducting bottom. Take the value of ‘G’ as 6

Plot ln ρ Vs 1000/T curve and find out the energy band gap (Eg) of the semiconductor. The
electrical resistivity follows the relation

Eg
ρ=Aexp
2 kT

where A is the pre-exponential factor and ‘k’ is the Boltzman constant.

Questions

(1) Why is four probe method is preferred over two probe measurement system? Discuss briefly.

(2) Can you measure resistivity of the material by this technique placed on a conducting surface?

(3) How you measure the activation energy and band gap of an extrinsic semiconductor by this
method?

(4) Can you determine the band gap of the material by measuring the resistivity at low
temperatures? What temperature range you think as most appropriate to measure the band gap of
the material you worked on.
Aim of the Experiment: To obtain capacitance and permittivity