Laboratory Experiment #3

Heat Loss in Bare, Finned and Lagged Pipes

Abstract

This experiment was be conducted for the purpose of determining the heat loss and
overall heat transfer coefficient of bare pipe, finned pipe, and insulated pipe and making a
comparison between these attained data. The equipment that was be used is the Laboratory Heat
Exchangers (set-up located in Colegio San Agustin Bacolod) to attain this objective. In the
conduction of the experiment, there are two trials made in each pipe, which have different wind
speeds, in order to attain the temperature outside of the pipe. The measurement of the length of
the pipe, the outside and inside diameter of the pipe and fins, the length and thickness of the fins,
and the inside and outside diameter of the insulating material was also done as this data will be
used to acquire earlier objective: the calculation of the heat loss and heat transfer coefficient of
the different pipes. After the acquisition of the results, it was observed that the finned pipe has
the highest value for heat loss and overall heat transfer coefficient and the insulated pipe has the
least value for both.
 INTRODUCTION

Many industries have energy or heat transfer phenomena in their unit processes and
operations. Different heat transfer techniques are employed in heat exchange equipment, also
known as heat exchangers, to cool or heat process ingredients. In order to reduce the economic
worth of wasted energy, it's also important to pay attention to heat loss in process plants. As a
result, understanding heat transport concepts is critical in chemical engineering.

Heat transmission, like the transfer of velocity and mass, is aided by the presence of a
resistant quantity or dimension. The temperature differential between two bodies is the driving
force. Heat transfer occurs whenever the temperatures of two bodies are out of equilibrium.
According to the Kinetic Molecular Theory, the hotter the body is, the more energy it contains,
and so energy flows from a hot body to a cold body, which also follows the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, which states that the regular flow of heat must be maintained.

Heat transmission is believed to be steady-state in many practical applications. The most

fundamental law governing heat transport is Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction, which can be
stated mathematically as:

qx dT
=−k
A dx
Where:
q x – Heat transfer rate in the x direction in watts (W).
A – Cross Sectional area normal to the direction of flow of heat in m2.
T – Temperature in Kelvin.
x – Distance in m.
k – Thermal Conductivity in W /m . K .
 Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three methods through which heat can be
transmitted. When two materials with differing temperatures come into contact with each other,
conduction occurs. The Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction explains it effectively. In steady state
conduction, Fourier's first law is employed, and in the analysis of unsteady state conduction, the
second law is applied, which is provided as:

∂T ∂2 T
=α
∂t ∂ x2

Fourier's Law for Unsteady State Conduction is expressed using partial differential
equations, which necessitates the use of special techniques to achieve specific solutions.

Convection and conduction are two terms that are interchangeable. However, the ability
of fluids to change density with temperature makes the analysis more difficult. Convection is
described in this way:

q=hA (∆ T )

Where:
q – Rate of Heat Transfer
h – Heat Transfer Film Coefficient
A – Resisting Area
∆ T – Temperature Driving Force
Forced convection and natural convection are the two types of convection. Forced
convection occurs when pressure differences, such as those created by a pump or a fan, push the
fluid to flow. The motion of fluid in natural convection is caused by density variations in heat
transmission. The buoyant action causes the fluid to circulate naturally, allowing it to pass
through solid objects.
 Radiation differs from conduction and convection in that heat is transferred without the
use of a physical medium. Electromagnetic waves carry thermal energy in this environment.
OBJECTIVES

1. To compare the heat losses of the hot air heated bare pipe, finned pipe, and lagged pipe to
each other.
2. Based on the experimental results of its heat loss, to estimate its overall heat transfer
coefficient.
3. To figure out what the average natural convective heat transfer coefficient is.

MATERIALS

Table 3.1: Materials and Equipment needed for the Experiment

1. Tap water

Materials/Supplies

1. Heat Exchangers Set up

Equipment/Apparatus 2. Thermometers

3. Anemometer

4. Stopwatch

5. GLX Explorer
 METHODOLOGY

The input and output hot air temperatures were measured using thermometers at both
ends of the pipe. The surface temperature was measured at five places that were evenly spaced.
T1 is near the hot air inlet thermometer, while T2 is near the hot air outlet thermometer. For
measurement or monitoring of ambient temperature, a thermometer was hung in a convenient
area near the heat exchanger.

The air blowers were then turned on. Each air heaters were switched on one at a time for
every minute with a valve opening for Trial 1 to 1/2 open and for trial 2 to full open. The air
temperatures at the pipe's entrance and output were measured and recorded until they were
stable. After the intake and outlet temperatures of the pipes were stabilized, the GLX explorer
was used to measure the surface temperature. Temperature readings were recorded for each point
or location. For each location's average surface temperature, three observations were taken at
separate locations.

With the use of an anemometer and a stopwatch, the air speed was measured at the pipe's
exit for 2-3 minutes and the average was calculated. For trial 2, the identical method was
followed, but this time the valve at the air input was fully opened. After the experiment, the
heaters, air blowers, and main switch were turned off, and the space was cleared and cleaned.
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 3.2: Dimensions of Bare, Finned, and Insulated Pipes

Pipe Outer Inside Fin Thickness Fin

Diameter Diameter Length

mm in

Bare 60.57 54.23

Finned 60.92 54.70 3.92 1

- consist of 12 fins

Insulated
- Insulation 13.19 3.25
- Pipe
13.19 53.81

Table 3.3: Distance Between Temperature Points

Distance of Temperature Points Length

in

T1 - T2 29.5

T2 - T3 28.7

T3 - T4 28.5

T4 - T5 28.55
1st Trial Data:

Table 3.4: Temperatures Inside the Pipe using Thermometer

Pipe T1 T5

°C

Bare 63 54

Finned 73 61

Insulated 67 56

Table 3.5: Surface Temperatures of the Pipe using GLS Temperature Sensor

Pipe T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

°C

Bare Pipe 50.1 44.8 43 40.7 41.3

Finned Pipe Fin 50.8 48.4 46.7 45 44.6

Pipe 56.1 48.3 49.2 48.2 45.8

Insulated Pipe 41.6 39.4 39.3 37.4 37.7

 Table 3.6: Wind Speed and Temperature Readings using the Anemometer

Pipe Velocity Temperature

m °C
s

Bare 4.8 50.3

Finned 12.6 54.9

Insulated 4.6 54.1

2nd Trial Data:

Table 3.7: Inner Temperatures using Thermometer

Pipe T1 T5

°C

Bare 70 58

Finned 75 63

Insulated 73 64
 Table 3.8: Outer Temperatures using GLS Temperature Sensor

Pipe T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

°C

Bare Pipe 47 44.6 44.3 41.6 42.5

Finned Pipe Fin 50.2 46.6 46.7 42.2 43.1

Pipe 55.2 50.8 47.8 42.6 43.5

Insulated Pipe 42 40.4 39.8 39.1 37.8

Table 3.9: Wind Speed and Temperature Readings using the Anemometer

Pipe Velocity Temperature

m °C
s

Bare 4.8 m/s 53.5

Finned 11.3 m/s 53

Insulated 5.3 m/s 62.8

 Table 3.10: Bare Pipe Temperature Data

Ambient Air Inlet Surface Temperature Air Outlet

Trial
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 50.3 63 50.1 44.8 43 40.7 41.3 54

2 53.5 70 47 44.6 44.3 41.6 42.5 58

Table 3.11: Bare Pipe Temperature Data

Ambient Air Inlet Surface Temperature Air Outlet

Trial Surface
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fin 50.8 48.4 46.7 45 44.6

1 54.9 73 61
Pipe 56.1 48.3 49.2 48.2 45.8

Fin 50.2 46.6 46.7 42.2 43.1

2 53 75 63
Pipe 55.2 50.8 47.8 42.6 43.5

Table 3.12: Bare Pipe Temperature Data

Ambient Air Inlet Surface Temperature Air Outlet

Trial
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 54.1 67 41.6 39.4 39.3 37.4 37.7 56

2 62.8 73 42 40.4 39.8 39.1 37.8 64

 Table 3.13: Wind Speed Readings using the Anemometer

Pipe
Trial
Bare Finned Insulated

1 4.8 12.6 4.6

2 4.8 11.3 5.3

Table 3.14: Physical Attributes of Air

Average Heat Thermal

Density Viscosity
Temperature Capacity Conductivity
Prandtl
Pipe Trial
kg J W Number
°C 3 Pa-s
m kg ⋅ K m⋅ K

1 58.5 1.0645 0.000019993 1008.0 0.0284 0.7093

Bare
2 64 1.0470 0.00002024 1008.3 0.0288 0.7086

1 67 1.0378 0.000020374 1008.5 0.0290 0.7082

Finned
2 69 1.0317 0.000020463 1008.7 0.0292 0.7080

1 61.5 1.0549 0.000020128 1008.2 0.0286 0.7089

Insulated
2 68.5 1.0332 0.000020441 1008.6 0.0291 0.7081

Table 3.15: Flow rates, Reynolds Number and Flow Regime

Pipe Trial Pipe ID Area Velocity Volumetric Mass Flow Reynolds Flow
 Flow Rate Rate

m kg Number Regime
2 m3
m m
s s s

−02 −02
1 4.8 1.11 ×1 0 1.18 ×1 0 13,859.53 Turbulent
−03
Bare 0.0542 2.31 ×1 0
2 4.8 1.11 ×1 0−02 1.16 ×1 0−02 13,465.33 Turbulent

−02 −02
1 12.6 2.96 ×1 0 3.07 ×1 0 35,107.12 Turbulent
−03
Finned 0.0547 2.35 ×1 0
2 11.3 2.66 ×1 0−02 2.74 × 10−02 31,163.76 Turbulent

−05 −05
1 4.6 3.82 ×1 0 4.03 × 10 783.52 Laminar
−06
Insulated 0.0033 8.30 ×1 0
−05 −05
2 5.3 4.40 × 10 4.54 ×1 0 870.65 Laminar

Table 3.16: Heat Loss from each Pipe

Heat
Mass Flow Rate Air Inlet Air Outlet ΔT q
Capacity
Pipe Trial
kg J
°C W
s kg ⋅ K

1 0.0118 1008.0 63.0 54.0 9.0 107.07

Bare
2 0.0116 1008.3 70.0 58.0 12.0 140.45

1 0.0307 1008.5 73 61 12.0 371.88

Finned
2 0.0274 1008.7 75 63 12.0 331.62

−05
1 4.03 × 10 1008.2 67 56 11.0 0.4464
Insulated
−05
2 4.54 ×1 0 1008.6 73 64 9.0 0.4124

Table 3.17: Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

 Surface
Temperature Heat Transfer
ΔT Pipe OD U
Area
T2 T6
Pipe Trial

2
W
°C m m
m2 ⋅ K

1 50.1 41.3 8.8 4,222.52

−03
Bare 0.06057 2.88 ×1 0
2 47 42.5 4.5 10,832.05

1 56.1 45.8 10.3 12,386.80

−03
Finned 0.06092 2.91 ×1 0
2 55.2 43.5 11.7 9,723.98

1 41.6 37.7 3.9 837.76

−04
Insulated 0.01319 1.37 ×1 0
2 42 37.8 4.2 718.54

Table 3.18: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

Pipe Trial W
m2 ⋅ K

1 22.11
Bare
2 21.90

1 47.06
Finned
2 42.99

1 37.33
Insulated
2 41.30
 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Generation, utilization, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy due to temperature

differences are the primary concerns of heat transfer. The most common application of this
principle is heating which uses a variety of different materials. Thus, this experiment was
conducted to understand the flow of heat in different kinds of pipes. In the conduction of the
aforementioned experiment, there were three types: the bare pipe, finned pipe, and insulated
pipe; wherein the heat transfer coefficient and heat loss were to be acquired. This data will then
be compared for to determine which of the three pipes are efficient and productive for industrial
application.

Thermal conductivity increases with temperature just as the component of heat transfer
coefficient increases with size. However, density and quality of the material are the variables
which effect the rate of increase and the final value at any temperature. As observed in Table
3.16, the finned pipe has the highest value for heat loss, follows is the bare pipe and the one with
lowest heat loss is the insulated pipe. For the overall heat transfer coefficient in Table 3.17, in
terms of how well the heat is conducted in the pipe, the finned pipe is the most well-conducted,
then the bare pipe, and the least conducted is the insulated pipe.

In addition to this, it can be stated that due to the temperature difference existing between
the surroundings and the pipes, occurrence of heat loss can occur. However, the amount of heat
loss depends on the material. Due to the extended surface, the finned pipes can transfer a greater
amount of heat because of the increase in surface area and rate of heat transfer. This can be
supported by the principle of heat transfer which corresponds to the calculated value of heat loss
for the finned pipe. The heat loss in the insulated pipe is very evident, because of the presence of
an insulator, whose purpose is to optimize the efficiency of the heat that delays the transfer of
heat. It can be also be observed that the Reynold’s Number in Table 3.15 correlate to the values
for the convective heat transfer coefficient in Table 3.18, this is because when the convective
heat transfer coefficient increases the value of Reynolds number also increases. Another
evidence of this, is that the convective heat transfer coefficient is directly proportional to heat
loss. The most well-conducted is the finned pipe, since the heat transfer rate is directly
proportional to the overall heat transfer coefficient from its formula in Table 3.17. The
acquisition of the overall heat transfer coefficient determines how well the heat is conducted in
the pipe and thus, this supports such statements. Furthermore, it is observed that the overall heat
transfer coefficient is influenced by the thickness and thermal conductivity of the mediums
through which heat is transferred. The larger the coefficient, the easier heat is transferred from its
source to the product being heated.

Recommendations

For accurate data acquisition, it is important to follow correct data gathering, and be in an
environment which cannot greatly influence or affect the experimentation, specifically in
attaining the temperatures of the different pipes, as this is the basic data required in getting the
convection coefficient. Furthermore, the equipment must be gone through proper start up and is
in high quality to ensure that troubleshooting will be avoided during the experimentation.
 APPENDIX
1-A
Symbology

qx Heat transfer rate in the x direction in watts (W).

A Cross Sectional area normal to the direction of flow of heat in m2.

T Temperature in Kelvin.

x Distance in m.

k Thermal Conductivity in W /m . K .

q Rate of Heat Transfer

h Heat Transfer Film Coefficient

A Resisting Area

∆T Temperature Driving Force

 APPENDIX
1-B
Consolidated Data, Equations, and Calculations

A. Average Temperature

Air Inlet Temperature Air Outlet Temperature Average Temperature

Pipe Trial
°C

1 63 54 58.5
Bare
2 70 58 64

1 73 61 67
Finned
2 75 63 69

1 67 56 61.5
Insulated
2 73 64 68.5

Air Inlet Temperature + Air Outlet Temperature

Average Temperature=
2

B. Physical Attributes of Air

 Average Heat Thermal
Density Viscosity
Temperature Capacity Conductivity
Prandtl
Pipe Trial
kg J W Number
°C 3 Pa-s
m kg ⋅ K m⋅ K

1 58.5 1.0645 0.000019993 1008.0 0.0284 0.7093

Bare
2 64 1.0470 0.00002024 1008.3 0.0288 0.7086

1 67 1.0378 0.000020374 1008.5 0.0290 0.7082

Finned
2 69 1.0317 0.000020463 1008.7 0.0292 0.7080

1 61.5 1.0549 0.000020128 1008.2 0.0286 0.7089

Insulated
2 68.5 1.0332 0.000020441 1008.6 0.0291 0.7081

C. Cross-sectional Area of the Pipe

Pipe ID Area
Pipe Trial
mm m m2

1
−03
Bare 54.23 0.0542 2.31 ×1 0
2

1
−03
Finned 54.7 0.0547 2.35 ×1 0
2

1
Insulated 3.25 0.0033 8.30 ×1 0−06
2

1m
ID(m)=ID (mm)×
1000 mm
 ( )
2
ID (m)
A=π
2

D. Volumetric Flow Rate

Area Velocity Volumetric Flow Rate

Pipe Trial m 3
2 m
m
s s

−02
1 4.8 1.11 ×1 0
−03
Bare 2.31 ×1 0
−02
2 4.8 1.11 ×1 0

−02
1 12.6 2.96 ×1 0
−03
Finned 2.35 ×1 0
−02
2 11.3 2.66 ×1 0

−05
1 4.6 3.82 ×1 0
−06
Insulated 8.30 ×1 0
2 5.3 4.40 × 10−05

Q= A × v

E. Mass Flow Rate

Density Volumetric Flow Rate Mass Flow Rate

Pipe Trial
kg m
3
kg
3
m s s

−02 −02
1 1.0645 1.11 ×1 0 1.18 ×1 0
Bare
−02 −02
2 1.0470 1.11 ×1 0 1.16 ×1 0

−02 −02
Finned 1 1.0378 2.96 ×1 0 3.07 ×1 0
 −02 −02
2 1.0317 2.66 ×1 0 2.74 × 10

−05 −05
1 1.0549 3.82 ×1 0 4.03 × 10
Insulated
2 1.0332 4.40 × 10−05 4.54 ×1 0−05

ṁ=ρ ×Q

Density Pipe ID Velocity Viscosity

Pipe Trial kg Reynolds Number

m
3 m Pa-s
m s

1 1.0645 4.8 0.000019993 13,859.53

Bare 0.0542
2 1.0470 4.8 0.00002024 13,465.33

1 1.0378 12.6 0.000020374 35,107.12

Finned 0.0547
2 1.0317 11.3 0.000020463 31,163.76

1 1.0549 4.6 0.000020128 783.52

Insulated 0.0033
2 1.0332 5.3 0.000020441 870.65

F. Reynolds Number

ρ × ID × v
N ℜ=
μ

G. Difference between Air Inlet and Air Outlet Temperatures

Air Inlet
Air Outlet Temperature ΔT
Temperature
Pipe Trial
°C

1 63 54 9.0
Bare
2 70 58 12.0
 1 73 61 12.0
Finned
2 75 63 12.0

1 67 56 11.0
Insulated
2 73 64 9.0

ΔT = Air Inlet Temperature− Air Outlet Temperature

H. Heat Loss

Mass Flow Rate Heat Capacity ΔT q

Pipe Trial kg J
°C W
s kg ⋅ K

1 0.0118 1008.0 9.0 107.07

Bare
2 0.0116 1008.3 12.0 140.45

1 0.0307 1008.5 12.0 371.88

Finned
2 0.0274 1008.7 12.0 331.62

−05
1 4.03 × 10 1008.2 11.0 0.4464
Insulated
−05
2 4.54 ×1 0 1008.6 9.0 0.4124

q=ṁ C p ΔT

I. Difference of Temperatures between T2 and T6

Surface Temperature
ΔT
Pipe Trial T2 T6

°C

Bare 1 50.1 41.3 8.8

 2 47 42.5 4.5

1 56.1 45.8 10.3

Finned
2 55.2 43.5 11.7

1 41.6 37.7 3.9

Insulated
2 42 37.8 4.2

Δ T =T 2−T 6

J. Heat Transfer Area

Pipe OD Area
Pipe Trial

mm m m2

1
−03
Bare 60.57 0.06057 2.88 ×1 0
2

1
−03
Finned 60.92 0.06092 2.91 ×1 0
2

1
−04
Insulated 13.19 0.01319 1.37 ×1 0
2

1m
OD (m)=OD( mm)×
1000 mm

( )
2
OD (m)
A=π
2
 K. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

q Area ΔT U

Pipe Trial W
2
W m °C 2
m ⋅K

1 107.07 8.8 4,222.52

−03
Bare 2.88 ×1 0
2 140.45 4.5 10,832.05

1 371.88 10.3 12,386.80

−03
Finned 2.91 ×1 0
2 331.62 11.7 9,723.98

1 0.4464 3.9 837.76

−04
Insulated 1.37 ×1 0
2 0.4124 4.2 718.54

q=UAΔT

q
U=
AΔT
 L. Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

Thermal
Pipe ID h
Conductivity
Reynolds Prandtl
Pipe Trial
Number Number W W
m 2
m⋅ K m ⋅K

1 13,859.53 0.7093 0.0284 22.11

Bare 0.0542
2 13,465.33 0.7086 0.0288 21.90

1 35,107.12 0.7082 0.0290 47.06

Finned 0.0547
2 31,163.76 0.7080 0.0292 42.99

1 783.52 0.7089 0.0286 37.33

Insulated 0.0033
2 870.65 0.7081 0.0291 41.30

0.8 1/ 3
N Nu=0.023 N ℜ N Pr

hD 0.8 1 /3
=0.023 N ℜ N Pr
k

0.8 1 /3 k
h=N ℜ N Pr ( )
D
 Laboratory Experiment #4

Flow Over Weirs

Abstract

This experiment concerned the discharge of water flow over weirs, which was caried out
Chemical Engineering Laboratory, April 2022. The discharge over Weir’s experiment was
carried out. Conducted to investigate the flow characteristics displayed by a rectangular and V-
shaped Weir. The flow rate of water that flows into both channels was observed to differ.
Furthermore, the discharge coefficient of fluid flow was calculated as a result of this. The
experimental values were compared to the accepted values. The procedures for the experiment
were followed in order to begin the experiment. The depth of the water was varied by changing
the height and the time it took to collect 25L of water was tested. The time spent was later used
to Calculate the flow rate through each weir. Data obtained using the empirical equation The
discharge coefficient was calculated after the experiment was tabulated. Following that, graphs
were created. Built to investigate the flow's characteristics
 INTRODUCTION

A weir is a barrier that spans the width of a river or stream, altering the flow's
characteristics and usually resulting in a change in the water level's height. Weirs for natural
channels and laboratory flumes come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Broad-crested, short-
crested, and sharp-crested weirs are all possible. Sharp-crested weirs, sometimes known as
notches, are made from thin plates with sharp edges. The Bernoulli's equation and additional
assumptions about head loss and pressure distribution of the flow flowing over the weir can be
used to derive the relationship between flow rate and water depth above the weir. To account for
errors in estimating the flow rate caused by these assumptions, a coefficient of discharge must be
determined experimentally for each weir.

Weirs are commonly used to measure or control flow in rivers, streams, irrigation canals,
and other bodies of water. When a weir is installed in an open channel system, critical depth
forms over the weir. Because the critical depth and discharge have a unique relationship, a weir
can be designed as a flow-measuring device. Weirs are also used to raise the water level in a
channel in order to divert the flow to irrigation systems at higher elevations.

The depth of water above a weir's base is proportional to the flow rate through it; thus,
the weir can be used as a flow measuring device. Flow over weir relationships can be obtained
by solving the energy equation from a point well upstream of the weir to a point just above the
weir crest. This method necessitates a number of assumptions and yields the following results:
For a Triangular Weir:

5
8 θ
Q=C d √ 2 g tan H 2
15 2 (Eq. 1)

For a Rectangular Weir:

3
2 (Eq. 2)
Q=C d √2 g b H 2
3

Where:

Q: flow rate;

H: height above the weir base;

b: width of rectangular weir (R-notch);

Ɵ: angle of triangular weir (V-notch);

Cd: discharge coefficient, which must be determined experimentally, to account

for the effects of simplifying assumptions in the theory.

For a V-notch:

15Q
C d= (Eq. 3)
()
5
θ
8 √ 2 tan H2
2

For a R-notch:

(Eq. 4)
 3Q
C d= 3
2 √2 g b H 2

OBJECTIVES

1. To obtain empirical equations for water flow. Over sharp edged rectangular and V-
shaped weirs and comparing measured discharge coefficients with valid values.
2. To determine the flow characteristics of a rectangular and a triangular weir.
3. To Calculate the discharge coefficient for both notches.

MATERIALS

Table 4.1: Materials and Equipment needed for the Experiment

1. Tap Water

Materials/Supplies
 1. F1-10 Hydraulics bench

2. F1-13 rectangular and triangular weirs

Equipment/Apparatus
3. Vernier height gauge

4. Laptop

5. Stopwatch

Figure 4.1: An example of the Equipment Set-up

Figure 4.2: Actual Set-up of Equipment

 METHODOLOGY

Figure 4.3: Equipment Setup

Ensure that the hydraulics bench is positioned so that its surface is horizontal. This is
necessary because the flow over the notch is driven by gravity. Mount the rectangular notch plate
onto the flow channel, and position the stilling baffle as shown in Figure. Turn on the pump, and
slightly adjust the flow control to fill the channel upstream of the weir with water. Turn off the
pump when the water starts to flow over the weir. Wait a few minutes to allow the water to
settle. Level the point gauge with the water level in the channel. Record the reading as ho.

Figure 4.4: Continuation of Equipment Setup

Position the instrument carrier to measure the datum height of the notch's base (ho).
Then, slowly lower the gauge until the point is just above the notch base, and tighten the coarse
adjustment screw. Then, using the fine adjustment, move the gauge until the point just touches
the water's surface and take a reading, taking care not to damage the notch. Adjust the point
gauge so that it reads 10 mm higher than the datum. Turn on the pump and slightly adjust the
flow until the water level corresponds with the point gauge. Before taking readings, ensure that
the level has stabilized. Measure the flow rate with the volumetric tank. Take pictures of the
nappe's shape as you observe it.

Figure 4.5: Continuation of Equipment Setup

 As the water approaches the weir, the surface of the water will fall. This is especially
noticeable at high flow rates due to high heads. To obtain an accurate measurement of the
undisturbed water level above the weir's crest, the measuring gauge must be placed at least three
times the head above the weir.

Figure 4.6: Regulating valve adjustment

 Increase the flow by opening the bench regulating valve in 10 mm increments to raise the
heads above the datum level until the regulating valve is fully open. Take care not to allow
spillage onto the plate top adjacent to the notch. Measure the flow rate and look at the shape of
the nappe in each condition.

Figure 4.7: Gathering data

Collect approximately 25 liters of water each time, or collect the water for at least 120
seconds, to obtain a sufficiently accurate result. Replace the weir with the V-notch after closing
the regulating valve and stopping the pump. Experiment again with the V-notch weir plate, but
this time with 5 mm increments in water surface elevation. For each weir, take seven head and
discharge readings.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Rectangular weir
discharge, Cd
width of time, t volume, V height, H Flow rate, using linear
Trial discharge, Cd
notch, b (seconds) (m3) (m) Q (m/s) relation
equation
1 0.03027 11.99 0.012 0.057 0.001001 0.9721 0.9721
2 0.03027 14.95 0.01 0.0508 0.000669 0.6536 0.6536
3 0.03027 7.99 0.01 0.0695 0.001252 0.7642 0.7642
 Table 4.2: Data gathered using a rectangular weir

Table 4.3: Data gathered using a triangular weir

Triangular weir
discharge, Cd
angle of
time, t volume, V height, H Flow rate, using linear
Trial V-notch, discharge, Cd
(seconds) (m^3) (m) Q (m/s) relation
θ
equation
1 90° 24.39 0.006 0.0348 0.000246 0.2846 0.2846
2 90° 27.91 0.005 0.031 0.000179 0.2766 0.2766
3 90° 15.11 0.005 0.034 0.000331 0.4057 0.4057

Based on the results, it can be observed that as flow rate decreases, the discharge
coefficient Cd also decreases. The discharge coefficient Cd was also calculated using in relation
to Q and Hn and in the form of: 

Q =mHn (Eq 5)

 Rectangular notch:

m
Cd= 2 (Eq 6)
√2 gb
3

 Triangular notch
 m
Cd= 8 θ (Eq 7)
√2 g tan
15 2

The calculation is still the same when determined accordingly.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

In open channel hydraulics weirs are often used either to regulate or measure the
volumetric flow rate. They are particularly used in large scale situations such irrigation systems,
canals and rivers. Whereas, in small scale applications (often referred to as notches), they are
invariably and have sharp edge ad manufactured from thin plate material. Because of the fact that
the flow pattern over a notch is complex and there’s no analytical solution to the relationship and
the head, so a semi-empirical approach has been used.
Based on the experiment,we
have met the objectives which is
to study the behaviour of
non uniform flow and the use of
a broad-crested weir to measure
the discharge in rectangular
open channel.The smooth flow
to and over the weir is essential
to the determination of accurate
rates of flow since distribution of
velocities on the approach flow
has definite influence on the
discharged over the weir. It was
found that as the magnitude of
the flow rate increased, so did
the discharge coefficient.This
may have been due to the shape
of the weir which had a
rectangular control section.Since
the height of the water increased
with increased flow, more
friction loosed may have
occurred.Therefore the discharge
coefficient calculated can be
compared and must be nearly
accurate to the theoretical
value.The relationship between
the
head of the weir and discharged
of the water over the weir is
directly proportional.The lower
flow
rates produce lower heights
above the notch creating larger
changes compared to theoretical
values
Based on the experiment,we
have met the objectives which is
to study the behaviour of
non uniform flow and the use of
a broad-crested weir to measure
the discharge in rectangular
open channel.The smooth flow
to and over the weir is essential
to the determination of accurate
rates of flow since distribution of
velocities on the approach flow
has definite influence on the
discharged over the weir. It was
found that as the magnitude of
the flow rate increased, so did
the discharge coefficient.This
may have been due to the shape
of the weir which had a
rectangular control section.Since
the height of the water increased
with increased flow, more
friction loosed may have
occurred.Therefore the discharge
coefficient calculated can be
compared and must be nearly
accurate to the theoretical
value.The relationship between
the
head of the weir and discharged
of the water over the weir is
directly proportional.The lower
flow
rates produce lower heights
above the notch creating larger
changes compared to theoretical
values
Based on the experiment,we
have met the objectives which is
to study the behaviour of
non uniform flow and the use of
a broad-crested weir to measure
the discharge in rectangular
open channel.The smooth flow
to and over the weir is essential
to the determination of accurate
rates of flow since distribution of
velocities on the approach flow
has definite influence on the
discharged over the weir. It was
found that as the magnitude of
the flow rate increased, so did
the discharge coefficient.This
may have been due to the shape
of the weir which had a
rectangular control section.Since
the height of the water increased
with increased flow, more
friction loosed may have
occurred.Therefore the discharge
coefficient calculated can be
compared and must be nearly
accurate to the theoretical
value.The relationship between
the
head of the weir and discharged
of the water over the weir is
directly proportional.The lower
flow
rates produce lower heights
above the notch creating larger
changes compared to theoretical
values
Based on the experiment, the objectives are met; which are to determine the flow
characteristics of a rectangular and a triangular weir calculate the discharge coefficient for both
notches and lastly compare the calculated discharge coefficient with reliable sources online. It
has been observed that the smooth flow to and over the weir is essential to the determination of
accurate rates of flow since distribution of velocities on the approach flow has definite influence
on the discharged over the weir. It was found that as the magnitude of the flow rate increased, so
did the discharge coefficient. This may have been due to the shape of the weir which had a
rectangular control section. Since, the height of the water increased with increased flow, more
friction loosed may have occurred. However, when compared, the discharge coefficient is not
nearly accurate to the theoretical value. In addition to this, the relationship between the head of
the weir and discharged of the water over the weir is directly proportional. The lower flow rates
produce lower heights above the notch creating larger changes compared to theoretical values.

The following table is the comparison of the obtained discharge coefficient (for
rectangular weir) to the sources found online obtained:

Average discharge Theoretical value of

coefficient Cd calculated discharge coefficient, Cd
The following table
is the comparison of
0.796633 0.33-046
the obtained discharge
coefficient (for triangular weir) to the sources found online obtained:
 Average discharge Theoretical value of
coefficient Cd calculated discharge coefficient, Cd

0.3223 0.624

Recommendations:

1. Make sure that the water supply is sufficient; during the experiment turbidity and instable
flow of water had been observed because of insufficiency.

APPENDIX
 1-A
Symbology

Q Flow rate

H Height above the weir base;

b Width of rectangular weir (R-notch);

Ɵ Angle of triangular weir (V-notch);

Cd Discharge coefficient, which must be determined experimentally, to account for

the effects of simplifying assumptions in the theory.

m Slope

H Height above the weir base in m

N Exponent value (1.5 for rectangular weir and 2.5 for triangular weir)
APPENDIX
1–B
Photos