Canopy management

There are several operations involved in improving the yield and the quality of fruits. Among
them, canopy management is one of the most important factors to sustain the yield and quality in
most of the fruits. In many fruit crops, increase in production with enhanced fruit quality is
achieved by managing canopies. Capturing and conversion of sunlight into the fruit biomass (dry
matter content) is an important process in fruit production.

In general, compact and small trees capture and convert sunlight into fruit production in a
better way than the larger ones. The main controlling factors are the extent of incoming radiation
and percentage radiation intercepted by tree canopies. It can be enhanced by proper canopy
management practices. For commercial fruit cultivation, the natural form and shape of fruit trees
are to be modified through the practice of pruning to achieve the targeted yield by scientific
approach.

Canopy- is the above ground portion of a plant or crop, formed by collection of individual plant
crown.

Sometimes the term canopy is used to refer to the extent of the outer layer of leaves of an
individual tree or group of trees.

Leaf Area Index(LAI): leaf area per unit ground area, is a key measure used to understand and
compare plant canopies.

or

Leaf Area Index (LAI) is defined as the one sided green leaf area per unit ground area in
broadleaf canopies, or as the projected needleleaf area per unit ground area in needle canopies.

The leaf area index (L) of a crop can be expressed as follows:

L=Np×N1×A1

Where Np is the number of plants per unit area, Nl is the number of leaves per plant, and Al is
the mean area per leaf.
Principles of canopy management
Light is critical for growth and development of trees and their fruits. The green leaves
harvest the sunlight to produce the carbohydrates and sugar which are transported to the sites
where they are needed (buds, flowers and fruits). These sites act as sinks for the photosynthates.
Better light penetration into the tree canopy improves tree growth, productivity, yield and fruit
quality. The density and orientation of planting also impacts light penetration in an orchard.
Generally, in close planting, quicker shading becomes a .problem. An east-west row orientation
results in more shading as compared to the western and southern orientation of trees. Strong
bearing branches tend to produce larger fruits. Thus training of trees at early stage provides a
strong framework and well-spaced limbs or any other desired shape.

Some of the basic principles of canopy managements are:

 Maximum utilization of light
 Avoidance of buildup of micro-climate congenial for diseases and insect pest infestation.
 Convenience in carrying out the cultural practices.
 Maximizing productivity with quality fruit production
 Economy in obtaining the required canopy management.

Planning for Canopy Management

Before taking up canopy management operation in fruit trees, certain facts and knowledge
is essential. Following points need to be looked into:
1. Tree’s growth and fruiting behavior: The growth pattern of the fruit plants is not same.
Some are more vigorous whereas, others are less. Therefore, training and pruning
depends upon the kind of fruit plants.All the deciduous and temperate fruits are
pruned/trained during dormancy, whereas, in evergreen fruit plants pruning is done after
harvest. Further, the bearing habits of fruit plants are also not same hence; the pruning
should be done in proper time. In fact, pruning at the wrong time may have a detrimental
effect. Pruning tends to stimulate shoot development in trees usually resulting in vigorous
vegetative growth. If trees are cut back too heavily, they may not fruit for two to three
years.
 2. Intended plant canopy architecture:The ideal canopy for fruit plants may be variable
depending upon the needs and requirement. For high density, the small canopy will be
ideal whereas, for wider plantations the canopy should be little bigger with strong
framework of limbs. At any cost, the canopy of two plants should not touch to each other.
This can be managed by regular pruning. Regular pruning is essentially needed in high
density plantations which should be done just after crop harvest.

3. Balance between vegetative growth and fruiting:A good balance between vegetative
and fruitful growth should be maintained by pruning. Factors such as soil type, climate,
variety and nutrition play critical roles, however the severity of pruning is very important.
On vigorous trees, there is need to increase fruit and slow down the vegetative growth. It
has been observed that slower vegetative growth usually favours more flowers and
increased fruitfulness. Selective pruning to remove vigorous, less fruitful shoots and to
retain less vigorous shoots can assist in swinging the balance from vegetative to fruitful
production.

Tools for Canopy Management

There are different tools and equipments required for canopy management. Some of them have
been mentioned as:
1. Secateurs: Secateurs are handy for tip pruning and cutting out shoots and suckers. They
should be kept sharp at all times. Regular cleaning and a drop of oil prevents the blades
from sticking. They often have the added advantage of having replaceable blades.
2. Lopping shears: These are useful for removing quite large branches, up to 50 mm in
diameter. There are two types, one has a cross over cutting action where the blade is curved
and passes across a cutting plate.
3. Pruning saw: This tool is capable of cutting through large branches and trunks up to 150 mm
in diameter. These have a fairly narrow, slightly curved blade, which enables them to be
used in quite restrictive situations such as narrow forks of trees. Some brands are also
designed to fit onto a long handle to enable the user to reach higher branches in the tree.
Light Interception and Tree Form
The productivity of an orchard is directly related to the amount of light intercepted by the
orchard canopy. Light which influences flower bud formation, productivity and fruit quality is a
major limiting factor in fruit production. Therefore one of the main goals of pruning and training
apple trees should be to maximize light capture and distribution within the tree canopy. Tree
form and size along with tree density will determine the percentage of light captured on a per
area bases that can be utilized for fruit production.
In general, the effective light penetration into the tree canopy is approximately one meter.
Based upon this fact, the canopy of a large tree can be broken down into three zones with regards
to light penetration below given figure.
1. Zone one located in the top portion of the tree receives 100 to 60% full
Sunlight.
2. Zone two receives 59 to 30% full sunlight and zone three receives less than 30% full
sunlight.
Once light levels drop below 30% of full sunlight, flower-bud formation is reduced, spur vigor is
lost and fruit that is produced in this zone is small and of poor quality. With time, fruit
production will decline in this area as a result of fruit spur death.
3. Zone three is a non-productivezone and the size of this zone is influenced by tree size,
form and pruning.

100 %

59-30 %

29-0 %

Fig. : Light Penetration.

Effect of tree size on light penetration

 Tree size has a significant influence on the area of zone three within the tree canopy. This
area of inadequate light can vary as much as 25% in a large central leader tree to as little as 1.6%
in a dwarf central leader tree (Figure). The smaller area of a nonproductive zone is one of the
reasons why smaller trees can be more productive than large trees. Consideration also needs to
be given to shading of adjacent trees. With increasing tree height there is a greater tendency for
the top of the tree to shade the bottom of the tree, the bottom of adjacent trees or the bottoms of
adjacent rows. In freestanding trees, the height should not exceed the spread of the branches. In
tree walls and trellis systems, the height should not be greater than the distance between rows.

5m 3.5 m 2.5 m
24.4% 12.5% 1.6%

Figure: Effect of tree size on light penetrationand the nonproductive zone

Effect of tree shape

Tree shape also affects light distribution within the tree canopy and the areas of the three zones.
A conic or pyramidal shape such as a central leader tree produces a much more favorable light
distribution than that of the globular form which was typical of standard trees
The most common tree forms that apple trees are trained are as follow:
1. Globular – is characteristic of large open centered trees where the most productive portion of
the tree is top third, where the fruit is less accessible.
2. Conical or pyramidal - this would be characteristic of a Christmas tree shape with an open
framework. The top of the tree does not shade the bottom branches and a major part of the
bearing surface is close to the ground.
3. The open framework- it will allow light to penetrate well into the canopy. Central leader and
spindle this form.
4. Horizontal canopy - where the thickness of the canopy is limited to about 1 m, which allows
for effective light penetration to the full canopy. The Lincoln canopy is a good example of this
tree form.
5. Y or V form - allows for maximum light penetration while providing growth control and
influencing productivity. The Tatura V trellis and the New York Y trellis are examples of
thisform. The conic, vertical tree wall and Y or V trellis shapes lend themselves best to
fruitproduction in the Atlantic Region.
Other advanced systems of training (practical-4)
1. Bower system
This system of training is adopted in grapes and also called overhead, arbour or pergola.
This system is found most suitable for many of the commercial grape cultivars. Though it is very
expensive, it was found most appropriate one and associated with highest yield. Bower system of
training provides a desirable microclimate in the vine canopy and reduces the adverse effects of
arid and hot weather on vine metabolism and life.
In this system vines are spread over a pandal mounted at 2-2.4 m above the ground on
poles made up of concrete, stone or iron. Spacing of vertical poles depends on the spacing of
vines. One pole each is fixed at both the ends of the rows while the internal poles are fixed in
such a way that there are two vines between two successive poles within a row. The poles are
fixed before planting while the crisscross network of wires is fixed after planting. The axillary
shoot growth up to the height of 1m from the ground level is discouraged. Growing tip is pinched
off at 15-20 cm below the pandal level. The shoot should be more than 6mm thick at the point of
pinching. Two shoots arising in opposite direction from the main stem are allowed to grow. They
are called as primary branches. On each of these primary branches 3-4 pairs of secondary arms
are retained on either side of the branch at a distance of 45-50 cm in dry regions awhile in
comparatively cooler and humid areas they are allowed at an interval of 60-75 cm. The growing
secondary branch of more than 6mm thickness should be first pinched into half to develop 5-6
tertiary branches near its basal portion while the second cut is given near the final length of the
secondary. This will give rise to 12-15 tertiary branches (canes) on each secondary branch.
 Bower system of training
2. 'T' Trellis (T-bar) system
It is locally called as telephone system or T-bar system of training. This system is suitable
for Kiwi and grapes and adopted to moderately vigorous varieties with more apical dominance.
It is an improvement over 'bower' system with respect to ventilation and light penetration. It is
relatively less expensive than 'bower', and facilitates mechanized spraying and many other
cultural operations.
However yields in this system are less as compared to the 'bower' system due to less
number of canes per unit area. In 'T' trellis, the vines are allowed to grow straight up to a height
of 1.5-1.6m. Two primaries are developed on the main stem. On each of these primaries short
secondaries of 30-45 cm are developed on both sides of the primary to from an umbrella type
framework. Canes are developed on these short secondaries.

'T' Trellis (T-bar) system

3. Cordon system
Single Curtain Bi-lateral Cordon (High Trellis):
Advantages:
 Adaptable to mechanical pruning, unskilled manual pruning, and mechanical shoot
positioning.
 Fruit gets good sun exposure.
 Requires little annual tying.
Disadvantages
Tends to reduce vine vigor, especially if shoots are positioned.

4. Dwarf pyramid
Unlike spindle bush system, in dwarf pyramid rootstocks are used dwarf and the tying
control size down of the branches to encourage cropping. Summer pruning forms an essential
part of dwarf pyramid. This system of training is widely practiced in apple and pear under high
density planting system.
 Dwarf pyramid
5. Espalier system
This system of training is similar to kniffin system. The trellis is 5 feet high with either 2
wires at 3 feet and 5 feet or 4 wires at 2,3,4 and 56 feet. This system is also adopted in apple and
pears.

Espalier system

6. Head system
In this system plants are planted closely and provided support initially for a few years.
The is toped at 1m above ground level and two lateral branches are encouraged and the plant is
topped again at 1.3 m encouraging two more laterals. These are allowed to grow to the height of
45 cm. Fruiting canes are developed on these laterals.
7. Hedgerow system
This system is adaptable to dwarf trees, staked free standings on trellised growing north
to south. This is suitable for mechanized cultivation.

8. Kniffin system
A four-cane system named after Mr. William Kniffin of New York who developed this
method during 1850.Vine is allowed to grow single stemmed up to one meter and then two arms
are allowed on either side using horizontal trellises.Second pair of arms is allowed at 50 cm
above the lower layer, thus a total of four arms are maintained per vine.Bearing shoots are seen
hanging freely without any need for tying. Varieties like Thompson Seedless, Bhokri, Delight,
Kandhari, Beauty Seedless and Perlette respond well to this system.Sometimes, three horizontal
lines at different heights are maintained in certain areas, the system being called as Modified
Kniffin.Main disadvantage in Kniffin system is that lower arms become unproductive after a few
years.
 Kniffin system

9. Spindle bush system

Spindle bush (or free spindle) are best suited to densities up to 2,000 trees/ha at 2 to 3m
in height and 3 to 4m x 1 to 2m apart. In Europe, spindle systems are usually planted using well
feathered two-year old nursery trees. At planting a number of laterals are selected to form part of
the permanent scaffolds in the bottom third of the tree. Competing laterals that develop at the end
of the unpruned central leader have to be removed in a very early stage. As the leader grows
more scaffolds are selected and spaced equally. Leader dominance is important and if it is lost
will result in a reduced tree canopy, whereas if it becomes too strong lateral growth and
development will be reduced. These systems can be free standing, however mostly utilize some
form of support (either 2 to 3 wire trellis or individual supports).

Tatura Trellis

This high yield V-shaped trellis system was developed at the Tatura Research Station in Victoria,
Australia. The main advantage of the V-trellis system is that it allows maximum light
interception and light distribution in the tree.
Advantages:
- Framework is extremely strong
- Great light penetration, important in fruit plants
- Great air flow, less disease
- Summer pruning used to regulate canopy depth
- Most productive system in world

Management of vegetative and reproductive growth:

Establishment / Juvenile growth:When the tree is young, encourage vegetative growth and
remove blossoms to prevent fruit growth.

Transition (typically at 3 years): When the tree is approximately the size you want, begin to
encourage reproductive growth balanced with vegetative growth.

Mature Bearing Tree: When the tree is fully mature and producing fruit, encourage the fruit
and maintain balance.

Trees grow in two ways:

Primary Growth: Growth in length of limbs. This form of growth results from the activity of
the ‘apical meristem’, which creates undifferentiated cells (cells which have no particular
function, but will eventually be differentiated to become blossoms, bark, etc.).

Primary growth over two years

Secondary Growth: Growth outwards and in diameter (i.e. thickening of the limbs). When
managing the canopy, it’s important to know what age of wood you’re working with. This is
referred to in years, e.g. one year old wood, two year old wood, etc.
 The rings of a tree demonstrate secondary growth

Current Season Growth

It is the new shoot growth expanding from the last terminal bud. At the end of the season,
when the tree goes dormant, it sets up a new terminal bud at the end of the growth. That growth
then becomes one-year-old wood. Over time you will be able to recognize old terminal buds (bud
scale scars) and the age of the wood stemming from them.

Tree Habits
Every tree has tendencies towards certain shapes of growth – knowing and understanding
these tendencies can make canopy management much more efficient.

Growth Habit
The growth habit of a tree is its natural inclination towards a certain canopy shape. There
are two basic growth habits:

Acrotonic
Strong growth at the top of the tree, at the expense of weaker growth on lower levels. Red
Delicious apple has this tendency.

Acrotonic Growth Habit

Basitonic
Lower branches are stronger and outgrow the top of the tree. Braeburn apple trees have
this tendency.
 Basitonic Growth Habit

Fruiting Habit
A tree’s fruiting habit refers to the timing of its fruit production.

Pome Fruits
Apple, pearwill only produce fruit on three year old wood or older. New shoots become
year 1 wood. The cells will differentiate in second year, developing small spurs which will
eventually bear fruit. This wood overwinters, and blooms in third year. Good fruit production
will occur on 4 – 5 year old wood, that’s why the older woods are not pruned off in apple and
pear.

Stone Fruits
Plum, peach, nectarine, apricot and cherry produce fruit on two year old wood. Buds
grow in late summer, after the harvest, rather than in early spring.

Pruning older wood (e.g. 7 years and older) renews a tree’s fruit production capacity - as
wood ages, it becomes too twisted and vascular for good reproductive growth.

The apical meristem, or growing tip, is a completely undifferentiated tissue found in the
terminal bud of a tree. Its main function is to grow new cells at the tips of roots and shoots
(forming buds, among other things). An active apical meristem lays down a growing root or
shoot behind itself, pushing itself forward.

Apical dominance is where the meristem at the tip of the main trunk prevents or inhibits
the growth of other meristems. This dominant meristem, which releases the hormone Auxin,
promotes vegetative growth. Therefore, the tip of the trunk grows rapidly and is not shadowed by
branches. If the dominant meristem is cut off, one or more other branch tips will become
dominant. These newly dominant branches will start growing faster and the new growth will be
vertical, leading to bushy growth.
 Apical dominance
You can train a tree by bringing shoots/branches down to horizontal, altering the flow of Auxin.
The lower you pull the branch, the more new breaking buds you will create.

Altering the flow of Auxin

Pruning

All pruning is dwarfing in the sense that it reduces the overall size of the tree. Any growth
stimulated by cutting is local and temporary. There are two main kinds of cuts used in pruning:

Heading: Cutting one year old wood to destroy apical dominance and invigorate local growth.
DO NOT go overboard with heading cuts – you will end up with a bush.
 Heading cuts
Thinning Out: Removing a shoot or shoot system at the point of origin. These cuts allow
sunshine to filter through and penetrate the tree’s branches. Avoid cutting everything – often you
can find one or two optimal thinning cuts that will affect the whole canopy. Thinning cuts stop or
greatly weaken growth – you are basically telling the branch that it’s time is done.

A thinning cut