Table 7.7 (Continued) : 7.3.12 Stainless Steels

Table 7.
7 (continued)
Element Dominant characteristic Influence in ferritic steel Influence in austenitic steel
Lead Improves machinability Added to improve machinability

Selenium Improves machinability Added to improve surface finish on
machining
Phosphorus Impurity Reduces ductility and Reduces ductility and cleanliness
cleanliness
Can improve strength of carbon
steel
Copper Normally impurity Improves corrosion resistance Improves corrosion resistance
May improve strength but Can increase strength at high
reduces ductility by ageing temperature
Sn, Sb, Tramp element Strongly reduces ductility Fortunately seldom encountered
As, Bi Impurities Promotes temper embrittlement
Hydrogen Impurity Strongly promotes rupture and Fortunately seldom encountered
Decarburizer fracture
distortion in heat treatment. Case hardnesses of 65 Rockwell molybdenum that forms a stable nitride at nitriding tempera-
C may be produced with the same range of core strengths as by tures. The film produced by nitriding carbon steels is ex-
carburizing. tremely brittle and spalls readily. In general, stainless steels,
hot-work die steels containing 5% chromium and medium-
7.3.11.4 Nitriding carbon chromium containing low-alloy steels have been gas
nitrided. High-speed steels have been liquid nitrided.
Nitriding may be achieved by heating steel in a cyanide bath or There are also a number of steels listed in AISI/SAE or
an atmosphere of gaseous nitrogen at 510-5650C. The steel BS 970 (or having the name 'Nitralloy') to which 1% alumi-
component is heat treated and finish machined before nitrid- nium has been added to make the steel suited for gas nitriding.
ing. AISI 7140 (BS 970 905 M39) is typical.
Liquid nitriding uses a bath of sodium and potassium Nitriding can produce case hardnesses up to 75 Rockwell C
cyanides, or sodium cyanide and sodium carbonate. The bath depending on the steel. This hardness persists for about
is pre-aged for a week to convert about a third of the cyanide 0.125 mm but depths of case with hardness above 60 Rockwell
into cyanate. Two variants of the process are liquid pressure of 0.8 mm may be produced.
nitriding in which liquid anhydrous ammonia is piped into the The relatively thin case compared with other methods of
bath under a pressure of 1-30 atm, and aerated bath nitriding case hardening make it customary to use fairly strong core
in which measured amounts of air are pumped through the material. For ferritic steels a UTS between 850 and 1400 MPa
molten bath. All the processes provide excellent results, depth is usual. Typical components nitrided are gears, bushings,
and hardness of case being the same as obtained from gas seals, camshaft journals and other bearings, and dies - in fact
nitriding. Unlike gas nitriding, carbon steels can be liquid all components which are subject to wear. In spite of their
nitrided and the case produced on tool steels is tougher and relatively low hardness, austenitic stainless steel components
lower in nitrogen than a gas-nitrided case. On the other hand, are nitrided to prevent seizure and wear, particularly at high
liquid nitriding uses a highly poisonous liquid bath at a high temperatures. Two considerations apply.
temperature and the process may take as long as 72 hours. It is First, stainless steels must be depassivated by mechanical or
really only suitable for small components. chemical removal of the chromic oxide film before nitriding.
Gas nitriding is achieved by introducing nitrogen into the Second, nitriding decreases corrosion resistance by replacing
surface of a steel by holding the metal at between 51O0C and the chromic oxide film by a chromium nitride film and should
5650C in contact with a nitrogenous gas, usually ammonia. A not be employed when corrosion resistance is of paramount
brittle nitrogen-rich surface layer known as the 'white nitride importance.
layer' which may have to be removed by grinding or lapping is Ion implantation is achieved by bombarding the surface of a
produced. There are two processes: single- and double-stage steel with charged ions, usually nitrogen when the object is to
nitriding. harden the surface. The cost is high, the quantity of nitrogen
In the single-stage process a temperature between 4960C implanted small, and it can only be carried out by a laboratory
and 5240C is used and about 22% of the ammonia dissociates. which has an accelerator such as AERE. It is used for special
This process produces a brittle white layer at the surface. The applications which will probably increase in number.
first stage of the double-stage process is the same as the single
stage but, following this, the ammonia is catalytically disso-
ciated to about 80% and the temperature increased above 7.3.12 Stainless steels
5240C. Less ammonia is used in the double-stage compared The addition of strong oxide-forming elements (aluminium
with the single-stage process and the brittle white layer is silicon and chromium) replaces the oxide on the surface of
reduced in depth and is softer and more ductile. Process times iron by a tenacious film, which confers corrosion and oxida-
are in the order of 72 hours. tion resistance.19 Alloys of iron with substantial proportions of
Gas nitriding can only be used if the steel contains an aluminium and silicon have undesirable properties so that
alloying element such as aluminium, chromium, vanadium or chromium additions which in progressively increasing quanti-
Temperature ( 0 C)
Chromium (%)
L = Liquid C = Carbide a = Ferrite 7 = Austenite a = Sigma
Figure 7.27 Iron-chromium-carbon phase diagrams (a) at 0.10% carbon, (b) at 0.50% carbon
ties change the oxide film first to a spinel and then to Ferritic stainless steels are marketed only in the form of
chromium tri-oxide must be employed. Stainless steels are plate and strip and all have similar mechanical properties:
alloys with a minimum of 50% iron and a minimum of 12% UTS 415-460 MPa, yield strength 275-550 MPa, elongation
chromium. 10-25% depending on thickness of plate. They require no heat
treatment beyond an anneal at about 80O0C followed by air or
7.3.12.1 Metallurgy of stainless steels furnace cooling. The steels are easily drawn and pressed and
their machinability is good, 430 FSe being naturally the best.
Iron forms a complete series of solid solutions with nickel and They are prone to grain growth particularly during welding
with chromium; the alpha or delta form (ferrite) will form and this impairs toughness and ductility.
solid solutions with chromium up to 100% of the alloying The steels are virtually immune to chloride-induced stress
element but will dissolve only a limited amount of nickel and corrosion cracking at the relatively low temperatures at which
the gamma form (austenite) will dissolve up to 100% of nickel they are used and have good resistance to scaling at elevated
without a new phase appearing but can dissolve only limited temperatures, the aluminium containing varieties (e.g. the
amounts of chromium. Sichromals being some of the best available materials in this
The above comments are reflected in the phase diagram for respect). They are significantly cheaper than austenitic steels
the Fe-Cr system (Figure 7.27). Of particular significance is and are used for chemical plant components, domestic and
the small austenite field known as the gamma loop; alloys to catering equipment, automobile trim, domestic and industrial
the right of this loop are ferritic and undergo no allotropic heater parts, exhaust systems and fasteners. The higher
changes in heating or cooling, consequently grain refinement numbers, which have greater resistance to general corrosion,
by such changes is not possible. The amount of chromium are used for the more demanding applications.
which closes this loop if no other element is present is 12.8%. 'Low Interstitial' grades characterized by carbon and nitro-
Above this figure pure Fe-Cr alloys are ferritic and subject to gen contents below 0.03%, chromium contents between 17
grain growth as temperatures are raised to the liquidus. and 30% usually with molybdenum and other additions are
Addition of austenite formers enlarges the gamma loop so recently developed ferritic stainless steels. These include one
that, in the limit, the austenitic phase is stable over the entire standard steel, 444 (with, in spite of its high number, only
range of temperature. Varying the proportions of chromium 18.5% Cr) and non-standard steels Alleghenny Ludlum 'E
and nickel (and manganese and nitrogen) produces the several Brite 261' 'A129.4.4' and 'A294C, Nyby Uddeholm 'Monit',
types of stainless steel. Crucible 'Seacure/SCF and Thyssen 'Superferrit'.
Ferritic stainless steels contain betwen 11 and 30% of These steels, particularly the versions which contain
chromium, a minimum of austenite formers (see Table 7.7) 28% Cr and 4% or more percentage Mo are claimed to have
such as carbon whose influence on the extent of the gamma exceptional resistance to general, stress and pitting corrosions
loop is shown in Figure 7.27 and often some other ferrite and to be suitable for the most aggressive environments
formers so that they always retain a ferritic structure. obtaining in chemical plant and elsewhere.
The standard ferritic (and martensitic) stainless steels have Martensitic stainless steels contain 11-18% of chromium and
'400' series AISI and BS 970 numbers. These numbers some austenite formers (see Table 7.7) such as carbon (see
increase with the chromium content, low numbers (e.g. 403) Figure 7.27) so that they can be hardened by cooling through
denoting 12% chromium. Other things being equal, therefore, the gamma/alpha phase transformation.
a higher-numbered steel will have a better resistance to The US martensitic stainless steels also have 400 series
general corrosion than a lower-numbered one. The following numbers, 403B, 410B, 414B, 416B, 420B, 422, 431B and 440 (the
numbers indicate a ferritic steel: 405, 409, 430, 434, 436. The affix B indicates a BS 970 version) with chromium contents
non-standard steels include Carpenter 182 FM and four increasing with specification number from 12% to 17% (the
aluminium-containing steels Armco 18 SR, and BSC Sichro- highest chromium content at which a steel can have a fully
mal 9, 10 and 12. martensitic structure). They have therefore less general corro-
sion resistance than the ferritic stainless steels but have fair resistance to wear and manufacture of a cutting edge and their
resistance to stress corrosion. The steels can be hardened by applications include valves, tools, cutlery, scissors, turbine
0
quenching from above 95O C to form a hard and brittle blades, coalmining equipment and surgical instruments. The
0
structure which must be tempered. Tempering at 150-37O C most widely used (and therefore most easily available) mar-
0
improves ductility with little loss of strength but above 50O C tensitic and ferritic stainless steels are listed in Table 7.8.
the strength falls off rapidly. Holding at temperatures between Austenitic stainless steels contain 15-27% Cr and, in the case
0 0
37O C and 60O C causes temper embrittlement which reduces of the '30O' series 8-35% Ni. In the '20O' series for which there
impact resistance and must be avoided. is no BS 970 equivalent some of the nickel is replaced by Mn
The martensitic high carbon grades are difficult to form and and N, which cost less than nickel. These steels can be cold
weld. They are particularly suited for operations requiring worked to higher strengths than the '30O' series steels.
Table 7.8 Most readily available martensitic and ferritic stainless steels
AISI Approximate UTS Additional information

No. composition (MPa)
403 C 0.08 max. 420 A low-carbon stainless iron suitable for rivets, split pins, and lightly stressed
Cr 12.0/14.0 engineering fittings
Ni 0.50 max. Nearest equivalent specifications
BS 970 403S17 (1970)
BS 1449 403S17 (1970) BS 1501: Part 3 403S17 (1973)
405 C 0.08 max. 420 Non-hardenable. Suitable for welded fabrications
Cr 12.0/14.0 Nearest equivalent specifications
Ni 0.50 max. BS 1449 405S17 (1970)
Al 0. 10/0.30 BS 1501: Part 3 405S17 (1973)
409 C 0.09 max. 420 Non-hardenable. Suitable for welded fabrications
Ni 0.70 max. BS 1449 409S17 (1970)
Ti 5 x C/0.60
410 C 0.09/0. 15 540/690 Martensitic stainless steel for general engineering applications
Cr 11.5/13. 5 Nearest equivalent specifications
Ni 1.00 max. BS970410S21(1970)
BS 1449 410S21 (1970)
420 C 0. 14/0.20 690/850 Surgical instruments, Scissors, taper and hinge pins. General engineering purposes
Ni 1.00 max. BS970420S29(1970)
420 C0.20|0.28 690/850 Valve and pump parts (which are not in contact with non-ferrous
Cr 12.0/14.0 metals or graphite packing)
Ni 1.00 max. Surgical instruments
Nearest equivalent specifications
BS970420S37(1970)
420 C0.28|0.36 690/930 Cutlery and edge tools
Ni 1.00 max. BS 1449 420S45 (1970)
BS970420S45(1970)
430 C 0.10 max. 430 Ferritic stainless. Domestic and catering equipment, motor car trim, domestic and industrial
Cr 16.0/18.0 heater parts
Ni 0. 50 max. Nearest equivalent specifications
BS970430SI5(1970)
BS 1449 430SI5 (1970)
431 C 0. 12/0.20 850/1000 General engineering. Pump and valve parts (in contact with non-ferrous metals or
Cr 16.0/18.0 graphite packing)
№2.00/3.00 Nearest equivalent specifications
BS970431S29
434 C 0. 10 max. Ferritic stainless. Motor car trim
Mo 0.90/1. 30 BS 1449434S19
Ni 0. 50 max.
SF67a C 0.70 Razor blade strip
Cr 13.0
Free-machining versions of 13% Cr steels are available to BS 970 416S21,416S29, 416S37.
a
BSC trademark.
Table 7.9 Most readily available austenitic stainless steels

202 C 0.07 max. 630 Nearest equivalent specifications

Mn 7.00/10.0 BS 1449 284S16 (1970)
Cr 16.5/18.5
Ni 4.00/6.50
N O. 15/0.25
a
301 C 0. 15 max. 540/1240 Readily hardens by cold working. Structural steels for applications where high
Cr 16.0/18.0 strength is required
Ni 6.00/8.00 Nearest equivalent specifications
BS 1449 301S21 (1970)
302 C 0.08 max. 510/7903 For spoons and forks, holloware, architectural and shop fittings, domestic catering,
Cr 17.0/19.0 food manufacturing, dairy and brewery equipment
BS 970 302S25 (1982)
BS 1449 302S17, 302S25 (1970)
303 C 0.12 max. 510/7903 A general-purpose austenitic free-cutting steel
S 0. 15/0.30 Nearest equivalent specifications
Cr 17.0/19.0 BS 970 303S21 (1983)
Ni 8.00/11.0
304L C 0.03 max. 490 A low-carbon version of 304, fully resistant to weld decay. For chemical plant, food
Cr 17.5/19.0 manufacturing, dairy and brewery equipment
№9.00/11.0 Nearest equivalent specifications
BS 970 304S12 (1983)
BS 1449 304S12 (1970) BS 1501: Part 3 304S12 (1973)
304LN C 0.03 max. 590 A high proof stress version of 304L. For cryogenic, storage, and pressure vessels
Cr 17.5/19.0 Nearest equivalent specification
Ni 9.00/12.0 BS 1501: Part 3 304S62 (1973)
N 0.25 max. (Hi-proof 304L)
304 C 0.06 max. 510/7903 Holloware, domestic, catering, food manufacturing, dairy and brewery equipment.
Cr 17.5/19.0 Recommended for stretch-forming applications. Readily weldable
BS 970 304S15 (1983) BS 1501: Part 3 304S15, 304S49 (1973)
BS 1449 304S15 (1970)
304 C 0.06 max. 510 As above. Preferable for deep-drawing applications
№9.00/11.0 BS 1449 304S16 (1970)
304N C 0.06 max. 590 A high proof stress version of 304. Cryogenic, storage and pressure vessels
Ni 8.00/11.0 BS 1501: Part 3 304S65 (1973)
N 0.25 max. (Hi-proof 304)
305 C 0. 10 max. 460 Dental fittings, thin-walled deep-drawn pressings. Low cold working factor and very
Cr 17.0/19.0 low magnetic permeability
BS 1449 305S19 (1970)
316L C 0.03 max. 520 A low-carbon version of 316 fully resistant to weld decay. For chemical and textile
Cr 16.5/18.0 plant, dairy and food equipment
Mo 2.25/3.00 BS 970 316S12 (1983)
BS 1449 316S12 (1970)
BS 1501: Part 3 316S12 (1973)
316LN C 0.03 max. 620 A high proof stress version of 316L. Cryogenic storage and pressure vessels
Ni 11.0/14.0 BS 1501: Part 3 316S62 (1973)
Mo 2.25/3.00 (Hi-proof 316L)
N 0.25 max.
316 C 0.07 max. 540 Chemical and textile plant. Dairy and food equipment. A lower ferrite content
Cr 16.5/18.0 version is for use in special applications (e.g. urea plant)
Mo 2.25/3.00 BS 970 316S16 (1983)
BS 1449 316S16 (1970) BS 1501: Part 3 316S16 (1973)
Table 7.9 (continued)
316N C 0.07 max. 620 A high proof stress version of 316. For cryogenic storage and pressure vessels
Ni 10.0/13.0 BS 1501: Part 3 316S66 (1973)
Mo 2.25/3.00 (Hi-proof 316)
N 0.25 max.
317L C 0.03 max. 490 A low-carbon version of 317 fully resistant to weld decay. For chemical plant
Ni 14.5/17.0 BS 970 317S12 (1983)
Mo 3.00/4.00 BS 1449 317S12 (1970)
317 C 0.06 max. 540 For chemical plant
Ni 12.0/15.0 BS 970 317S16 (1983)
Mo 3.00/4.00 BS 1449 317S16 (1970)
320Ti C 0.08 max. 520 Fully stabilized against weld decay
Ni 11.0/14.0 BS 970 320S17 (1983)
Mo 2.25/3.00 BS 1449 320S17 (1970)
Ti 4 x C/0.60 BS 1501 Part 3 320S17 (1973)
321 C 0.08 max. 540 Fully stabilized against weld decay. Chemical, dairy and brewing plant, food
Cr 17.0/19.0 manufacturing and textile equipment. Domestic and catering equipment
Ti 5 x C/0.70 BS 970 321S12, 321S20 (1983)
BS 1449 321S12 (1970) BS 1501: Part 3 321S12, 321S49 (1973)
Warm C 0.08 max. 620 A high proof stress version of 321 obtained by controlled low-temperature hot
Worked 5 Cr 17.0/19.0 working
321 №9.00/11.0 Nearest equivalent specification
Ti 5 x C/0.70 BS 1501: Part 3 321S87 (1973)
325b C 0. 12 max. 510/790 A free-cutting version of 321, fully stabilized against weld decay
Ni 8.00/11.0 BS 970 325S21 (1983)
Ti 5 x C/0.90
S 0. 15/0.30
347 C 0.08 max. 510/540 Chemical, dairy and brewing plant. Food manufacturing and textile equipment.
Cr 17.0/19.0 Domestic and catering equipment. Particularly suitable for use in welded plant in
Ni 9.00/11.0 contact with nitric acid
Nb 10 x C/1.00 Nearest equivalent specifications
BS 970 347S17 (1983)
BS 1449 347S17 (1970) BS 1501: Part 3 347S17, 347S49 (1973)
347N C 0.08 max. 650 A high proof stress version of 347
Ni 9.00/12.0 BS 1501: Part 3 347S67 (1973)
Nb 10 x C/1.00 (Hi-proof 347)
N 0. 15/0.25
a b
Depending on size. BSC Trade Name.
Austenitic materials with much more than 30% nickel are H: (BS Code 49). These steels contain 0.006B and 0.15Nb
'Nickel Alloys'. If they contain age hardening Al,Ti additions (except 347, which already has a higher Nb content) and have
they are iron (or Nickel) Superalloys. The mechanical proper- creep-resisting properties.
ties of austenitic steels range between UTS 490-680 MPa, Se: This steel contains 0.15% Se and is free machining.
Yield Strength 205-575 MPa, elongation 30-60%. L (BS Code 11): These steels contain a maximum of 0.03% C.
Some of the AISI specification numbers are followed by N (BS Code 6X): These steels contain 0.2% nitrogen and
letters, and these letters (and where applicable to BS 970 therefore have proof stresses from 50 to 130 MPa higher than
numerical codes) are: the non-nitrogen-containing steels.
Ti or Cb (BS Code 40): These steels contain Ti or Nb to to pitting corrosion. They have better toughness than ferritic
combine with the carbon and thereby prevent weld decay. steels and are easily welded. Those containing nitrogen can be
There are over 50 standard AISI and slightly less BS 970 cold worked to higher strengths than ferritic or austenitic
austenitic stainless steels. Table 7.9 lists those most commonly steels, and are highly weldable provided that a welding
used and therefore most readily available. (Steels suitable for consumable that will ensure the presence of ferrite in the weld
use at elevated temperatures are listed in Table 7.10.) metal is employed.
There are, in addition, a very large number of non-standard They have so far been used for tube plates, for marine
austenitic steels of which the following list is a small selection: applications, for sour gas pipeline and acetic acid production.
When they are better known and more widely available they
• Alleghhenny Ludlum 'A286': Really a superalloy but used should become used in preference to austenitic steels for the
also as a stainless steel because of its high yield strength. more demanding applications.
• Armco 'Nitronic' high-nitrogen steel also with high yield Precipitation-hardening stainless steels contain 12-28% Cr,
strength. 4-7% Ni, Al and Ti to give a structure of austenite and
• Avesta 254 and 654 'SMO': High-molybdenum-containing martensite which can be precipitation hardened. The mech-
steel with exceptional resistance to pitting corrosion. anical properties of these steels range between UTS
• Carpenter '20Cb3': Really a nickel alloy but generally 895-1100 MPa, Yield Strength 276-1000 MPa, Elongation
known as a stainless steel, has a high resistance to sulphuric 10-35%.
acid attack. No precipitation-hardening stainless steels are standardized
• BSC 'Esshete 1250': Steel with exceptional creep resistance by AISI or in BS 970 but Firth Vickers 'FV 520' is covered by
and high yield. BS 1501 460552 for plate and BS Specification S143, 144 and
Austenitic stainless steels are chosen on account of their 145 for bars, billets and forgings. Non-standard steels include
resistance to general corrosion which is superior to that of a Armco '15-5PH', '17-4 PH' and '17-7 PM' and Carpenter
ferritic steel of similar chromium content and also because of 'Custom 450' and 'Custom 435'.
the high ductility of the face-centred gamma structure which Their excellent mechanical properties and corrosion res-
confers high hot and cold formability and high toughness down istance has caused precipitation-hardened stainless steels to be
to cryogenic temperatures. used for gears, fasteners, cutlery and aircraft and steam
It is not possible to state exactly where the limits of stability turbine parts. They can be machined to finished size in the soft
of austenite steel lie at room temperature because transforma- condition and precipitation hardened later. Their most signifi-
tion can be too sluggish to permit precise delineation of the cant drawback is the complex heat treatment required which,
phase fields and is influenced by further alloy addition such as if not properly carried out, may result in extreme brittleness.
Mo, Si and N. The austenite should ideally be 'Persistent', that
is, it should not transform under the temperature or working
conditions encountered in fabrication and service. The range
of compositions with 'Persistent' austenite at room tempera-
ture is shown in Figure 7.28 (labelled 'A'). 7.3.13 Corrosion resistance of stainless steels
Austenite stability is increased by increasing nickel, man- Corrosion resistance of stainless steels depends on surface
ganese, carbon and nitrogen. Partial transformation will cause passivity arising from the formation of a chromium-containing
the steel to lose its non-magnetic character, impair its deep oxide film which is insoluble, non-porous and, under suitable
drawing characteristics and reduce notch toughness at cryoge- conditions, self-healing if damaged. Passivity of stainless steel
nic temperatures. There may be other drawbacks but service is not a constant condition but it prevails under certain
performance is not usually impaired. environmental conditions. The environment should be oxidiz-
Two substantial advantages are conferred by the presence of ing in character. Other factors affecting corrosion resistance
a proportion of ferrite; the prevention of fissuring on solidifi- include composition, heat treatment, initial surface condition,
cation and resistance to intergranular corrosion. Except in the variation in corrosion conditions, stress, welding and service
case of welding (see Section 7.3.17.1) these advantages apply temperature.
to cast rather than wrought austenitic steels.
Many austenitic stainless steels (including 304, typically 18.8
grade) are partially transformed by cold work and work
harden appreciably. Steels such as these are air cooled in thin 7.3.13.1 Composition
section but thicker sections are water quenched. Besides
promoting stability this retains carbide in solution. Those ferritic and martensitic steels with roughly 13% Cr are
rust resisting only and may be used for conditions where
corrosion is relatively light (e.g. atmospheric, steam and
oxidation resistance up to 50O0C). Applications include cut-
lery, oil-cracking, turbine blades, surgical instruments, auto-
7,3.12.2 Duplex stainless steels mobile exhausts, etc. 17% Cr (ferritic and martensitic) steels
Duplex stainless steels contain 18-27% Cr, 4-7% Ni, are corrosion and light acid resisting. They have improved
2-4% Mo with copper and nitrogen in proportions which general corrosion resistance compared with 13% Cr steels.
ensure that they have a mixed ferritic austenite structure that Applications for the ferritic grade include domestic and cat-
is not heat treatable (see Figure 7.28). Their mechanical ering equipment, automobile trim, and industrial heater parts.
properties range between UTS 600-900 MPa, Yield Strength The martensitic grade is used in general engineering, for pump
410-850 MPa, Elongation 16-48%. The one standard duplex and valve parts in contact with non-ferrous metals or graphitic
stainless steel is AISI 329, but there are, in addition, BSC packings.
'SF22/5', Langley Alloys 'Ferralium 255', Sandvik '2RE60' The addition of molybdenum significantly improves the
and 'SAF2205/AF22' and Sumitomo 'DP3'. integrity of the oxide film. The ferritic 434 and 436 grades can
The duplex stainless steels have outstanding properties. withstand more severe corrosive conditions and the martensi-
Their resistance to stress corrosion cracking is superior to that tic, 440 grades are used where wear and acid resistance is
of comparable austenitic steels and they have good resistance required such as in valve seats.
Table 7.10 Steels suitable for use at elevated temperatures showing 0.2% proof and creep rupture strengths near the top of their useful
temperature ranges.
BS 1501, 2 or 3 AISl Type of steel Mm. 0.2% PS 105 h rupture Note

designation equivalent at temperature strength at
(MPa) temperature
(MPa)
161 Grade 28 1025 Si killed carbon 147.5 at 45O0C 133 at 45O0C

221 Grade 32 1527 Si killed carbon manganese 172 at 45O0C 147 at 45O0C
223 Grade 32 Si killed carbon manganese 173 at 45O0C 142 at 45O0C
Nb treated
271 Mn Cr Mo V 292 at 45O0C 309 at 45O0C Used for boiler drums in
heavy sections
0 0 0
620 1% Cr ^ XoMo 136 at 55O C 49.4 at 55O C
622 2JCr l%Mo 145 at 55O0C 72.5 at 55O0C
625 5%Cr |%Mo 210 at 55O0C 290 at 55O0C Used in refinery
Not in power plant
0 0
660 9%Cr% l%Mo 210 at 55O C 84 at 55O C
|%Cr i%Mo JV 199 at 55O0C 74 at 55O0C
Jessups H46 12Cr 0.5Mo V NB N B 181 at 60O0C Gas turbine disk or steam
turbine blade material
BS 4882 B16A (Durehete 1055) ICR IMo ^V 0.1Ti 0.005B Stress relaxation specification Bolting materials for
temperature range
500-5650C
304 S49 304H 18Cr8NiO.15NbO.005B 100 at 60O0C 74 at 60O0C
316 S49 316H 18Cr 12NiO.15NbO.OOB 100 at 60O0C 118 at 60O0C
321 S49 321H 18Cr 10Ni 0.5% 0.45% 0.005B 111 at 60O0C 105 at 60O0C
317 S49 347H 18Cr 12Ni INb 0.005B 123 at 60O0C 106 at 600°c
310 25Cr 20Ni 120 at 55O0C 120 at 55O0C
BSC Esshete 1250 15Cr 6Mn 10Ni IMo INb |V 140a at 65O0C 160 at 65O0C
0.006B
Iron Superalloy 15Cr 25Ni Mo V 3Ti 0.3Al 150 at 70O0C 79 at 70O0C Used in aircraft gas
turbines
a
1% proof stress.
The resistance to sulphuric acid attack of Carpenter 20 Cb-3

which contains 3.5% Cu as well as 2.5% Mo has already been
mentioned.
Note that to ensure an austenitic structure, the nickel
content of the Mo-bearing steels increases above 8% as the
content of Mo and other ferrite-stabilizing elements (Ti, Nb,
etc.) increases. The 4.5% Mo alloy 317 LM is used in sodium
chlorite bleaching baths and other very severe environments in
the textile industry.
7.3.13.2 Heat treatment

Heat treatment has a significant influence on corrosion res-
istance. Maximum resistance is offered when the carbon is
completely dissolved in a homogeneous single-phase struc-
ture. The 12-14% Cr steels are heat treated to desired combi-
Figure 7.28 Iron-nickel-chromium phase diagram at room nations of strength, ductility and toughness and because of
temperature showing persistent austenite (A) and duplex ferrite their low carbon content are generally satisfactory unless
austenite (F+A) phase fields tempered in the range 500-60O0C.
Austenitic steels (18/8) are most resistant when quenched
from 105O0C to UOO0C, their normal condition of supply. A
steel chosen for welded fabrications should be Ti or Nb
Additional amounts of nickel above 8% to form an austeni- stabilized (AISI, Ti' or 'Cb', BSI '40') or, better, an extra-low
tic structure in the '30O' steels further improve resistance to carbon (AISI 'L' or BSI11) grade. Quenching after welding is
corrosion and acid attack. Applications include domestic, usually impracticable.
shop and office fittings, food, dairy, brewery, chemical and
fertilizer industries.
7.3.13.3 Surface condition
The stainless steels with the highest corrosion resistance are
those with even higher chromium contents such as 310 with For maximum resistance to corrosion the passive film must be
25% Cr and the low interstitial steels with up to 30% Cr. The properly formed; this is ensured by removing all scale, em-
addition of molybdenum up to 6% is also highly beneficial. bedded grit, metal pick-up from tools and other surface
contaminants. Polishing improves resistance. Passivating in
oxidizing acid (10-20% NHO3 by weight) solution at 250C for
10-30 min confers maximum resistance to austenitic steels.
The ferritic-martensitic grades are passivated in nitric
acid-potassium dichromate solution (0.5% nitric acid + 0.5%
potassium dichromate at 6O0C for 30 min).
7.3.13.4 Variation in corrosion conditions

In the absence of experience, samples of the proposed steels
should be tested in the condition in which they will be used
(i.e. welded, if fabricated) in the intended environment taking
full note of any possible variation in service conditions. The
effect of welding on corrosion resistance is considered in
Section 7.3.17.
7.3.13.5 Service temperature

Because stainless steels (other than those with very low
carbon) which are unstabilized or partly stabilized with Ti or
Nb may show chromium carbide precipitation when subjected
to service temperatures above 35O0C (see Section 7.3.17) this
should be the upper limit for service in corrosive environ-
ments. Fully stabilized steels are not restricted in this manner.
7.3.13.6 Localized corrosion of stainless steels

The considerations discussed in Sections 7.3.13.1-5 apply Figure 7.30 Stress corrosion cracks, (a) and (b) Intergranular; (c)
principally to general corrosion which progressively reduces and (d) transgranular
the thickness of a component until it is completely dissolved or
its strength is so reduced that it can no longer withstand
imposed stress. More insidious attack mechanisms on stainless content from 18% to 29% and molybdenum from 1% to 4%
steels are the five varieties of localized corrosion, galvanic, while austenitic steels require at least 20% chromium and
crevice, pitting, stress corrosion and intergranular penetra- between 4.5% and 6% Mo. Typical austenitic steels with very
tion. These are confined to isolated areas or lines on the high resistance are Alleghenny Ludlum 'A16 x M', Avesta
surface but penetrate through the thickness of a component to '254 and 654 SMO' and Weir Material Services Zenon 100, all
destroy its integrity without materially affecting its dimen- of which are claimed not to pit in stagnant seawater. These
sions. Their incidence is less predictable and their onset more steels are also claimed to resist crevice corrosion should this
difficult to predict than general corrosion but their effect may not have been eliminated by design. The best standard auste-
be catastrophic. nitic stainless steel is 317 LM.
Crevice and galvanic corrosion must be countered by Stress corrosion cracking occurs when a material is stressed
designing to eliminate crevices and the juxtaposition of metals in tension in an aggressive aqueous environment, usually an
of different solution potential. Intergranular penetration will alkali metal halide or hydroxide solution. Cracks may be
be discussed in the section dealing with welding. Pitting and transgranular as in Figure 7.30(a) and (b) or intergranular as
stress corrosion are composition dependent. in Figure 7.30(c) and (d). The tendency to stress corrosion
Pitting occurs in conducting aqueous liquid environments cracking of a material is measured by its £lscc value, which is
(usually halide solutions) when local penetration of the oxide the lowest value of stress intensity in MNm~ 3/2 at which a
film creates stagnant locations in which diffusion generates crack will propagate in a specific medium at a specific temp-
strongly acid environments which rapidly penetrate a compo- erature.
nent. Figures 7.29(a) and (b) show, respectively, a pit in an The growth rate of stress corrosion cracks is highly tempera-
early and in a very late stage. Resistance to pitting in low ture dependent, increasing about 500 times with a rise in
interstitial ferritic steels increases with a rise in chromium temperature from 2O0C to 10O0C. Most austenitic steels are
resistant at ambient temperature but if temperature rises
above about 4O0C in a saline environment a change should be
made to a high-molybdenum steel, a duplex steel, a nickel-free
ferritic steel or a nickel alloy, depending on the severity of the
conditions.
Materials are tested for resistance to stress corrosion by
exposure to stress in a boiling aqueous solution of
42% MgCl2. Very few materials will withstand this for long.
7.3.14 Heat-resisting steels

The range of operating temperature of carbon steels is limited
to about 40O0C by decrease in resistance to deformation, and
in oxidizing atmospheres to about 50O0C by diffusion of
oxygen through the oxide film. Operation above these temper-
Figure 7.29 Pits, at (a) an early and (b) a late (penetrating) stage atures is achieved by the addition of alloying elements such as
Maximum
service
temperature (0C)
Scaling index loss (mg cm~ 2 )
Figure 7.32 Micro fissures caused by hydrogen in steel
give place to chromium-molybdenum bainitic or martensitic

steels. In power plant, strength rather than corrosion res-
istance is the critical parameter and the lower chromium steels
are preferred.
In chemical or refining plant the environment may be
Temperature (0C) hydrogenous and higher chromium contents are essential to
prevent hydrogen which diffuses into the steel, combining with
Figure 7.31 Relationship between scaling loss, temperature and carbon to cause internal ruptures (see Figure 7.32).
chromium content of chromium steels Increase in temperature beyond 55O0C requires the higher
creep resistance of an austenitic steel. One of the steels
designated 'H' by AISI or coded 44 by BS 970 should be
chromium, aluminium and silicon which render the oxide film
more tenacious and limit diffusion (see Figure 7.31) and selected. These are stabilized by niobium and their creep
rupture strengths and ductilities improved by the addition of
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium and niobium which, in
solid solution or as carbides, impart stability and increase 0.006% boron.
Standard steels are satisfactory up to about 60O0C but
resistance to deformation.
non-standard steels such as BS 'Esshete 1250' have an in-
The scope for providing high-temperature yield and creep
creased temperature range and allow the use of thinner
strength in ferritic steels is limited, therefore for service above
sections. In critical locations the very high scaling resistance of
about 55O0C, austenitic steels are used. Steels for use at high
310 may be used as the corrosion-resistant face of a laminated
temperature must, in addition, be stable and capable of
structure backed with Esshete 1250. For the higher tempera-
fabrication to the design shape. Material requirements vary
tures and higher stresses in aircraft gas-turbine engine blades
with application.
or disks recourse must be had to superalloys such as Alleghenny
Steam power plant materials, with minor exceptions,
Ludlum 'A286' or 'Discoloy'. Where high temperature
operate below 65O0C and in atmospheres which are only a little
strengths of these are inadequate recourse must be had to
more aggressive than air. But they must last for at least 105
nickel alloys (see Section 7.4.5). Scaling resistance of aircraft
hours and preferably two or three times that figure.
gas-turbine blade materials is provided by coating with alu-
Chemical and refinery plant may be required to operate
over a wider temperature range in very varied environments minium.
but they have shorter lives (usually about 2-4 x 104 hours).
Aircraft propulsion turbines require materials to withstand 7.3.14.1 Structural stability
high stresses at very high temperatures but component operat-
ing lives are seldom above 103 to 104 hours. Stainless steels heated to above 60O0C in fabrication or opera-
The materials used to meet these requirements are basically tion are subject to embrittlement mechanisms which have, in
as follows. For components which must resist oxidation but the past, given rise to severe problems. These mechanisms are
are not stressed, ferritic chromium steels, preferably also listed and the compositions over which they may occur are
containing silicon and aluminium, may be chosen. The choice indicated in Figure 7.33. The better understanding of the
will depend on cost, temperature, aggressiveness of environ- problems has resulted in a method of avoidance or the
ment and ability to fabricate from 405, 409 (the cheapest appreciation that they are not so serious as was originally
weldable stainless steel), 446 and BS Sichromal '9', '1O' and considered.
'12'. For stressed components operating at high temperatures Embrittlement due to carbide precipitation is avoided by
a choice may be made from the steels listed in Table 7.10. This using a low-carbon or a stabilized steel (AISI 'L' or 'H' or
table gives only a few out of many alternatives but provides at BS 970 Code '11' or '44'). Straight chromium steels with
least one steel that may be selected with confidence to operate chromium contents less than 27% Cr are not subject to
over any part of the temperature range. sigma-phase embrittlement (precipitation of an intermetallic
At temperatures below 45O0C silicon-killed carbon or car- FeCr phase). Steels with more than 27% Cr should not be
bon manganese steels are used except for heavy pressure employed within the temperature range 520-70O0C at which
vessels, where bainitic steels such as BS 1501 271 or 281 which sigma-phase embrittlement occurs. The sigma phase is dis-
have a high proof stress in the normalized condition are used. solved by heating to 82O0C.
Time-dependent deformation becomes more important Straight chromium steels with more than 15% Cr suffer
than yield at temperatures above 40O0C and the design crite- from '4750C embrittlement if held in (or slowly cooled
rion changes from a factor of the proof stress to a factor of the through) the range 525-4250C.
creep rupture stress at the design life of the component. As Austenitic steels, particularly 310 with silicon in excess of
temperature increases above 400/45O0C carbon steels start to 1.5%, develop sigma phase when heated in the range
Nickel equivalent
Chromium equivalent
Figure 7.33 Embrittlement
0
mechanisms in stainless steels related to composition (D) Martensitic
0
cracking between O and 29O0C; (O) hot
cracking above 125O C; (©) a phase embrittlement after heat treatment or service at 500-90O C; (•) cold brittleness after gain growth due
to high temperatures (>1150°C)—ductile above 40O0C. Where symbols overlap, the material shows the characteristics of both mechanisms
590-9250C but, provided local stressing by differential expan- 7.3.15 Toughness in steels
sion is prevented by design, the embrittlement has little effect
on service performance even though the steel has zero room Toughness is the property that prevents failure of a material
temperature ductility. when a load is either rapidly applied or generates a high stress
Austenite transformation to ferrite may be avoided by ensur- intensity at the root of a discontinuity. It is defined as the critical
ing that the composition of the steel is such as to produce persi- stress intensity resulting in fracture /CIc, MNirT3/2 or Charpy
stent austenite. There is little evidence of the transformation Impact Energy J. In the case of metals with a body-centred-
leading to problems in service even when this condition has not cubic structure (ferritic steels) or a hexagonal structure (magne-
been met. sium), which decline sharply in toughness over a narrow tempe-
rature range, Impact Transition Temperature (f .a.t.t.°C) is also
used. These parameters are discussed in Chapter 8, Section 8.3.
7.3.14.2 Valve steels This section is confined to a description of materials which meet
Internal combustion engine valves operate under severe condi- requirements for specific applications.
tions of fatigue, impact, high-temperature corrosion and wear. Other things being equal, fracture toughness bears an inverse
In the USA the SAE lists a special category which includes all relationship to tensile strength, grain size, and carbon content
types of steel which are used for valves (see the SAE Hand- of a steel. Martensitic structures are tougher than bainitic which
book11). are themselves tougher than pearlitic structures with the same
In the UK five steel types classified as stainless steels in hardness.
BS 970 are described as Valve Steels. They are: Toughness is reduced by increase in the content of hydro-
gen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur and the so-called tramp
1. Grade 401 S45; 3% Si, 8% Cr (strictly, not a stainless elements, phosphorus, antimony, arsenic and tin, which cause
steel), martensitic steel used for inlet valves in petrol 'temper embrittlement'. It is increased by a rise in content of
engines and exhaust valves in medium-duty diesels. Limit- nickel, manganese and appropriate amounts of aluminium,
ing temperature 70O0C vanadium, niobium and molybdenum which specifically
2. Grade 382 S34; 21% Cr, 12% Ni. Austenitic steel used for reduces temper embrittlement. The face-centred-cubic aust-
diesel exhaust valves, must be hard faced above 70O0C. enitic steels do not suffer from a ductile/brittle transition at
3. Grade 443 S62; 2% Si, 20% Cr. Martensitic steel used for low temperature.
exhaust valves in petrol engines. Limiting temperature Two examples of failures which were eliminated by a change
75O0C. to a tougher material are:
4. Grades 331 S40 and 331 S42 (KE965)*: 14% Cr, 14% Ni-
Si-W. Austenitic steel suitable (with hard-faced seats) for • Failures in the original welded ships which, in some cases,
temperatures up to 80O0C. split in half. These failures all occurred at low temperature.
5. Grades 349 S52,349 S54. 352 S52 and 352 S54 (the S54 types In one specific case failure occurred at a weld start strake at
are free cutting with sulphur additions). Scaling resistance 20C in a steel with a ductile brittle transition temperature of
to 90O0C. Used for petrol engine exhaust valves. 3O0C and a Charpy energy at failure temperature of IU.
Failures were eliminated by deoxidizing steel with
*Common (or trade) name. 0.15-0.3% Si and 0.02-0.05% Al which refines grain size
and combines with nitrogen. Ship plate is now specified to If a non-stainless steel is preferred there are the French
have a Charpy V notch J value of 20 at 40C, a figure which is 'Afnor' specification steels, 3.5% Ni, 5% Ni and 9% Ni
well within the capability of modern steels low in hydrogen, whose low-temperature properties improve with increasing
oxygen, sulphur and phosphorus. nickel content. If high strength combined with high toughness
• Failures in heavy-section turbogenerator forgings, which at cryogenic temperatures is required, a maraging steel should
operated at relatively low temperature, due to embrittle - be specified.
ment by hydrogen combined with temper embrittlement.
Hydrogen has been eliminated by vacuum treatment of the
7.3.16 Maraging steels
molten steel. 'Lower nose' temper embrittlement is asso-
ciated with the migration of 'tramp' elements such as Maraging steels are supplied to ASTM A579. They are
phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and tin, which are taken in high-nickel steels which are hardened by precipitation of an
solution at the tempering temperature and reprecipitate at aluminium titanium compound on ageing at 50O0C. They have
grain boundaries at temperatures around 50O0C. The migra- a number of advantages including high strengths, normally
tion is promoted by carbon, silicon, nickel and manganese ranging between 1100 and 1930 MPa (but a steel with a proof
but retarded by molybdenum. The embrittlement could be stress of 2400 and a UTS of 2450 MPa is available), excellent
avoided by quenching the steel from its tempering tempera- toughness even at -1960C and good resistance to stress
ture but the internal stresses so produced would be worse corrosion cracking.
than the temper embrittlement. Temper embrittlement is Their greatest advantage is, however, ease of fabrication.
minimized by reducing the content of tramp elements and They can be machined at their low-solution-treated hardness
by using carbon vacuum deoxidation which obviates the of 300 VPN and then aged to their optimum hardness at 50O0C
need for silicon. with minimal distortion and no risk of cracking. They have
good weldability, needing no preheat and their properties may
Figure 7.34 and Table 7.11 show the properties available in be restored after welding by ageing.
modern large forgings in a 3.5 NiCr V steel.
Their main disadvantage is their high cost and the fact that,
Control of embrittlement is also important to avoid the risk
to obtain optimum toughness, they should be made by ESR or
of failure in light water pressure vessels made from ASTM
vacuum arc melting. Also, because of the absence of hard
533B MnMoNi and 508 NiCrMo steels and is achieved by a
carbides, they are inferior in wear properties to hardened and
specification with limits of: Cu, 0.10; P, 0.012; S, 0.015 and V, tempered steels.
0.05% which guarantees a K\c value of 176 MNm~3/2 at room
temperature.
7.3.17 Weldability of steels
7.3.15.1 Cryogenic applications Steels may be welded by almost all varieties of electric arc
welding methods, including gas-shielded MIG and TIG with
Care must be taken when choosing steels for cryogenic and without filler, flux shielded manual metal arc, submerged
applications for which, as a result of their ductile/brittle arc, electro slag, spot, projection and flash butt. Other fusion
transition, the normal ferritic steels are unacceptably brittle. methods include the more recently developed electron beam
All the common standard austenitic stainless steels have and laser, and relatively old-fashioned gas welding. Solid-
excellent toughness at temperatures down to -24O0C, mea- phase methods, forge, diffusion, friction and explosive weld-
sured by Charpy impact values usually between 140 and 150. ing may also be used. Many of these procedures are concerned
Tensile and 0.2% proof stress increase as the temperature is with relatively thin sections or special design and applications.
lowered to around 1500 and 456 MPa, respectively, and
elongations decrease slightly but remain adequate at 40-50%.
The 0.2% nitrogen grades (typically, 316N, H (316 S66)) have 7.3.17.1 Weldability of non-stainless steels
higher proof stresses and are particularly suited to cryogenic 'Weldability' of steels usually implies the ability to make long
applications, because the nitrogen ensures that the austenite is runs in fairly large sections either by manual metal or sub-
persistent. There is some evidence that the endurance limit of merged arc and is governed in ferritic steels by the 'Carbon
austenitic steels increases as temperature decreases. Equivalent':
Weight: 105TO
Figure 7.34 Dimensions of typical large rotor forging showing location of test specimens in Table 7.11
Table 7.11 Mechanical properties of the rotor shown in Figure 7.34 after quality heat treatment*
Sample Position and Tensile test Charpy impact test (notch: 2mm V)
No. orientation
of sample S(,.2 S AR As received De-embrittled^ Embrittled^ Af.a.t.t.\ Af.a.U.,
"
(kg mm" 2 ) (kg rnirT2) (%) (%) (0C) (0C)
Energy f.a.t.t. Energy f.a.t.t. Energy f.a.t.t. AsRe-WQ STC-WQ
0 0 0
(J) ( C) (J) (Q (J) ( C)
Desired properties
Surface R 82.4 84.5 15 45 4.1 sS + 15.5
- Centre of L 81.0 84.5 15 45

core bar T 4.1 sS+15.5
Actual properties
S-I Surface O 84.0 95.3 19.1 69.6 out. 11.0 <-75
radial I in. 12.1 -65
S—2 O 83.8 96.0 19.1 65.6 out. 12.7 -63
I in. 12.1 -29
S—3 O 83.7 94.8 20.5 68.3 out. 12.7 -75
I in. 12.5 -37
S— 4 O 92.1 102.8 18.0 62.8 out. 9.3 <-75
I in. 11.0 <-75
S— 5 O 90.9 101.6 19.1 68.8 out. 10.8 <-75
I in. 11.5 <-75
O- 1 Ends L 90.9 101.9 20.5 67.4
0-2 92.8 103.6 20.5 67.9
C-I Centre of L 84.3 98.4 19.8 57.9 4.6 + 15 10.5 +1 4.1 +38 + 14 +37
core bar T 83.8 98.7 17.7 51.9 5.9 + 12 6.9 + 13 4.1 +43 -1 +30
C-2 L 85.0 98.5 18.3 60.5 6.7 O 12.5 -18 7.7 +6 + 18 +24
T 85.0 99.0 16.9 53.9 7.3 O 13.0 -20 9.2 +5 +20 +25
C-3 L 84.0 97.1 19.9 59.5 8.7 -8
T 83.8 96.4 18.2 57.8 8.7 -10
C-4 L 83.4 96.0 20.8 62.6 8.1 + 11 14.0 -4.5 7.1 +20 + 15.5 +24.5
T 83.4 95.7 18.7 59.9 10.6 + 10 9.0 +8 5.8 +22 +2 + 14
R, radical; T, transverse; L, longitudinal; I, inner; O; outer.

Af.a.t.t., increase in f.a.t.t.; AsRe-WQ, s re-water quenched; STC-WQ, step cooled and water quenched.
* Reproduced by courtesy of Japan Steelworks.
t De-embrittled: 59O0C x 1 h - WQ.
± Embrittled: step cooled.
Cr% + Mo% V% + Ni% + Cu% It is essential when welding thick and complex structures to
CE = C% + N% + + post-heat-treat one weld before commencing to weld a cross
5 15
seam.
(Boron is not taken account of in this equation but has a great
influence on hardenability and therefore on weldability.) Steels with carbon equivalent above 0.45 These present very
Steels with carbon equivalent below 0.14% are readily welded severe problems in welding. Very high preheats ranging up to
without special precautions in a wide range of thicknesses. 34O0C for carbon equivalent 0.6 and 225 mm thickness, low-
Steels with carbon equivalent between 0.14% and 0.45% hydrogen electrodes (preferably lower in carbon equivalent
require the following precautions, depending on the value of than the parent material) and immediate post-heat-treatment
carbon equivalent and section size to prevent the formation of at temperatures around 80O0C are essential. Sample test welds
austempered martensite cracking aggravated by hydrogen. are advisable.
Specification of low-hydrogen electrodes This is always desir- Mar aging steels With carbon contents around 0.03% these
able but requires operator skill to compensate for the more have a soft martensite matrix and are highly weldable with no
sluggish metal and slag flows compared with other electrodes. risk of decarburization, distortion or cracking. They should be
used where very high strength combined with weldability is
Use of preheat before welding The preheat temperature required.
required depends on the CE and the metal thickness; for a
carbon equivalent of 0.2, 4O0C and UO0C are advisable for
respective metal thicknesses of 25 and 225 mm, while for a 7.3.17.2 Welding of stainless steels
carbon equivalent of 0.45, 17O0C and 26O0C are advisable for
the same thicknesses. Welding is the normal method of fabricating stainless steel
vessels. The heat-affected zones are raised to incipient fusion
Control of heat input Other things being equal, a higher heat temperature but time at temperature varies with different
input gives less risk of formation of austempered martensite welding processes. Argon arc and spot welding are most
than a lower heat input but care must be taken to limit satisfactory in heating for minimum time; metal arc welding,
distortion and the introduction of stress. inert-gas metal arc and submerged arc are less so in that order
from this point of view.
Use of post-heat after welding This is seldom required for The problems associated with welding stainless steels fall
CEs below about 0.35%, but high-duty components with into two categories. The first, associated with carbide precipi-
restrained welds should be post-weld heat treated at between tation, includes 'Weld Decay' and 'Knife Line Attack' and
60O0C and 65O0C for one hour per 25 mm thickness. Besides affects mainly corrosion behaviour. The second includes those
preventing immediate cracking (or making it obvious during phenomena which may be assessed by means of the Schaeffler
inspection) post-weld heating improves dimensional stability. Diagram (see Figure 7.33).
Temperature ( 0 C)
Figure 7.36 Example of 'weld decay' in an austenitic steel
more uniformly distributed with a consequential lowering of

general corrosion resistance but a lower tendency to inter-
granular failure.
Carbon (%) There are two alternative approaches to the problem of
preventing intergranular corrosion. Either the carbon content
of the steel is limited, by using an AISI 'L' or BS 970 Code '11'
Figure 7.35 Variation of solubility of carbon in 18% chromium steel, to 0.03% at which precipitation of carbide in sufficient
steels with temperature and nickel content quantity to cause trouble is impossible, or an element such as
titanium or niobium, which has a stronger affinity for carbon
than chromium, is added to form the appropriate carbide by
using an AISI 'Nb' or 'Ti' or BS 970 Code '4O' steel. The
theoretical amounts required to ensure that all carbon in
7.3.17.3 Carbide solution and precipitation
excess of 0.02% is combined are titanium = 4 x excess car-
The solubility of chromium carbide in austenite decreases with bon, niobium = 8 x excess carbon. In practice, allowance
decreasing temperature and increasing nickel content (Figure must be made for nitrogen combining with the added element
7.35). At room temperature the solubility in 18% Cr 8% (particularly Ti) and for the efficiency of combination -
austenite (solid line) is approximately 0.03%. If an 18% Cr carbon levels below 0.06% requiring a higher titanium or
8% Ni alloy containing, say, 0.06% C is annealed at niobium to carbon ratio for complete combination than those
1050-110O0C all chromium carbide is in solution and remains above 0.08%.
in unstable solution after quenching to room temperature. If
the alloy is heated to an intermediate temperature excess
carbide is precipitated. 7.3.17.5 Knife-line attack
The mode of precipitation of carbide is dependent upon Furthermore, when a stabilized (Ti or Nb treated) steel is
whether or not the austenite has been worked. If the quenched heated to successively higher temperatures above 95O0C up to
but unworked alloy is heated in the temperature range 125O0C the carbide enters solution and is broken down into its
450-75O0C chromium carbide is precipitated at the grain constituent elements to an increasing extent so that above
boundaries; the lower the temperature, the longer the time UOO0C a relatively small amount of carbon remains combined.
required. Thus at around 45O0C the time taken for precipita- The free carbon is then available to form chromium carbide on
tion can be about two years whereas at 70O0C it is a matter of subsequent re-heating in the 450-75O0C range. Combination
minutes. of carbon with titanium occurs in the 850-95O0C range given
Precipitation is effected by diffusion of carbon atoms to the adequate time. The whole question of stabilization is con-
grain boundaries where they each combine with approxi- cerned with time, temperature and amount of free carbon.
mately four times the number of chromium atoms. Diffusion Time at temperature affects the extent of re-solution of the
of carbon is relatively fast at these temperatures but that of titanium and niobium carbides present in stabilized steels;
chromium extremely slow. Consequently, the chromium titanium carbide dissolves more rapidly than niobium carbide.
atoms are almost entirely supplied by the grain boundaries so Re-solution takes place at temperatures in excess of approxi-
that the grain boundary chromium content is substantially mately 120O0C under welding conditions. The extent depends
lowered. This local depletion of chromium causes loss of on carbide particle size as well as time at temperature. If
passivity in acid corrodants with consequent attack along grain reheated within the sensitization temperature range (around
boundaries. 65O0C) this narrow zone immediately adjacent to the weld
metal precipitates intergranular chromium carbide, because
combination of Ti or Nb with C cannot occur at this tempera-
7.3.17.4 Weld decay
ture.
The resultant 'Intergranular Penetration' in a casting or, if the Thus, although the stabilized steels will not precipitate
heating has been caused by welding, 'Weld Decay' (see Figure chromium carbide in the region of the heat-affected zone
7.36) can completely disintegrate the material. Precipitation in raised to 65O0C by welding, there is the possibility, in condi-
cold-worked material takes place along slip planes as well as tions where the edge of the weld metal is reheated to 65O0C,
grain boundaries, consequently the distance that the chro- that intergranular attack can occur. The existence of such
mium atoms must diffuse is small. Hence, although the same conditions depends on the welding practice but in most
amount of chromium is removed as carbide, the depletion is fabricated articles, as distinct from samples with single-run
strength is not excessive compared with the parent metal.
As long as the weld metal composition is maintained within
the zone in which ferrite and austenite co-exist austenitic steels
have excellent weldability. Ferritic stainless steels are weld-
able but suffer from the brittleness and grain growth problems
described in Section 7.3.12. Martensitic stainless steels suffer
from the same brittleness problems as carbon and quenched
and tempered steels unless the carbon content is below 0.12%.
Both precipitation hardening and duplex stainless steels (the
compositions of which can be roughly estimated from Figure
Figure 7.37 Example of 'knife-line' attack on stainless steel weld 7.28) are fully weldable without preheat, and the precipitation-
hardening steels may be hardened by precipitation after
welding. Brief summary notes on corrosion and welding
welds, positions must arise at weld junctions where these aspects of stainless steels are given in Table 7.12. This is also
conditions will obtain; welded samples should therefore al- referred to in Section 7.9 where for the convenience of the
ways have crossed welds. reader some of the figures in Sections 7.3.13 and 7.3.17 have
This particular type of intergranular attack at the weld metal been repeated.
edges is known as 'knife-line' attack (see Figure 7.37). It is
most likely to be seen in boiling dilute nitric acid solutions. 7.3.18 Tool steels
The composition of the steel affects its incidence; steels with
lower nickel-to-chromium ratio, which produce a greater The name tool steels (BS 4659: 1971 and AISI/SAE Tool
amount of delta ferrite in the knife-line zone, are less suscep- Steels') covers a wide variety of steels used for forming and
tible. Fully austenitic Ti stabilized grades appear to be more cutting materials which have as essential properties high
susceptible than fully austenitic Nb stabilized. hardness, resistance to wear and abrasion and adequate
Where corrosion conditions are known to offer a knife-line toughness. There are (or have been) some 82 AISI standard
hazard, treatment of the fabrication at 87O0C will promote steels, 25 BS steels and many non-standard steels, but it
precipitation of the carbon as titanium of niobium carbide with should be possible to meet almost all requirements from the
consequent resistance to attack. The unstabilized 431 and 434 nine steels listed here.
grades are susceptible to intergranular attack after welding. Carbon steels are used for hand tools and other applications
This can be prevented by heat treating for 2 hours at where high levels of toughness are required and where some
600-80O0C which coalesces the carbide films. distortion in heat treatment can be tolerated. Recommended
steels are:
7.3.17.6 Weld problems which may be assessed by means of AISI 109; BS 4659 BWIA; 0.9%C steel with good combina-
the Schaeffler Diagram tion of hardness and toughness, good general-purpose steel
AISI 210; BS 4659, BW2; 1%C, 0.25%V. Retains a sharp
Fully austenitic weld metal tends to crack on solidification edge and withstands shock better than BWIA.
because of inherent weaknesses at the boundaries of columnar
grains. The composition of the filler metal is therefore ad- A carbon tool steel should be quenched in water or brine
justed to ensure that all the molten zone contains a small and tempered as soon as its temperature has been quenched to
proportion of ferrite (that is, it lies on the A + F side of the 'hand warm'. Carbon tool steels will soften and lose their edge
A/A 4- F line in Figure 7.33) and also to ensure that its if appreciable heat is generated by the cutting action.
Table 7.12 Corrosion resistance and weldability of stainless steels
Nominal composition
AISI No. Corrosion notes
C Cr Ni Mo Other
410 0.08-0.4 12-14 Rust resisting. Higher-carbon grades for engineering applications, turbine blades, cutlery,
etc.
465 0.08 max. 13 Al Weldable grade.
430 0.1 max. 16.5 Resists mild acids. Special feature is resistance to nitric acid. May require heat treatment
after welding (600-80O0C) to avoid intergranular attack. Forming of sheets up to 3 mm at
room temperature; greater thickness at 200-35O0C.
430Ti 0.1 max. 17.5 Ti Weldable grade not requiring heat treatment. Argon arc (gives minimum grain growth)
preferred. Both grades, if welded, should not be applied under conditions of shock loading
or vibration.
304 0.08 max. 18 10 Rust and acid resistant. Suitable for welding in certain applications.
304L 0.03 max. 18 10 Extra low carbon. Very resistant to intergranular corrosion. Weldable for practically all
applications.
309Cb \ Not susceptible to intergranular attack (but see reference to knife-line attack in text).
321 J 0.1 max. 18 10.5 Nb or Ti Applicable above 30O0C. Weldable.
316 0.07 max. 17.5 11 2.2 Resistance to chemical attack better than 18/8 (e.g. severe acid attack). Resists intergranular
attack up to 6 mm thickness. Applicable below 30O0C. Weldable for most applications.
316L 0.03 max. 17.5 11 2.2 Superior resistance to intergranular corrosion, suitable for thicknesses greater than 6 mm.
316Cb\ 0.1 max. 17.5 11.5 2.2 Nb or Ti Not susceptible to intergranular attack (but see knife-line attack). Applicable above 30O0C.
316Ti J Suitable for strong acids at elevated temperatures. Weldable.
317 0.07 max. 17.5 12 2.8 Resists intergranular attack up to 6 mm thickness. Applicable below 30O0C. Corrosion
resistance superior to 2% Mo alloys. Weldable for most applications.
317Cb\
317Ti / 0.1 max 17.5 12.5 2.8 Nb or Ti For strong acids at high temperatures. Applicable above 30O0C. Weldable.
317LM 0.03 max. 17 13.5 4.5 Resistance to strong organic acids at elevated temperatures. Increased resistance to pitting.
Applicable below 30O0C. Resists intergranular attack.
Weldable for most applications.
High-speed steels have a high content of carbide forming Many ranges of tensile strength are available. Springs are
elements W, V and Cr and therefore retain their hardness at cold coiled from the wire. Carbon and alloy spring steels are
high temperatures (i.e. they have good 'red hardness'). Rec- made to specifications in BS 970: Part 5.1972 and correspond-
ommended steels are: ing AISI/SAE grades.
AISI M2; BS 4659 BM2 for normal duty; Coil springs are usually made from hot-rolled and ground
AISIT4; BS 4659 BT4 for faster cutting and increased output; bar of the diameter required for the final spring. The bar is
AISI M42; BS 4659 BM42 for cutting hard materials. heated to a temperature within the hardening temperature
range, coiled on a mandrel, slipped off the mandrel, quenched
T' steels are tungsten steels and 'M' steels molybdenum and tempered to a tensile strength around 1650 MPa. Carbon
steels which are cheaper but slightly more difficult to heat steels are used for springs up to 13 mm diameter, more highly
treat. Heating must be carried out in atmosphere-controlled alloyed steels for higher diameters, the maximum around
furnaces to prevent decarburization; slowly to 8250C then 80 mm diameter being made from BS 925 A60 SiMnMo steel.
quickly to the manufacturer's recommended temperature The purchase specification must strictly limit decarburiza-
around 130O0C, followed by quenching in air blast, oil or salt tion of the surface (to which silico manganese steel, which is
bath at 5250C and air cooling. After an optional refrigeration popular for springs, is particularly prone) because fatigue
treatment the steel must be tempered (secondary hardened) two cracking, which will propagate across the spring, may start in a
or three times at about 5450C, again in controlled atmosphere. soft decarburized surface layer. The surfaces of all but the
For many purposes high-speed steels are being replaced by smallest springs are conditioned by shot peening which in-
sintered carbides or ceramics such as sialons (see Section 7.5) duces a compressive surface stress and increases fatigue
which have exceptional wear and heat resistance even though strength by 25-30%. 'Scragging', which overloads the spring in
they may not be as tough as high-speed steels. the direction it will be used in service, produces residual
Hot-work steels are used for forming (not cutting) hot stresses which oppose service stresses in the surface layers and
materials. They must not soften at temperature and must have therefore improves endurance.
good wear resistance. They must also be able to resist thermal Rust is harmful to spring performance and, to prevent it, a
fatigue when heated and cooled (sometimes by water jets). spring should be protected immediately after peening.
Their metallurgy is similar to that of high-speed steels. Rec- Corrosion-resistant steel springs are covered by an old
ommended steel is: British Standard (BS 2056: 1953) which uses the EN designa-
AISI H13; BS 4659 BH13. This steel has the highest and tions. In practice, stainless steel wire for springs is usually
deepest hardness of the hot work steels. supplied to AISI number.
Martensitic steels are usually supplied softened and lightly
Cold-work steels are used for forming cold materials and cold drawn to a UTS between 620 and 850 MPa. They are
resistance to abrasive wear is of highest importance. In hardened and tempered after forming. Austenitic steels are
addition, they may have to be machined to very complex cold drawn to UTS between 1800 and 2000 MPa for diameters
shapes and must therefore have very high dimensional stability below 2 mm and 1000 MPa for diameters up to 10 mm. One
during heat treatment. precipitation-hardening stainless steel DTD5086 can be
Recommended steels are: supplied for forming in the softened condition and can then be
precipitation hardened to 1800 MPa.
AISI 01; BS 4659 BOl; 0.95CW,W.V. Steel for light duties,
simple to heat treat.
AISI D2; BS 4659 BD2; 1.5C, 12Cr, MoV. Martensitic stain- 7.3.20 Cast steel
less steel with very high hardness and wear resistance for All the types of steel described earlier in this section can, in
general application. principle, be produced as castings. In practice, the steel grades
Shock-resisting steels are used for tools which are subject to listed in BS and the several US standards authorities are
heavy vibration or hammering; they must be hard but also confined to a limited number of types given in Table 7.13. This
have reasonable toughness to avoid failure by brittle fracture. includes:
Recommended steel is: • BS specifications
AISI, Sl, BS 4659 BSl; 0.5C SiMnCrW. Metallurgy is relat- • ASTM grades for carbon steels and for steels with alloy
ively uncomplicated and heat treatment straightforward. content up to 8% and UTS between 482 and 827 MPa
• ACI (Alloy Castings Institute of the USA) grades for Heat
Resistant and Corrosion Resistant Steel Castings.
7.3.19 Steels for springs While each grade in a Steel Castings Specification is the
equivalent of a grade in BS 970 or SAE/AISI they differ in
There are three different types of spring steel. 'Patented' and important aspects. For example, a foundry is less likely to be
cold-drawn carbon steel wire is used for small coil springs. equipped for carbon vacuum deoxidation than is a large
'Patenting' consists of heating the billet to roughly 100O0C to steelworks. To allow for this, the silicon content of steel
develop a coarse grain size so that after slow cooling the steel castings is usually set at a higher level than for the correspond-
has a coarse pearlite/bainite structure which is readily drawn ing wrought steel and the very low carbon grades are not
into wire. included. This may require the content of other alloying
The steels used and the properties of the wire are covered additions to be adjusted. Also, an austenitic steel casting often
by BS 5216 and ASTM A227 and 228 specifications. They contains more ferrite than the corresponding wrought steel to
have carbon contents varying between: prevent fissuring during solidification (both in casting and
• 0.65% for 'Hard drawn spring wire' which has the largest welding) and to resist intergranular penetration. A designer is
diameter (up to 9 mm), the poorest surface finish and the advised therefore when ordering a casting to specify the
lowest tensile strength (less than 940 MPa); and BS 1504, BS 3100 or ACI grade rather than the BS 970 or
• 0.85% for 'Piano or Music wire', which has the smallest AISI grade number for the corresponding wrought steel.
diameter (0.1 mm minimum), the best surface finish and If a compelling reason exists for specifying a steel not listed
the highest tensile strength (up to 3780 MPa). in a standard casting specification the casting will almost
Table 7.13 Standards for steel castings
(a) Non-stainless steels

BS 3100: 1976 BS 1504: 1976 UTS
0
Grade Grade ASTM (MPa) Steel type Special requirements
Al, 2 + 3 A27 + A148 430, 490, 540 Carbon steel for general purposes
430, 480, 546 A356 430, 480, 540 Carbon steel for pressure vessels 0.2% PS specified at temperature
ALl 430 Carbon steel for low temperature Charpy 2OJ at -4O0C
A4, 5 + 6 540, 620, 690 Carbon-manganese steel for general purposes
Bl A27 460 Carbon-molybdenum steel for elevated temperature
26 A356 460 Carbon-molybdenum steel for pressure vessels 0.2% PS specified at temperature
27 460 3.5% Nickel steel for pressure vessels Charpy 2OJ at -6O0C
BLl 460 0.5% molybdenum steel at low temperatures Charpy 2OJ at -5O0C
BL2 460 3% nickel 0.5% molybdenum steel Charpy 2OJ at -6O0C.
B2 480 1.25% chromium molybdenum steel
28 A389 480 1.25% chromium molybdenum steel 0.2% PS specified at temperature
B3 540 2.25% chromium molybdenum steel
29 540 2.25% chromium molybdenum steel 0.2% PS specified at temperature
B4 620 3% chromium molybdenum steel
30 620 3% chromium molybdenum steel 0.2% PS specified at temperature
B7 510 0.5% chromium 0.5% molybdenum 0.25% vanadium
33 510 0.5% chromium 0.5% molybdenum 0.25% vanadium 0.2% PS specified at temperature
BS 3146
IA, B + C A732 Carbon steel investment castings
2-12 A732 Alloy steel investment castings
(b) Stainless and heat-resisting steels
BS 3100: 1976 UTS
Grade BS 1504: 1976 ACI numbers (MPa)
302C25 CF20b 480

302C35
304C12 CF-3 430
304C15 CF-8 480 Low carbon 18/8 type
309C30 CH-20
309C32 560
309C35 510
309C40 CK-20 450
311C11
315C15 CF-16F 480 115% molybdenum 18/8
315C16 480
316C12 316C12 CF-3M 430 2.5% molybdenum 18/10 low carbon
316C16 316C16 CF-8M 480 2.5% molybdenum 18/8
316C71 316C71 510 2.5% molybdenum 18/8
317C12 430 3.5% molybdenum 18/10 low carbon
317C16 317C16 GG-8M 480 3.5% molybdenum 18/10
318C17 CF-12M 480 2.5% molybdenum niobium 18/10
347C17 347C17 CF-8C 480 Niobium stabilized 18/12
364Cl 1 CN-7M 430 Chromium-nickel-copper
410C21 CA-15 540 13% chromium martensitic steel

420C29 34 CA-40 690 13% chromium martensitic steel
425Cl 1 35 CA-6NM 13% chromium 4 nickel
452Cl 1 28% chromium 1.5 molybdenum ferritic steel
452C12 28% chromium 0.5 molybdenum ferritic steel
BS 3146 Pt 2 Corrosion and heat-resisting investment castings.
Most grades are covered by ASTM A743 and A744.
3
US alloying practice does not correspond with British, so ASTM designations do not correspond exactly with BS. Other ASTM specifications include: A567, A128, A487, A216, A217, A757, A352, and A747.
b
The figures indicate carbon content.
certainly be more expensive because the foundry may have to materials, but have in addition to their relatively low cost very
make experimental castings and will not be able to recycle definite technological advantages. These are particularly evi-
scrap directly. Also, it may be more difficult to obtain a dent in the case of the newly developed Austempered Ductile
guarantee of quality. Irons.
Design of castings is too complex a subject for detailed The several grades of cast iron, with the permission of
consideration here. The essential criterion is to make abso- BCIRA, are given according to BS specification in Table 7.14,
lutely sure that nowhere within the casting exists a point which lists all (with the possible exception of damping capac-
where, through a local increase in section, metal is left to ity) relevant physical and mechanical properties.
solidify surrounded by metal that has already solidified. Walls
should be of as uniform thickness as possible, corners rad-
7.3.22 Grey cast iron
iused, multiple junctions eliminated, changes of section
tapered and where large sections are inevitable they should be Grey cast iron (Flake Graphite Iron) can be 'non-alloyed',
so placed that they solidify progressively towards a feeding 'low alloy' or acicular. Design stresses etc. given in Table 7.14
head. Where isolated large increases in section are unavoid- (BS 1452 and ASTM A48 Class 20-60) are for non-alloyed
able chills may be used. (See The ASM Metals Handbook, grey cast iron with carbon contents varying from 3.65% to
1961 edition, pp. 122-146.) 2.7%, silicon from 2.5% to 1.35%, phosphorus from 0.5% to
In principle, the properties of a casting should be identical 0.09% and manganese around 0.6%.
to those of a forging of the similar composition, and in practice This is the cheapest engineering metal, not only because the
castings are available with UTS to match any forgings up to raw materials - pig iron, cast iron and steel scrap, limestone,
827 MPa UTS and corresponding yield strengths are available. coke and air - are all relatively inexpensive but also because
There are, however, significant differences in the cast and melting costs in a cupola are relatively low. Casting is very
wrought structure, particularly in alloys with more than one easy because cast iron is more fluid, has a narrower solidifica-
phase present. tion range and a lower in-mould shrinkage than steel. Machi-
Castings have a 'cast structure' which is effectively a skele- nability is excellent because graphite acts as both a chip
ton of intermetallics that tend to limit and restrict slip. In a breaker and a tool lubricant.
correctly worked wrought alloy this skeleton is broken up so Grey cast iron has good dry-bearing qualities and its free-
that it becomes effectively a dispersion of fine particles rather dom from scuffing makes it a good material for automobile
than a network. Working refines the grain and renders the cylinder walls. Its wear resistance is assisted by slight chilling
alloy more susceptible to heat treatment, and has two effects and a hard network of phosphide eutectic. It has also excellent
which are significant in design. Ductility is increased and creep damping capacity, particularly in the lower (higher-carbon)
strength decreased. grades and is particularly suitable for machine-tool bases and
The reduction in ductility of castings compared with frames. On the other hand, it is brittle because the graphite
wrought steel has a negligible effect on design with steels with flakes reduce strength, the maximum recommended tensile
UTS around 500 MPa. However, with strengths of 800 MPa design stress is only 25% and the fatigue loading limit between
and above, the fracture toughness of cast material is lower and 11% and 16% of the tensile strength. (It should be remem-
more variable and the fatigue endurance limit about 20% bered that tensile stress is measured by bend - see Section
lower than that of wrought material. In addition, the 7.1.)
continuous-casting process for manufacturing ingots from There are (or were) two variants with better fatigue proper-
which wrought material is forged has much superior feeding ties. Compacted graphite iron or meehanite is made by
and segregation characteristics than is possible in a large sand inoculating an iron which would otherwise solidify white.
casting so that the material is inherently superior. Further- Haematite high-carbon low-phosphorus iron was originally
more, forging, correctly programmed, can be made to align made from haematite pig iron. Its low phosphorus content
the grain (and any discontinuities) in the principal stress improves its fatigue properties (while reducing fluidity).
direction and thus make the component more resistant both to Low-alloy and Acicular Cast Irons made by adding Ni, Cu,
brittle fracture and fatigue. On the other hand, the transverse Cr, Mo, V or Sn (and in the case of acicular cast iron reducing
properties of a casting should be superior, and thorough the phosphorus content) enable grey cast iron to be used in
inspection will reduce or eliminate dangerous defects. higher-duty applications without redesign or technological
The improved creep resistance of the cast structure is of change.
considerable value in the case of large turbine castings, while
the creep properties of the small lost wax castings (listed in 7.3.23 Nodular graphite (6SG') iron
BS 3146) could not be obtained in forgings. Even higher creep
properties could be obtained by directional solidification but Nodular or spheroidal graphite, 'SG' cast irons are available in
this is used for the more highly creep-resistant nickel alloys grades corresponding to those of grey cast iron but are
rather than steels. produced by inoculation of the melt with nickel, magnesium
and caesium compounds which change the form of the gra-
phite to near-spheroidal nodules (see Figure 7.38). This
7.3.21 Cast iron: general produces material which has strength, ductility and thermal
Cast iron is an alloy of iron with carbon in the range between shock resistance more typical of steel but castability, damping
1.7% (the eutectic composition) and 4.5%. There are two capacity and machinability more typical of cast iron.
basic types, one of which is a composite of steel and graphite The recommended, design, tensile and fatigue stresses are a
while the other, white cast iron, consists of cementite in a much higher proportion of the UTS than is the case with cast
matrix of steel. iron. Steel castings, fabrications and sometimes forgings may
White Cast Iron, Low Alloy White Cast Iron, Martensitic be replaced with considerable economic advantages. Matrix
White Cast Iron and High-Chromium White Cast Iron have structures can be varied by changing cooling rate or alloying,
special wear and environmental resistant properties. The between ferrite, pearlitic carbide and acicular structures for
graphite-containing cast irons which include the Flake Gra- higher-duty applications.
phite, Nodular Graphite and Malleable grades have been re- The development of nodular and other higher-duty irons
garded as a cheap and brittle substitute for other engineering detailed here has accelerated the trend to modern melting
Table 7.14 Cast irons: classes, grades and properties
I Tensile stress
(N/mm 2 ) 38 45 55 65 75 88 100
92
103
4 25
138 145 156
20 15 15
173 198 270
236 270 620
5 10
81
63
88
83
102 110
120 134 162
144 154 158 210
257 140
15
54
49
57
90 86
" 90 35
Elongation (%)
-• -«-" 17 7
238 350
>3
93
>4
120
>6 >10 >12 >7 >4 >5
172 184 188 238

>3
10
15
'
(N/mm 2 ) 156 187 270 312 364 416 150 152 173 204 216 130 138 149 353 150
367 850 116 140 270 230 233 279
Unnotched-fatigue 130 53 71
Hardness (HB)
23 27
130 150
33 39
160 180 200

45 50
" 60 63 67 75 83 93 101
170
58 68 79 85 88
91
93
250 140 115 140 170 I 215 250 265 250 120 120 125 130 130 140 170 180 190 240 450 450 200 250 500 400 140 120 130 140 150 140 550 550 250
35 50
90
160 180 200 250 275 305 150 140 170 215 250 265 305 500 180 180 140 140 140 170 180 190 240 270 520 520 220 400 600 650 200 215 170 200 180 190 750 750 340 120
155 172 172 172 140 180 180 180 85 85 140 112 120 112 80
Young's modulus
(GWm2) 100 109 120 135 140 U5 169 169 169
176 176 170
.'£ 176 176 169 169 ,» 172 m 176 124 124
200 200 200 200 105 105 150 130 140 123
217
100
165 176
Notched-impact 7 15 10 5 5 5 8 17 13 17 10 5 5 11 27
value,
J, at 20 0C
Notched-impact
3 13
-10 -10
5 2
40 80
2
100 100
4 13 12
-10 -10 -10

13 5
40 40
2
40
2
O* O*
6 15
24
' * Hardened
transition & tempered
temperature ( 0 C) +30 +30 100 120 120 120 +30 +30 +30 100 100 100 100 100
45 45 45 45 100* 55 55 55 50 50 50 50 30 20 *Equivalent
toughness
/MO (MNAn3'2)
» 20
20
46 46
37 37 25 25 70* 35 35 35
50
40 40 30 -30- 25 20 25 Kk
I Service
( 0 C), max,/min.
Design stress
(N/mm 2 )
500 500
-50 -50
500 500 500 500
-50 -50 -50 -50
18 18 30 30
500
500 500 500
-^4O O
22
20
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 250 250 800 50
O
19
O
19
-40 ^O
19 19
O
19
O
23
O O
23
O
28
O
28
O O -40 O
50
O
50 700 700 500 700 700 800
O -40 -80 -80 -80
35 39 59
-80
70
900 1050
70 70
900* "Cycling
500* *Steady
*Static
loading
+ 450 0C/ - 50 0C 38 45 TT 65 75 88 100 138 145 I 156 173* 198* 85 102 110 121 120* 130* 134* 162 257 54 57 86 77
7.1 7.1
Density (g/cm3) 7.0
" 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.2
" ..'.».
7.1 7.2 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.0 7.0 6.85 7.7
" 7.7 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.6 7.67 7.69 7.43 7.0
Thermal expansion
(10-"/K)
20 °C/20 - 400 0C
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
10 10 10 10 10
12.5 12.5 12.5
11
13
11
13
11
13
11
13
11
13
11
13
11
13
11
13
11
13
..".. .12
13 15.9 15.9 13.5
12
18 18 18 . 18 18
Thermal conductivity 53 52 50 49 47 46 44 41 37 37 36 33 36 36 38 38 38 36 35 35 34 33 27 59
(W/m.K)
100°C/400°C
Electrical
50 "49" 47 46 44 43 41 38 36
"36" 35
»" 35 35
0.24 0.24
36 36 36 35 34 "34" 33
"25"
36
resistivity (piQ.m) 0.85 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.50 0.50 0.5 0.53 0.54 0.54 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.50
0.26 0.26
310 310 310 310 310 310 310 910 910 900 750 650 400
magnetic 2140 2140 160 O 870 500 500 1900
permeability (j^H/m) 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 1820 1820 750 650 400 380
Hysteresis loss 2500 2500 2500 1500 1300 1900 2200 3800 * * * * * * * * Heat
(B = IT), (JAn3) 3000 3000 3000
600 600 130 32200
850 850
450 450 450
1900 2200 2400 4500
^ * * * * * * Abrasion
r ±-=,- ±± -
* *
I Poisson's ratio — O 26 —
r 0.275 C .26-
± ±±Z Thermal shock
= = =
Figure 7.38 Contrast in graphite morphology (a) in grey cast iron, (b) in 'SG' iron (courtesy of Roger Davies, Fulmer Technical Services)
practice. Casting from a cupola is not amenable to the precise 7.3,24 Malleable iron
composition control which is possible with an electric or gas Malleable iron is cast with a white cementite structure which is
furnace. Even where a cupola is used for the actual melting, converted to a steel-graphite composite by annealing. The
final control of composition requires a holding furnace. requirement for the as-cast structure to be graphite-free limits
the maximum section to about 38 mm and the general run of
castings weigh under 5 kg and have a maximum section of
7.3.23.1 Austempered ductile iron 25 mm. There are three varieties:
Austempered ductile iron is SG iron with added alloying 1. Whiteheart Malleable has a carbon content of about 3.5%
elements, (usually Mo, Ni and/or Cu) sufficient for a bainitic which improves castability compared with the other varie-
structure, usually with retained austenite, to be produced in ties. Other alloying elements are Si 0.6%, Mn 0.25%,
the section size by austempering. Such material can have yield S < 0.3, P < 0.1. It is heat treated for 5-6 days at 8750C
strength and UTS up to 1150 and 1400 MPa with elongations packed in an oxidizing medium to produce spidery gra-
of 6% and fatigue limit up to 33% of the UTS. Wear resistance phite aggregates in a pearlite/ferrite matrix. This long heat
because of the graphite and retained austenite is superior to treatment increases cost, limits rate of production and
steel of the same hardness and components such as gears are decarburizes the surface layer.
quieter in operation. The potential of austempered ductile 2. Blackheat Malleable has compositions varying between C
iron, which is substantially cheaper than forged steel and can 2-2.65%, Si 0.9-1.65%, Mn 0.25-0.55%, S < 0.05-0.18
be cast closer to shape than steel is usually forged, exceeds and P < 0.18. It is heat treated in a neutral atmosphere for
that of any other recently developed material. 40-60 hours at 86O0C, cooled to 69O0C, held for 4-50C per
Obtaining the required properties requires dedication to hour and air cooled. It has graphite aggregates in a ferrite
process control in foundries and heat-treatment departments. matrix (no decarburization) and, although not so easy to
The most economically rewarding application for austempered cast as whiteheart has rather better properties and the best
ductile iron is as a material for gears which can be made combination of machinability and strength of any ferrous
quieter, lighter and cheaper than the equivalent steel gears. material. There are two ASTM A47 grades, 32510 and
One disadvantage, for the highest-rated gears, is the lower 35018 and one A197 'Cupola' grade of lower quality.
fatigue strength of austempered ductile iron compared with 3. Pearlitic Malleable has usually a higher manganese con-
that of steel, but this is being overcome by shot peening the tent, varying from 0.25% to 1.25% and may be cooled
teeth of the gears. Austempered ductile iron has been used rapidly after annealing. It has higher strength than the
successfully for tracks for off-the-road vehicles, pump bodies, other malleables and, unlike them, has good wear res-
agricultural equipment, friction blocks and drive shafts. istance and is difficult to weld.
Because of their low cost and excellent shock resistance the may depend more on the events in the mill or on the technique
malleable irons have been used extensively in the power train, of the supplying foundry. It is advisable to carry out compara-
frame, suspension and wheels of motor vehicles, rail, agricul- tive trials on different materials including, where appropriate,
tural and electrical equipment but the market for them has forged martensitic steel and deposited carbides and to stan-
contracted except for galvanized pipe fittings. dardize on that material which proves to be most economical
for the specific application.
7.3.25 Austenitic cast irons
Austenitic cast irons have an austenitic matrix containing
7.3.28 High-chromium iron
either flake or nodular graphite. They are non-magnetic, have Irons of chromium content 15-35% have a partially austenitic
thermal expansion coefficients similar to low-expansion alu- structure with higher toughness and strength than Ni-based
minium alloys (with which they can be used as wear- and and high corrosion and oxidation resistance. They have a
thermal fatigue-resistant inserts for pistons) and are available higher resistance to strong acids than silicon cast irons and can
in a wide range of grades including: be used for heat-treatment equipment, melting pots for lead,
zinc and aluminium, other parts exposed to corrosion at high
• Ni-resist 14-32% Ni, 20% Cr for resistance to medium
temperature and for wet-grinding operations.
concentration acids and
• Nirosilal; Ni -I- Si for resistance to high-temperature oxida-
tion and growth up to 95O0C.
High-nickel nodular irons have excellent ductility and are 7.4 Non-ferrous metals
suitable for cryogenic applications.
7.4.1 Copper and its alloys
7.3.26 High-silicon cast irons 7.4.1.1 General
High-silicon cast irons, composition 10-17% Si, Mo < 3.5%, Copper is basically more expensive than iron but has impor-
have a silico ferritic solid solution matrix with dispersed tant advantages for special applications, the most significant of
graphite, exceptional corrosion resistance to mineral-oxidizing which is conduction. Its electrical conductivity when pure is
acids and, although extremely brittle, are used as pipes, stills superior on a volume basis to all metals other than silver, and
and vats where strength is not needed. The 4% Si, 0.5% Mo on a weight (and specific cost) basis to all metals other than
grade has good resistance to oxidation and acids and better aluminium. The same relationships apply to its thermal con-
strength than the high-silicon grades. ductivity. Both properties are reduced by alloying, but the
conductivities of copper alloys are superior to those of steels.
7.3.27 White cast iron (abrasion-resisting white iron) Copper's second most important characteristic is its res-
istance to natural environments. Where iron rusts, copper
There are four types of White Cast Iron; unalloyed, low-alloy, remains bright or develops an attractive patina, and this
martensitic and high-chromium. characteristic is improved by appropriate alloying. In marine
Unalloyed White Cast Iron has a reduced content of silicon environments the toxicity of copper prevents fouling. There is,
so that on fairly rapid cooling after casting no graphite is however, a temperature limitation on the use of copper alloys
formed and the carbon is in the form of cementite or pearlite. compared with steels.
Chill in white cast iron is increased by raising the content of Copper and a high proportion of its alloys are highly ductile
carbon and manganese but reduced by increasing sulphur and so that they are eminently suited to forming operations. Some,
phosphorus. particularly the leaded brasses, are also highly machinable so
White irons with carbon content above 3.5% can have that the finished cost of a brass component may well be
Brinell hardness of up to 600. However increased carbon competitive with that of any other material when allowance is
decreases transverse breaking strength and causes brittleness. made for the value and easy recovery of scrap.
Low-alloy white irons have added elements (usually Cr and Ni) The mechanical properties of copper, tensile and fatigue
that increase chill and improve toughness and wear resistance strength and creep resistance can be improved by alloying,
(but are insufficient to produce a martensitic structure). without, however, achieving the strengths of steels or
Martensitic white cast iron (e.g. Nihard) has sufficient approaching the specific strengths of the light metals. The
alloying elements (usually Cr and Ni) to produce a cemen- good mechanical properties are retained at cryogenic tempera-
tite/martensite structure with higher hardness (up to 90 schle- tures but are inferior to steels at elevated temperatures.21'22
roscope) and toughness than other cast irons and is also stable Other properties also benefit from alloying. The influence of
at temperatures up to 55O0C. Martensitic white cast iron specific additions is indicated in Table 7.15.
should preferably be stress relieved. Copper alloys are by no means the easiest to cast or weld
The white cast irons can be machined only with difficulty and their toxicity, although having useful biocidal applica-
using carbide tools and should be cast as nearly to size as tions, prohibits contact with foodstuffs. They are divided into
possible. They have higher solidification shrinkage than other classes, the main classes having traditional names. The main
cast irons and require careful running and feeding. They are classifications together with their BS designations are listed in
used for grinding and ore crushing equipment, mill liners, Table 7.16. The British Standards for product forms are given
tables, rollers and balls and other applications requiring wear in Table 7.17 and the material condition codes in Table 7.18.
resistance.
The selection of the correct wear-resistant material for any
application depends on relative life and relative cost. Marten- 7.4.1.2 Copper
sitic white irons cost more than low-alloy which cost more than 'Copper' is an alloy of copper and oxygen. The oxygen content
unalloyed, but, depending on the application, the life in wear of the conductivity grades is not such as to affect their
of the most expensive material may be between 50% and electrical conductivity, but unless an 'Oxygen-Free' grade is
400% longer than the cheapest. Also, the more ductile, more used, would cause problems in welding23 and also when heated
expensive material should be less prone to fracture, but this in a reducing atmosphere. Non-conductivity grades are deoxi-

Table 7.7 (Continued) : 7.3.12 Stainless Steels

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Table 7.7 (Continued) : 7.3.12 Stainless Steels

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Table 7.7 (Continued) : 7.3.12 Stainless Steels

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Table 7.

Lead Improves machinability Added to improve machinability

AISI Approximate UTS Additional information

AISI Approximate UTS Additional information

202 C 0.07 max. 630 Nearest equivalent specifications

BS 1501, 2 or 3 AISl Type of steel Mm. 0.2% PS 105 h rupture Note

161 Grade 28 1025 Si killed carbon 147.5 at 45O0C 133 at 45O0C

The resistance to sulphuric acid attack of Carpenter 20 Cb-3

7.3.13.2 Heat treatment

7.3.13.4 Variation in corrosion conditions

7.3.13.5 Service temperature

7.3.13.6 Localized corrosion of stainless steels

7.3.14 Heat-resisting steels

Figure 7.32 Micro fissures caused by hydrogen in steel

give place to chromium-molybdenum bainitic or martensitic

- Centre of L 81.0 84.5 15 45

R, radical; T, transverse; L, longitudinal; I, inner; O; outer.

Figure 7.36 Example of 'weld decay' in an austenitic steel

more uniformly distributed with a consequential lowering of

Table 7.12 Corrosion resistance and weldability of stainless steels

(a) Non-stainless steels

302C25 CF20b 480

410C21 CA-15 540 13% chromium martensitic steel

172 184 188 238

160 180 200

-10 -10 -10

You might also like