CAST IRONS

Overview of cast iron

Iron with 1.7 to 4.5% carbon and 0.5 to 3% silicon
Lower melting point and more fluid than steel (better
castability)
Low cost material usually produced by sand casting
A wide range of properties, depending on composition &
cooling rate

Strength

Hardness

Ductility

Thermal conductivity

Damping capacity
 Iron carbon diagram
 Liquid
+ L
L + Fe3C
Austenite
Carbon
910˚C Cast Iron
Steel  + Fe3C
+
723˚C

 + Fe3C

0% 0.8% ~2% ~3%

3
 Production of cast iron
Pig iron, scrap steel, limestone and carbon (coke)
Cupola
Electric arc furnace
Electric induction furnace
Usually sand cast, but can be gravity die cast in
reusable graphite moulds
Not formed, finished by machining

4
 Types of cast iron
Grey cast iron - carbon as graphite
White cast iron - carbides, often alloyed
Ductile cast iron

nodular, spheroidal graphite
Malleable cast iron
Compacted graphite cast iron

CG or Vermicular Iron

5
Effect of cooling rate
 Slow cooling favours the formation of graphite & low
hardness
 Rapid cooling promotes carbides with high hardness
 Thick sections cool slowly, while thin sections cool
quickly
 Sand moulds cool slowly, but metal chills can be used to
increase cooling rate & promote white iron

6
 Effect of composition
 A CE over 4.3 (hypereutectic) leads to carbide or graphite
solidifying first & promotes grey cast iron
 A CE less than 4.3 (hypoeutectic) leads to austenite
solidifying first & promotes white iron

7
 Grey cast iron
Flake graphite in a matrix of pearlite, ferrite or
martensite
Wide range of applications
Low ductility - elongation 0.6%
Grey cast iron forms when

Cooling is slow, as in heavy sections

High silicon or carbon

8
 Typical properties
 Depend strongly on casting shape & thickness
 AS1830 & ASTM A48 specifies properties
 Low strength, A48 Class 20, Rm 120 MPa

High carbon, 3.6 to 3.8%

Kish graphite (hypereutectic)

High conductivity, high damping
 High strength, A48 Class 60, Rm 410 MPa

Low carbon, (eutectic composition)

9
Graphite form  Uniform
 Rosette
 Superimposed (Kish and normal)
 Interdendritic random
 Interdendritic preferred orientation
 See AS5094 “designation of
microstructure of graphite”

10
 Matrix structure
Pearlite or ferrite
Transformation is to ferrite when

Cooling rate is slow

High silicon content

High carbon equivalence

Presence of fine undercooled graphite

11
 Properties of grey cast iron
Machineability is excellent
Ductility is low (0.6%), impact resistance low
Damping capacity high
Thermal conductivity high
Dry and normal wear properties excellent

12
 Applications
Engines

Cylinder blocks, liners,
Brake drums, clutch plates
Pressure pipe fittings (AS2544)
Machinery beds
Furnace parts, ingot and glass moulds

13
 Ductile iron
Inoculation with Ce or Mg or both causes graphite
to form as spherulites, rather than flakes
Also known as spheroidal graphite (SG), and
nodular graphite iron
Far better ductility than grey cast iron
See AS1831

14
Microstructure
 Graphite spheres
surrounded by ferrite
 Usually some pearlite
 May be some cementite
 Can be hardened to
martensite by heat
treatment

15
 Production
Composition similar to grey cast iron except for
higher purity.
Melt is added to inoculant in ladle.
Magnesium as wire, ingots or pellets is added to
ladle before adding hot iron.
Mg vapour rises through melt, removing sulphur.

16
 Verification
Testing is required to ensure nodularisation is
complete.
Microstructural examination
Mechanical testing on standard test bars (ductility)
Ultrasonic testing

17
 Properties
Strength higher than grey cast iron
Ductility up to 6% as cast or 20% annealed
Low cost

Simple manufacturing process makes complex shapes
Machineability better than steel

18
 Applications
Automotive industry 55% of ductile iron in USA

Crankshafts, front wheel spindle supports, steering
knuckles, disc brake callipers
Pipe and pipe fittings (joined by welding) see
AS2280

19
 Malleable iron
Graphite in nodular form
Produced by heat treatment of white cast iron
Graphite nodules are irregular clusters
Similar properties to ductile iron
See AS1832

20
 Microstructure
Uniformly dispersed graphite
Ferrite, pearlite or tempered martensite
matrix
Ferritic castings require 2 stage anneal.
Pearlitic castings - 1st stage only

21
 Annealing treatments
 Ferritic malleable iron

Depends on C and Si

1st stage 2 to 36 hours at 940˚C in a controlled atmosphere

Cool rapidly to 750˚C & hold for 1 to 6 hours
 For pearlitic malleable iron

Similar 1st stage above (2 - 36 h at 940˚C)

Cool to 870˚C slowly, then air cool & temper to specification
 Harden and temper pearlitic iron for martensitic castings

22
 Properties
Similar to ductile iron
Good shock resistance
Good ductility
Good machineability

23
 Applications
 Similar applications to ductile iron
 Malleable iron is better for thinner castings
 Ductile iron better for thicker castings >40mm
 Vehicle components

Power trains, frames, suspensions and wheels

Steering components, transmission and differential parts,
connecting rods
 Railway components
 Pipe fittings AS3673

24
 Joining cast iron
Welding
Braze-welding
Brazing
Soldering
Mechanical connections

25
 Weldability
White cast iron - not weldable

Small attachments only
Grey cast iron - low weldability

Welding largely restricted to salvage and repair
Ductile and malleable irons - good weldability
(inferior to structural steel)

Welding increasingly used during manufacture

29
 White cast iron
White fracture surface
No graphite, because carbon forms Fe3C or more
complex carbides
Abrasion resistant
Often alloyed
Australian Standard DR20394 “Wear resistant
white cast irons”

34
 Effects of alloy elements
Promote graphite (Si, Ni)
Promote carbides (Cr)
Affect matrix microstructure

Ferrite, pearlite, martensite or austenite
Corrosion resistance (Cr)
Specific effects

35
 High chromium irons
12 to 28% chromium
Less effect on hardenability than in steels
Mo, Ni, Mn, and Cu also added for hardenability
to give martensite

41
 Ni-hard irons
Grinding balls
1-2.2 Si, 5-7 Ni, 7-11 Cr
M7C3 eutectic carbides in martensite

43
 Abrasion resistant irons
Pearlitic white irons

Cheap but wear more quickly
Martensitic white irons

More expensive but better wearing
ASTM A532-75A

48
 Can be heat treated
Stress relief up to 700˚C
Tempering of martensite
Subzero treatment to remove retained austenite
Annealing for machining followed by QT

49
 Microstructures
Pearlite and ferrite in Fe3C matrix
Austenite / martensite in Fe3C matrix
M7C3 in a martensite matrix

50
 Abrasion resistance
Depends on cast iron
Depends also on abrasive and environment

Eg Silicon carbide wears martensitic and pearlite
equally

Silica wears martensitic irons much less than pearlitic
ones

51
STEELS
 Classification of steels (EN 10020)
• Non-alloy steels (carbon steels)
• Alloy steels
Inclusions, Non-alloy Alloy steels
% steels (carbon
steels)
Mn ≤ 1,65 > 1,8
Si ≤ 0,5 > 0,5
Cr ≤ 0,3 > 0,5
Ni ≤ 0,3 > 0,5
Ti ≤ 0,05 > 0,12
V ≤ 0,1 > 0,12
Non-alloy and alloy steels classification (1)
Non-alloy steels Alloy steels
(carbon steels)
C content based Alloying degree based
- low C-steels (<0,25%) - low alloy steels (<2,5%)

- medium C-steels (0,3…0,6%) - medium alloy steels (<5%)

- high C-steels (>0,6%) - high alloy steels (>5%)

Alloying degree based

- Cr steels
- Mn steels
- Cr-Ni steels etc.
 Non-alloy and alloy steels (2)
Non-alloy steels Alloy steels
(carbon steels)
Quality based Quality based:
(degree of purity): - quality steels
-ordinary quality - high quality steels
- quality steels (≤ 0,035 S,P)
Structure based:
- high quality steels (≤ 0,025 S,P) - in annealed condition
Deoxidation degree based - in normalized condition (ferrite,
- killed steels (Mn,  Si) pearlite, martensite and austenitic
steels)
- semikilled steels (Mn,  Si)
- rimmed steels (Mn)
Non-alloy and alloy steels classification (3)
Non-alloy steels (carbon steels) Alloy steels
Application based:
C<0,7%C – structural steels – 0,2...0,7% C
C>0,7%C – tool steels – 0,4...1,6% C
• corrosion resistant
• heat resistant
• high temperature strength
• magnetic
• cryogenic
 Classification of structural steels
Non-alloy steels (carbon steels) Alloy steels

Heat treatment based:

- case hardening steels (≤ 0,25% C)
- quenching and tempering steels (0,3…0,6% C)

- nitriding and carbonitriding steels

(0,1…0,2 or 0,3…0,4% C)
 Designation of steels (1)
Notch impact energy
Steels (EN10027)
Designations (1) KU, J
 Mechanical properties based on: Re °C
27 40 60

steels for steel constructions S355J0

steels for pressure vessel P265B +20 JR KR LR

steels for machine constructions E295 0 J0 K0 L0

steels for pipes L360QB -20 J2 K2 L2

concrete reinforcing steel B500N
-30 J3 K3 L3
 Based on: Rm

rail steels RO880Mn
-40 J4 K4 L4

prestressing steels Y1770C -50 J5 K5 L5
-60 J6 K6 L6
 Designations (2)
 Chemical composition based

C (non-alloy steels (carbon steels), ex free cutting steels
C35E
G-C35E (cast steel)
35 – C%x100 (E – max S-content)

C, alloying elements (low- ja medium alloy steels,
all. elem., ≤5%, non-alloy steels (carbon steels) Mn ≥1%,
non-alloy free cutting steels)
28Mn6 Alloying
Factor
G-28Mn6 element

C, all. elem. (high alloy steels, Cr, Co, Mn, 4
all. elem. >5%) Si, Ni, W
X5CrNi18-10
Al, Cu, Mo, 10

All. elem. (high speed steels) Nb, Ti, V, Zr
HS 12-9-1-8
Ce, P, S 100
W-Mo-V-Co
B 1000
 Designations (3)
Materials numbers (EN 10027)
1. XX XX (XX)
Material group
Steel class
Order
Pos. 2 andin 3class
Ordinary
Additionalgrade steels 00...90
numbers Tool steels 20...29
High quality grade Special steels 40...49
10 – spec. phyc. prop. steels (stainless and heat resistant. etc.)
11 – construction and machine
construction steell
12 – machine contruct. steels
13 – spec. constr. and ja machine constr. steels
High quality 01...91 – structural steels
02...92 – non heat treatable structural steels
07...97 – high P- ja S-cont. steels
Pos. 4 ja 5
Order no. in class
Structural steels (1)
Non-alloy structural steels (C = 0,2...0,65%)
ordinary (quality) steels
quality steels C15E (max S), C15R (S range)
high quality steels (S, P ≤ 0,025%)

Free cutting steels (C = 0,12...0,4%;  0,2% S)

– 10S20, 35S20
Cast steels (C = 0,15...0,55%) – GE250, G28Mn6
 Structural steels (2)
Alloy structural steels (C = 0,2...0,7%, wear resistant steels 0,9...1,3%)
 low alloy steels (all. elem.  2,5%)

structural steels

cold forming steels

spring steels (C = 0,5...0,7%, Si = 1...2%)

ball bearing steels (C ≈ 1%, Cr = 0,5...0,6%)
 medium alloy steels (all. elem. 2,5...5%)

cementizing steels

quenching and tempering steels

nitriding steels
 high alloy steels (leg. el. > 5%) – steels with specific properties

corrosion resistant steels

high temperature strength steels

wear resistant steels
 Structural steels (3)
Low alloy steels (1)
Steels for structural construction
Low alloy carbon steels C≤0,22%; 1...2% Si, Mn
Requirements:
 Cold brittleness: low TBCT, T50
high toughness ( impact energy KU, KV)
 Weldability
CE%=C%+Mn%/6+(Cr%+Mo%+V%)/5+(Ni%+Cu%)/15
CE≤0,40% - satisfactory weldability
CE≥0,40% - special means: preheating, low annealing.
Alloying principles: P,S TBCT
Simultaneous alloying with V,NTBCT -80°C
Structural steels (4)
Low alloy steels (2)
Cold forming steels
Requirements
 low yield strength ratio (Rp0,2/Rm = 0,5...0,65)
 high plasticity (A ≥ 40%)
Principles of alloying:
C and Si% Rp0,2  formability; Mn%  Rm, Rp0,2≈  good formability
Preferred:

rimmed steels (Si ≈ 0%)

dual phase steels (F + 20...30% M or B)
(C = 0,06...0,12%, partial-hardening  Rp0,2/Rm = 0,5)  good deep drawability at 10%
degree of deformation Rp0,2/Rm = 0,8...0,9

 Ballon steels
 Pressure vessel steels
 Seamless pipes
 Welded pipes
Structural steels (5)
Low alloy steels (3)
Spring steels
high Re, σR, modulus of elasticity E
C = 0,5...0,7%
Mn-steels (1...2% Mn)
Si-steels (2...3% Si)
Cr-V-steels
TT: Hardening + mid. temp. (300...400°C)  Trostite structure
Ball bearing steels
High hardness (≥ 62 HRC)
C ≈ 1%; Cr = 0,6...1,5% – 105 Cr6
Ball races (63...64 HRC), balls (61...62 HRC)
Structural steels (6)
Medium alloy steels (1)
Cementizing (case hardening)
steels (0,1...0,25% C)
 Cr-steels
 Cr-Mn-steels
 Cr-Ni-steels
 B-steels
HT: Tcem + hard. + low. temp.
Surface (C0,8) – 58...62 HRC
Core (C = 0,1...0,25) – 30...42 HRC
Structural steels (7)
Medium alloy steels (2)
Quenching and tempering steels
Requirements:
 Reliability ( Rm, Rp0,2; acceptable KU and TBCT)
 High hardenability (D50, D95, T50)
Principles pf alloying:
 Alloying hardenability (Ma, Ml) (all exc. Al and Co)
 At solution in F,  Rm and TBCT, alloying degree as low as
possible (for D50)
Structural steels (8)
Medium alloy steels (3)
Quenching and tempering steels (0,3...0,5% C; 3...5% all.elem.)

D95, mm T50, °C
I gr – non-alloy steels (carbon
10...15 20
steels)
II gr – Si-Mn/Cr-steels (~1%) 20 -30...-50
III gr – Mn-Cr-steels 25 -60
IV gr – Ni-Mo-steels 40 -80
V gr – Ni-refractory. (W, Mo, V
100 -100
jt.)
Rm 1200 N/mm2; Rp0,2  1100 N/mm2; A = 10...12%; KU40J
Structural steels (9)
Medium alloy steels (4)
Nitriding steels (C-, all. elem. – same as in hard. and temp. steels)
Tnitr 500...600°C (differently from cem.)
All. elem. Cr, Mo, Al + N  CrN, MoN, AlN

Properties:
Hardness: surface – alloy steels 950...1150 HV,
non-alloy steels (carbon steels) 400...500 HV
Core 250...300 HB
High fatigue strength ( by comp. stresses induced nitrides)
Structural steels (10)
High alloy steels (1)
Corrosion resistant steels (1)
Cr-steels, C – min (0,08...0,2%)
0,1...0,4% – for hardenability
Cr = 13, 17 or 27%
Ccorrosion resistance , C  0,1 %C – ferritic steels

For hardness/ wear resiatance  0,1...0,4 %C –

martensitic steels
Structural steels (11)
High alloy steels (2)
Cr-Ni steels C ≤ 0,12%
18% Cr, 10...12% Ni, Ti/Nb ≤ 1%
Rm = 500...600 N/mm2
Rp0,2 = 200...250 N/mm2
Intergranular corrosion (at to. 500...600 oC):
Ccorr. resist, , especially in welds  Cr3C2  Cr %
reduction in A.
To avoid:
 Ti, Nb (0,1...0,2%)
 C (<0,03%)
Structural steels (12)
High alloy steels (3)
High temperature strength steels
High temperature strength = heat resiatance + high temp. strength
Heat resistance = oxidation resistance
High temp. strength: endurance limit σtT
creep strength σε/tT T, C
350...500°C – boiler steels 1100
0,1...0,15% C, 0,5...1% Mo, W või V m itte k u u m u s p ü s iv
0,5...1% Cr (pearlite steels)
900
2...6% Cr (martensite steels)
- silchrome
0,5...0,6% C, 1,5...3% Si, 5...15% Cr 700 k u u m u s p ü s iv
600...700°C – austenitic steels
13...25% Cr; 14...20% Ni 500
13...25% Cr; 37% Ni + Al, W, Nb, Ti, Mo 5 10 15 20 25 C r, %

> 700°C - Ni- ja Co-alloys (superalloys)

Structural steels (13)
High alloy steels (4)
Wear resistant steels
Requirements:
High surface hardness
Principles of alloying:

through alloying (uneffective – 2...3% /Ø100mm)

surface alloying
 Non-alloy- and alloy steels (Cr, Mn, W jt.)
 Cementizing steels
 Mn-steels (Hadfield steel) (1,1...1,3% C, 12...13% Mn)

HT: H (1050...1100°C)  A-structure

Rm=800...1000, Rp0,2=250...350 N/mm2, A = 40...50%, 180...220 HB

In cold worked conditions  50...55 HRC – self hardening

Tool steels (1)
Requirements:
 hardness and wear resistance
 strength and toughness
 heat resistance

 Non-alloy tool steels

(C = 0,7...1,3%)
 Alloy steels
(C = 0,4...1,6%)

non-heat resistant (200°C)

semi heat resistant (300...500°C)
• coldwork tool steels
• hot work tool steels

Heat resistant steels (500...750°C)
• Carbide induced tempering hardness,
• Intermetallics induced tempering
hardness
Tool steels (2)
Non heat resistant steels (200...250°C)
 non-alloy tool steels (0,7...1,2% C)
 low alloy steels (Cr, W, Mn)
Semi heat resistant steels (300...500°C)
 Cold work tool steels (150...200°C)
Cr-steels (1,2...2,3% C; 12% Cr + Mo, V)
Structure: M + 13...20% carbides
C = 0,6...0,7 – cutting- ja impact tools
 Hot work tool steels
Requirements:
 high temperature strength,
 heat resistance ja thermal resistance
 high hardenability and not prone to tempering brittleness
 low adhesion

Steels 0,5...0,6% C  good toughness

1,5...2% Ni, Mo  high hardenability
Tool steels (3)
Heat resistant steels (500...750°C)
 Steels with carbide induced tempering hardness (500...650°C)
Alloying elements: W (18 or 9%) + Mo, V, Co
 HS-18-0-1
 HS-6-5-2-5 (P6M5K5)
HT: H (1200...1300°C); 3x T (570...650°C)  Arest ;
 64...65 HRC
 Steels with intermetallics induced tempering hardness (650...750°C)
Alloying elements: Co, W, Mo  Co7W6; (Co,Fe)7W6 etc.
(0,1...0,3% C, 20...25% Co, 11...20% W, ca 7% Mo)
HT: Hard. (1200...1300°C)  68 HRC; T (700...720°C)  60 HRC
Special steels ja -alloys (1)
Magnetic steels
Soft magnetic materials

pure Fe (C < 0,05%)

electrotechnical (1...4% Si)
Hard magnetic materials

High C-content Non-alloy tool steels (1,1...1,3% C)

Cr-steels (ca 1% C; 1,5...3% Cr)

Co-steels (ca 1% C; 1,5...3% Cr; 5...15% Co)

Fe-Ni-Al-alloys (alniko) (11...14% Al; 22...34% Ni)
Special steels ja -alloys (2)
Cryogenic steels
Requirements:
 low transition temperature TBCT
Steels for low temperature applications
 ≤ –60°C (non-alloy- ja low alloy steel)
 ≤ –100°C – low C-content Ni-steels – 2...5% Ni + Cr, V,
Ti
 ≤ –190°C (liquid N2) – austenitic stainless steels)
 below –190°C (liquid H2, O2) – high alloy corrosion
resistant steels – Cr > 10%; Ni > 20%