Wireless technology was first introduced in the 90's. It is used to connect devices to a LAN.

Technically it
is referred as 802.11 protocol.

What is WLAN or Networks Wireless Local Area

WLAN is a wireless network communication over short distances using radio or infrared signals. WLAN is
marketed as a Wi-Fi brand name.

Any components that connect to a WLAN is considered as a station and falls into one of two categories.

Access point (AP): AP transmit and receive radio frequency signals with devices able to receive
transmitted signals. Usually, these devices are routers.

Client: It may comprise a variety of devices like workstations, laptops, IP phones, desktop computers,
etc. All work-stations that are able to connect with each other are known as BSS ( Basic Service Sets).

Examples of WLAN includes,

 WLAN adapter
 Access point (AP)
 Station adapter
 WLAN switch
 WLAN router
 Security Server
 Cable, connectors and so on.

Types of WLAN
 Infrastructure
 Peer-to-peer
 Bridge
 Wireless distributed system

Major difference between WLAN and LANs

-Unlike CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detect), which is used in Ethernet LAN.
WLAN uses CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance) technologies.

-WLAN uses Ready To Send (RTS) protocol and Clear To Send (CTS) protocols to avoid collisions.

-WLAN uses a different frame format than wired Ethernet LANs use. WLAN requires additional
information in the Layer 2 header of the frame.
Modes of Wireless Connectivity

The transition from wired networks to wireless networks is very much evident in past 2-3 years.
Advanced wireless networks are used to run Offices, Schools, Colleges and many more places.
Connections to these wireless networks are usually maintained by a Network Interface Card
(NIC) or Network adapters. A wireless network adapter is a device that helps us to connect to
wireless networks. It acts as a mediator between the server or other computers and our
machine, which helps in sending and receiving files. Also, every computer or machine in a
network is known as a Node.
It is imperative to understand the different modes in which these network adapters can work and
wireless connections can be made. Hence, choose the right mode for yourself, your home or
your company.
Wireless Connections basically are of 4 types :

1. Ad-Hoc mode

 In Ad-Hoc mode, the nodes are connected to each other without the presence of any Base
Station or Access Point. The nodes can communicate directly with each other and also share
resources without the presence of any external medium (router etc.), provided they are
connected on the same network and on the same channel.

2. Managed mode
 
In Managed mode every node is connected to an Access Point or Base Station (router
etc.) and it only receives the data which is sent to it by the AP. To connect to a network in
managed mode the node automatically changes its channel according to the AP.
For example, suppose there is a wifi router and 5 computers are connected to it. Now, the
wifi router will send data packets which contains the destination address in the network
and the node receives a data packet only if it has its address.
3.Master mode

 In the Master mode, a node acts as an access point and other nodes can connect to
it. It may provide same functionality as that of a router. It is basically like a wifi
hotspot in which the main node can share internet and resources individually with
the nodes connected to it.
4.Monitor mode

In Monitor mode, the node is not connected to any AP or any node but it has the
capability to monitor all the data packets travelling in the wireless medium on a given
channel in its range. It is not meant for usual day to day communications.

Fundamentals of WLANs

1. HiperLAN

o HiperLAN stands for High performance LAN. While all of the previous technologies have been
designed specifically for an adhoc environment, HiperLAN is derived from traditional LAN
environments and can support multimedia data and asynchronous data effectively at high rates
(23.5 Mbps).
o A LAN extension via access points can be implemented using standard features of the
HiperLAN/1 specification. However, HiperLAN does not necessarily require any type of access
point infrastructure for its operation.
o HiperLAN was started in 1992, and standards were published in 1995. It employs the 5.15GHz
and 17.1 GHz frequency bands and has a data rate of 23.5 Mbps with coverage of 50m and
mobility< 10 m/s.
o It supports a packet-oriented structure, which can be used for networks with or without a
central control (BS-MS and ad-hoc). It supports 25 audio connections at 32kbps with a maximum
 latency of 10 ms, one video connection of 2 Mbps with 100 ms latency, and a data rate of 13.4
Mbps.
o HiperLAN/1 is specifically designed to support adhoc computing for multimedia systems, where
there is no requirement to deploy a centralized infrastructure. It effectively supports MPEG or
other state of the art real time digital audio and video standards.
o The HiperLAN/1 MAC is compatible with the standard MAC service interface, enabling support
for existing applications to remain unchanged.
o HiperLAN 2 has been specifically developed to have a wired infrastructure, providing short-
range wireless access to wired networks such as IP and ATM.

The two main differences between HiperLAN types 1 and 2 are as follows:
o Type 1 has a distributed MAC with QoS provisions, whereas type 2 has a centralized schedule
MAC.
o Type 1 is based on Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), whereas type 2 is based on OFDM.
o HiperLAN/2 automatically performs handoff to the nearest access point. The access point is
basically a radio BS that covers an area of about 30 to 150 meters, depending on the
environment. MANETs can also be created easily.

The goals of HiperLAN are as follows:

o QoS (to build multiservice network)
o Strong security
o Handoff when moving between local area and wide areas
o Increased throughput
o Ease of use, deployment, and maintenance
o Affordability
o Scalability

One of the primary features of HiperLAN/2 is its high speed transmission rates (up to 54 Mbps). It uses a
modulation method called OFDM to transmit analog signals. It is connection oriented, and traffic is
transmitted on bidirectional links for unicast traffic and unidirectional links toward the MSs for multicast
and broadcast traff

This connection oriented approach makes support for QoS easy, which in turn depends on how the
HiperLAN/2 network incorporates with the fixed network using Ethernet, ATM, or IP.
The HiperLAN/2 architecture shown in the figure allows for interoperation with virtually any type of
fixed network, making the technology both network and application independent.

HiperLAN/2 networks can be deployed at "hot spot" areas such as airports and hotels, as an easy way of
offering remote access and internet services.

2. Home RF Technology
o A typical home needs a network inside the house for access to a public network telephone and
internet, entertainment networks (cable television, digital audio and video with the IEEE 1394),
transfer and sharing of data and resources (printer, internet connection), and home control and
automation.
o The device should be able to self-configure and maintain connectivity with the network. The
devices need to be plug and play enabled so that they are available to all other clients on the
network as soon as they are switched on, which requires automatic device discovery and
identification in the system.
o Home networking technology should also be able to accommodate any and all lookup services,
such as Jini. Home RF products allow you to simultaneously share a single internet connection
with all of your computers - without the hassle of new wires, cables or jacks.
o Home RF visualizes a home network as shown in the figure:
 o A network consists of resource providers, which are gateways to different resources like phone
lines, cable modem, satellite dish, and so on, and the devices connected to them such as
cordless phone, printers and fileservers, and TV.
o The goal of Home RF is to integrate all of these into a single network suitable for all applications
and to remove all wires and utilize RF links in the network suitable for all applications.
o This includes sharing PC, printer, fileserver, phone, internet connection, and so on, enabling
multiplayer gaming using different PCs and consoles inside the home, and providing complete
control on all devices from a single mobile controller.
o With Home RF, a cordless phone can connect to PSTN but also connect through a PC for
enhanced services. Home RF makes an assumption that simultaneous support for both voice
and data is needed.

Advantages of Home RF
o In Home RF all devices can share the same connection, for voice or data at the same time.
o Home RF provides the foundation for a broad range of interoperable consumer devices for
wireless digital communication between PCs and consumer electronic devices anywhere in and
around the home.
o The working group includes Compaq computer corp. Ericson enterprise network, IBM Intel
corp., Motorola corp. and other.
o A specification for wireless communication in the home called the shared wireless access
protocol (SWAP) has been developed.
3. IEEE 802.11 Standard

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards for the wireless area network (WLAN), which was implemented in 1997
and was used in the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band. IEEE 802.11 was quickly implemented
throughout a wide region, but under its standards the network occasionally receives interference from
devices such as cordless phones and microwave ovens. The aim of IEEE 802.11 is to provide wireless
network connection for fixed, portable, and moving stations within ten to hundreds of meters with one
medium access control (MAC) and several physical layer specifications. This was later called 802.11a.
The major protocols include IEEE 802.11n; their most significant differences lie in the specification of the
PHY layer.

4. Bluetooth

Bluetooth is one of the major wireless technologies developed to achieve WPAN (wireless personal area
network). It is used to connect devices of different functions such as telephones, computers (laptop or
desktop), notebooks, cameras, printers, and so on.

Architecture of Bluetooth
o Bluetooth devices can interact with other Bluetooth devices in several ways in the figure. In the
simplest scheme, one of the devices acts as the master and (up to) seven other slaves.
o A network with a master and one or more slaves associated with it is known as a piconet. A
single channel (and bandwidth) is shared among all devices in the piconet.
 o Each of the active slaves has an assigned 3-bit active member address. many other slaves can
remain synchronized to the master though remaining inactive slaves, referred to as parked
nodes.
o The master regulates channel access for all active nodes and parked nodes. Of two piconets are
close to each other, they have overlapping coverage areas.
o This scenario, in which nodes of two piconets intermingle, is called a scatternet. Slaves in one
piconet can participate in another piconet as either a master or slave through time division
multiplexing.
o In a scatternet, the two (or more) piconets are not synchronized in either time or frequency.
Each of the piconets operates in its own frequency hopping channel, and any devices in multiple
piconets participate at the appropriate time via time division multiplexing.
o The Bluetooth baseband technology supports two link types. Synchronous connection oriented
(SCO) types, used primarily for voice, and asynchronous connectionless (ACL) type, essentially
for packet data.

WLAN Important Components

WLAN rely very much on these components for effective wireless communication,

 Radio Frequency Transmission

 WLAN Standards
 ITU-R Local FCC Wireless
 802.11 Standards and Wi-Fi protocols
 Wi-Fi Alliance

Radio Frequency Transmission

Radio frequencies range from the frequencies used by cell phones to the AM radio band. Radio
frequencies are radiated into the air by antennas that create radio waves.

The following factor can influence radio frequency transmission,

 Absorption- when radio waves bounce off the objects

 Reflection- when radio waves strike an uneven surface
 Scattering- when radio waves absorbed by objects

WLAN Standards
To establish WLAN standards and certifications, several organizations have stepped forward.
Organization has set regulatory agencies to control the use of RF bands. Approval is taken from all the
regulatory bodies of WLAN services before any new transmissions, modulations and frequencies are
used or implemented.
These regulatory bodies include,

 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for the United States

 European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) for Europe

While to define the standard for these wireless technologies you have another authority. These include,

 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)

 ITU (International Telecommunication Union)

ITU-R Local FCC Wireless

ITU (International Telecommunication Union) co-ordinate spectrum allocation and regulations among all
of the regulatory bodies in each country.

A license is not needed to operate wireless equipment on the unlicensed frequency bands. For instance,
a 2.4 gigahertz band is used for wireless LANs but also by Bluetooth devices, microwave ovens, and
portable phones.

WiFi protocols and 802.11 Standards

IEEE 802.11 WLAN uses a media access control protocol called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance)

A wireless distribution system allows the wireless interconnection of access points in an IEEE 802.11
network.

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) 802 Standard comprises a family of networking
standards that cover the physical layer specifications of technologies from Ethernet to wireless. The IEEE
802.11 uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA for path sharing.

The IEEE have defined a various specification for WLAN services( as shown in table). For instance,
802.11g applies to wireless LANs. It is used for transmission over short distances at up to 54-Mbps in the
2.4 GHz bands. Similarly, one can have an extension to 802.11b that applies to wireless LANS and
provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2 and 1-Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band. It uses only
DSSS ( Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum).

The below table shows different wi-fi protocols and data rates.
Wi-Fi Alliance
Wi-Fi alliance ensures interoperability among 802.11 products offered by various vendors by providing
certification. The certification includes all three IEEE 802.11 RF technologies, as well as an early adoption
of pending IEEE drafts, such as the one that addresses security.

Types of WLAN Protocols

IEEE 802.11 or WiFi has a number of variations, the main among which are −
 802.11a Protocol− This protocol supports very high transmission speeds of 54Mbps. It has a high
frequency of 5GHz range, due to which signals have difficulty in penetrating walls and other
obstructions. It employs Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
 802.11b Protocol − This protocol operates within the frequency range of 2.4GHz and supports
11Mbps speed. It facilitates path sharing and is less vulnerable to obstructions. It uses Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) with Ethernet protocol.
 802.11g Protocol − This protocol combines the features of 802.11a and 802.11b protocols. It
supports both the frequency ranges 5GHz (as in 802.11a standard) and 2.4GHz (as in 802.11b
standard). Owing to its dual features, 802.11g is backward compatible with 802.11b devices.
 802.11g provides high speeds, varying signal range, and resilience to obstruction. However, it is
more expensive for implementation.
 802.11n Protocol − Popularly known as Wireless N, this is an upgraded version of 802.11g. It
provides very high bandwidth up to 600Mbps and provides signal coverage. It uses Multiple
Input/Multiple Output (MIMO), having multiple antennas at both the transmitter end and
receiver ends. In case of signal obstructions, alternative routes are used. However, the
implementation is highly expensive.

WLAN Security
Network security remains an important issue in WLANs. As a precaution, random wireless clients must
usually be prohibited from joining the WLAN.

WLAN is vulnerable to various security threats like,

 Unauthorized access
 MAC and IP spoofing
 Eavesdropping
 Session Hijacking
 DOS ( denial of service) attack

Technologies used to Secure WLAN from vulnerabilities include,

WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy): To counter security threats WEP is used. It delivers security to
WLAN, by encrypting the message transmitted over the air. Such that only the receivers having the
correct encryption key can decrypt the information. But it is considered as a weak security standard, and
WPA is a better option compared to this.

WPA/WPA2 ( WI-FI Protected Access): By introducing TKIP ( Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) on wi-fi,
security standard is enhanced further. TKIP is renewed on a regular basis, making it impossible to steal.
Also, data integrity is enhanced through the use of a more robust hashing mechanism.

Wireless Intrusion Prevention Systems / Intrusion Detection Systems: It is a device that monitors the
radio spectrum for the presence of unauthorized access points.

There are three deployment models for WIPS,

 AP (Access Points) performs WIPS functions part of the time, by alternating them with its regular
network connectivity functions
 The AP (Access Points) has dedicated WIPS functionality built into it. So it can perform WIPS
functions and network connectivity functions all the time
 WIPS deployed through dedicated sensors instead of the APs
Implementing WLAN
While implementing a WLAN, access point placement can have more effect on throughput than
standards. The efficiency of a WLAN can be affected by three factors,

 Topology
 Distance
 Access point location.

WLAN can be implemented in two ways,

1.Ad-hoc mode: In this mode, the access point is not required and can be connected directly. This
setup is preferable for a small office (or home office). The only drawback is that the security is weak in
such mode.

2.Infrastructure mode: In this mode, the client can be connected through the access point.
Infrastructure mode is categorized in two modes:

 Basic Service Set (BSS): BSS provides the basic building block of an 802.11 wireless LAN. A BSS
comprises of a group of computers and one AP (Access Point), which links to a wired LAN. There
are two types of BSS, independent BSS, and Infrastructure BSS. Every BSS has an id called the
BSSID.( it is the Mac address of the access point servicing the BSS).
 Extended Service Set (ESS): It is a set of connected BSS. ESS allows users especially mobile users
to roam anywhere within the area covered by multiple AP's (Access Points). Each ESS has an ID
known as SSID.

WLAN Topologies
BSA: It is referred to as the physical area of RF (Radio Frequency) coverage provided by an access point
in a BSS. It is dependent on the RF created with variation caused by access point power output, antenna
type, and physical surroundings affecting the RF. Remote devices cannot communicate directly, they can
communicate only through the access point. An AP start transmitting beacons that advertise the
characteristics of the BSS, such as modulation scheme, channel, and protocols supported.

ESA: If a single cell fails in giving enough coverage, any number of cells can be added to extend
the coverage. This is known as ESA.
For remote users to roam without losing RF connections 10 to 15 percent overlap is recommend

For wireless voice network, an overlap of 15 to 20 percent is recommended.

Data Rates: Data rates is how quickly information can be transmitted across electronic devices. It is
measured in Mbps. Data rates shifting can happen on a transmission-by-transmission basis.

Access Point Configuration: Wireless access points can be configured through a command-line-
interface or through a browser GUI. The features of access point usually allow the adjustment of
parameters like which radio to enable, frequencies to offer, and which IEEE standard to use on that RF.
Steps to Implement a Wireless Network
For implementing a wireless network, the basic step includes

Step 1) Validate pre-existing network and Internet access for the wired hosts, before implementing any
wireless network.

Step 2) Implement wireless with a single access point and a single client, without wireless security

Step 3) Verify that the wireless client has received a DHCP IP address. It can connect to the local wired
default router and browse to the external internet.

Step 4) Secure wireless network with WPA/WPA2.