301-BASIC CAMERA LIGHT SOUND Backup 1

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Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound
Basics of Camera, Lights &

Sound
Study Material for Students
1
: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN MEDIA WORLD
Mass communication and Journalism is institutionalized and source specific. It

functions through well-organized professionals and has an ever increasing
interlace. Mass media has a global availability and it has converted the whole
world in to a global village. A qualified journalism professional can take up a
job of educating, entertaining, informing, persuading, interpreting, and
guiding. Working in print media offers the opportunities to be a news reporter,
news presenter, an editor, a feature writer, a photojournalist, etc. Electronic
media offers great opportunities of being a news reporter, news editor,
newsreader, programme host, interviewer, cameraman, producer, director, etc.
Other titles of Mass Communication and Journalism professionals are script

writer, production assistant, technical director, floor manager, lighting director,
scenic director, coordinator, creative director, advertiser, media planner, media
consultant, public relation officer, counselor, front office executive, event
manager and others.
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INTRODUCTION
The book deal with the basics of Camera lights and sound. Students will know the
various kinds of camera and how to take shots and adjust camera angles. The
various types of camera movements are also taught in the book. Different types of
lenses and their application are also dealt in the book.
The book also covers the basic techniques of lighting while taking shots. Use of
filters & reflectors will also be introduced in the book. Students of Mass
Communication will also learn the basic Unit of sound, Voicing, Types of
microphones, use of audio mixers for recording & editing of sound.
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INDEX
Basics of Camera, Lights and Sound
1 Camera: 6- 40
1.1 Video camera
1.1.1 Types of video camera
1.2 Different types of shots
1.2.1 Camera movements
1.2.2 Tilt
1.2.3 Track
1.3 Lenses:
1.3.1 Different types of lenses and their application
2 Lighting: 40-65
2.1 Lights and lighting

2.2 Basics of lighting
2.2.1 Techniques
2.3 Different types of lights used in videography
2.4 Use of filters & reflectors
3 Sound: 65-78
3.1 What is sound?
3.1.1 Unit of sound
3.1.2 Voicing
3.2 Types of microphones
3.2.1 use of audio mixers for recording & editing of sound
3.3 Sound & Camera
Summery 78
Questions for Practice 81
Suggested Reading 81
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SYLLABUS
Basics of Camera, Lights and Sound
Camera:
a) Video camera, Types of video camera
b Different types of shots, camera movements, Tilt, Track, Crane movements etc.
c) Lenses: Different types of lenses and the ir application
Lighting:
a) Lights and lighting
b Basics of lighting, Techniques
c) Different types of lights used in videography
d Use of filters & reflectors
Sound:
a) What is sound? Unit of sound, Voicing
b Types of microphones, use of audio mixers for recording & editing of sound
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BASICS OF CAMERA, LIGHTS AND SOUND

OBJECTIVES
 To learn about Video camera and Types of video camera

 To learn about Different types of shots, camera movements
 To know Different types of lenses and their application
 To learn basics of Lights and lighting
 To learn about the Different types of lights and the Use of filters & reflectors
 To know about the Types of microphones, use of audio mixers for recording
& editing of sound
INTRODUCTION
1.1.CAMERA
A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition,

initially developed by the television industry but now common in other
applications as well.
Video cameras are used

primarily in two modes. The
first, characteristic of much
early television, is what
might be called a live
broadcast, where the
camera feeds real
time images directly to a
screen for immediate
observation; in addition to
live television production,
such usage is characteristic
of security, military/tactical,
and industrial operations where surreptitious or remote viewing is required. The
second is to have the images recorded to a storage device for archiving or further
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processing; for many years, videotape has been the primary format used for this
purpose, but optical disc media, hard disk, and flash memory are all increasingly
used. Recorded video is used not only in television and film production, but also
surveillance and monitoring tasks where unattended recording of a situation is
required for later analysis.
It is also interesting to see the emergence of pocket video camera using flash
memory; they could become the iPod of digital cameras.
Modern video cameras have numerous designs and uses, not all of which resemble
the early television cameras
.
 Professional video cameras, such as those used in television and sometimes
film production; these may be studio-based or mobile. Such cameras
generally offer extremely fine-grained manual control for the camera
operator, often to the exclusion of automated operation.
 Camcorders, which combine a camera and a VCR or other recording device
in one unit; these are mobile, and are widely used for television
production, home movies, electronic news gathering including citizen
journalism, and similar applications.
 Closed-circuit television cameras, generally used for security, surveillance,
and/or monitoring purposes. Such cameras are designed to be small, easily
hidden, and able to operate unattended; those used in industrial or scientific
settings are often meant for use in environments that are normally
inaccessible or uncomfortable for humans, and are therefore hardened for
such hostile environments e.g. radiation, high heat, or toxic chemical
exposure). Webcams can be considered a type of CCTV camera.
 Digital cameras which convert the signal directly to a digital output; such
cameras are often extremely small, even smaller than CCTV security
cameras, and are often used as webcams or optimized for still-camera use.
These cameras are sometimes incorporated directly into computer or
communications hardware, particularly mobile phones, PDAs, and some
models of laptop computer. Larger video cameras especially camcorders
and CCTV cameras can also be used as webcams or for other digital input,
though such units may need to pass their output through an analog-to-digital
converter in order to store the output or send it to a wider network.
 Special systems, like those used for scientific research, e.g. on board
a satellite or a space probe, or in artificial intelligence and robotics research.
Such cameras are often tuned for non-visible light such as infrared fo r night
vision and heat sensing or X-ray for medical and astronomical use).
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Thing to look into while using a video camera:
Recording format
One of your major decisions before buying a video camera is to decide what kind
of record format you want. In other words, does the video get recorded on tapes
or an internal hard drive? If it is tape, what kind of tape?
Cameras today also record on memory sticks, memory cards or removable discs.
All of these record formats have their pros and cons. Some slide easily into video
editing programs and some don’t. If you want to edit the video you take you might
want to stick with the sort of old-fashioned mini-DV tape format.
However if you do not want to edit your video, it is certainly more convenient to
pop a disc out and play it in your DVD player than to get it converted or plug your
camera into the side of your TV so you can watch a mini DV tape.
Image Sensors
The quality of the picture a video camera gets is largely determined by the quality
of the image sensors. They are what capture the light and turn it into a
video image. Video cameras come with either one image sensor chip or
three. Three is better. With three, there is an individual chip for the three primary
colors of light, red, green and blue. With one-chip camera, all of that is squished
onto one chip. Chip size also matters. A 1/3 inch chip would be considered large.
1/6 inch is a common size for less expensive cameras.
Audio Input
Inexpensive video cameras do not have any way for you to use a supplemental
microphone. You have the on-board microphone, but no way to plug in a hand
held or lavaliere mic for better sound quality.
High quality sound is probably more important for many videos than high quality
video. If people cannot hear what you are saying, they will not bother to watch
your video. If people talking on camera will be important to your productions,
and that’s most videos look for a camera with an audio input.
Audio inputs will either be small stereo plugs for less expensive models or XLR
inputs on higher- end models. Make sure you buy a microphone with a plug that
matches your camera’s input.
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Manual or Automatic
Higher-end cameras have full manual control. Manual focus control, manual
exposure control, manual white balance, manual audio level control and so forth.
These cameras can also be set to automatic control if you are in a run-and-gun
situation, but manual control is preferred by serious videographers.
Manual control however, would drive some people bonkers. Automatic control
makes operating the camera much easier so if you are into easy, you can rest
assured that part of what people are paying for with the more expensive cameras is
the “luxury” of manual control.
1.1.1. TYPES OF VIDEO CAMERA
There are two types of video cameras. There is the portable camera and the larger
studio model camera. The studio camera is always mounted on a tripod and dolly
for rolling, where as the smaller portable united can be hand-held or mounted on
tripod if needed.
The main purpose of a video camera is to change the scene viewed through the lens
into an electronic signal to be transmitted to the VCR. This conversion takes place
in the camera tube or in semi-conductor chips in newer cameras.
The video camera has certain features. For instants a focus ring is used to create a
sharp image. The zoom feature allows you to move closer or further from an object
while standing still. The aperture setting or iris, allows you to adjust the size of
the lens opening for various light conditions. There is also a viewfinder that allows
you to see what the lens is seeing. Many newer cameras have auto focus as well as
automatic aperture.
A tripod is a separate attachment. This is used if your video camera is too heavy
and if your picture doesn't come out very clear. A dolly is a tripod with wheels,
which enables you to move with the object
The formats of video cameras include, VHS, VHS-C, 8mm, Hi8, Mini Digital
Video Mini DV, DVD and Digital 8 .
VHS
The Video Home System better known by its abbreviation VHS is a consumer -
level video standard developed by Japanese company JVC and launched in 1976.
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A VHS cassette holds a maximum of about 430 m of tape at the lowest acceptable
tape thickness, giving a maximum playing time of about 3.5 hours for NTSC and 5
hours for PAL at "standard" SP) quality. Other speeds include LP and EP/SLP
which double and triple the recording time, for NTSC regions. These speed
reductions cause a slight reduction in video quality from 250 lines to 230 analog
lines horizontal; also, tapes recorded at the lower speed often exhibit poor
playback performance on recorders other than the one they were produced on.
Because of this, commercial prerecorded tapes were almost always recorded in SP
mode. The VHS format is the oldest type of camcorder. This type of video
camcorder is fast becoming outdated, because you can only play back
the video on a VHS VCR system. VHS camcorders are not nearly as clear as
digital video camcorders that offer clear video with 540 lines of resolution.VHS
video cameras only offer 240 lines of resolution. They also weigh more and are
much more bulky, that DV camcorders. You cannot find these video camera being
used because their technology is now outdated.
VHS-C
The VHS-C format offer 240 lines of resolution, just like VHS. These analog
camcorders come in a smaller size that the VHS camcorder models, but use the
same technology. The video tapes used in VHS-C camcorders are much smaller in
size than VHS, just in a smaller camcorder design. VHS-C is considered old
technology and not used today in newer models.
8mm
If you are looking to record more than 1 hour, then 8mm camcorders are perfect.
These video cameras can record up to 5 hours of footage and they offer better
video quality those VHS cameras. In order to view video from your 8mm video
camcorder, you need to connect the camcorder to input jacks on your TV or your
VCR system.
Mini DV
Mini DV, short for mini Digital Video off the clearest and most vivid colors out
of all the types of camcorders on the market, and they're small in size only 4 inches
in width and height. Mini DV camcorders can fit in the palm of your hand, making
them very easy to handle and transport. And if you like editing your video footage
you can connect DV camcorders to your computer system. Transferring the video
is a snap with the FireWire connection. Once the footage is in your computer’s
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hard drive you can burn it to DVD, add it to your web site or email small clips to
friends and family.
Digital8
Digital8 camcorders offer the best of both worlds, Hi8 and DV. You can use 8mm
and hi8 videotapes combined with the best image quality found in digital
camcorder formats. Digital8 camcorders are larger and heavier than Mini DV
camcorders, but they are also cheaper in price. The Digital8 system offers 540 lines
of crystal clear resolution.
DVD Camcorders
The newest form of digital video cameras is DVD camcorders. These camcorders
are small in size, just like Digital8 and Mini DV camcorders. The big difference
compared to other camcorder systems is that DVD camcorders use record able
DVD discs such as DVD-R or DVD-RW. The big benefit to DVD video cameras is
that they can be played on your home DVD player, and of course the quality is the
best you can find.
Most machine vision cameras use charge-coupled device CCD image sensors.
Charge from each line of pixels is transferred down the line, pixel-by-pixel and
row-by-row, to an amplifier where the video signal is formed. CCD cameras are
available in a wide variety of formats, resolutions, and sensitivities. They provide
the best performance for most applications.
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor CMOS) sensors are becoming

available for some applications. Because they are made using the same processes
used to fabricate computer chips, they can be produced very inexpensively. Low-
cost CMOS cameras are already used in toys and in web cams. Unlike CCD
sensors, which must be read out one full line at a time, CMOS sensors can be read
pixel by pixel, in any order. This is useful for time-critical applications where only
part of the image is of interest. At present, the noise performance of CMOS sensors
is inferior to CCDs.
Interfaces
There are two types of camera interfaces in use, analog and digital. In an analog
camera, the signal from the sensor is turned into an analog voltage and sent to the
frame-grabber board in the vision-system computer. EIA, RS-170, NTSC, CCIR
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and PAL are all common analog interface standards. Analog cameras are
inexpensive, but subject to noise and timing problems.
Most new machine vision cameras use a digital interface. The camera digitizes the
signal from each pixel and the data sent in digital form directly to the computer.
Camera Link and Firewire are two popular digital interface standards. The digital
signal is not subject to noise and there is a perfect correspondence between each
pixel on the sensor and in the image. Digital cameras support a wide variety of
image resolutions and frame rates. Since the signal is already digitized, a simple
interface board replaces the frame-grabber.
Color Cameras
Most color CCD cameras use a single sensor with an array of color filters printed
over their pixels. Adjacent pixels sense different colors, so the resolution at each
color is lower than for a similar monochrome sensor. Some high-performance
cameras use a color-separation prism to send light to three separate CCDs. These
cameras provide full resolution at each color. Lenses for these “3-chip” cameras
must have sufficient back working distance to allow room for the prism.
Line-scan Cameras
Line-scan cameras have a single row of pixels, 1k, 2k, 4k or more pixels long.
They record images one row at a time. Often the object moves past the camera to
provide the second dimension e.g., a web of paper being inspected during
manufacture). Line-scan cameras provide high-resolution images at very high data
rates. Long live-scan sensors require large-format lenses to cover their length. In
addition, because each line of pixels is exposed only for a very short time, line-
scan cameras require intense lighting and large aperture lenses.
Camera Formats
The size of an image sensor is called its format. The name of a format does not
correspond to any dimension. Historically, a one-half inch format is the size of the
sensing area of a Vidicon tube, which is one-half inch in diameter. It is important
to choose a lens that covers the camera format. For a given field of view FOV,
the camera format determines the required magnification.
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Lenses for High-Resolution Cameras
To improve sensitivity, many high-resolution CCD sensors include micro-lens

arrays on their surfaces. These arrays make the active area of the pixels appear
larger, so that the active-area fraction fill factor) appears to be near 100%.
Unfortunately, this is only true for light that is nearly normal to the sensor surface.
Light reaching the sensor at greater angles e.g., >5 deg misses the active area and
is lost. This means that lenses used with these sensors must have a long exit-pupil
distance and should not have a very small f-number. If not, the edges of the image
appear dark.
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1.2. SHOT TYPES
There is a convention in the video, film and television industries, which assigns
names and guidelines to common types of shots, framing and picture composition.
The list below briefly describes the most common shot types.
Extreme Wide Shot EWS)
In the extreme wide shot, the view is so far from the subject that she isn't even
visible. The point of this shot is to show the subject's surroundings.
The EWS is often used as an "establishing shot" - the first shot of a new scene,
designed to show the audience where the action is taking place.
Very Wide Shot VWS)
The very wide shot is much closer to the subject than an extreme wide shot, but
still much further away than a wide shot. The subject is just visible here, but the
emphasis is very much on placing her in her environment. This often works as an
establishing shot, in which the audience is shown the whole setting so they can
orient themselves.
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The VWS also a Wide Shot WS)
In the wide shot, the subject takes up the full frame. Obviously the subject doesn't
take up the whole width and height of the frame, since this is as close as we can get
without losing any part of her. The small amount of room above and below the
subject can be thought of as safety room — you don't want to be cutting the top of
the head off. It would also look uncomfortable if the feet and head were exactly at
the top and bottom of frame allows plenty of room for action to take place, or for
multiple subjects to appear on screen.
As with most shot types, the wide shot means different things to different people.
However the wide shot seems to suffer more from varying interpretations than
other types. Many people take the WS to mean something much wider than our
example, i.e. what we would call a very wide shot.
Mid Shot MS
The mid shot shows some part of the subject in more detail, whilst still showing
enough for the audience to feel as if they were looking at the whole subject. In fact,
this is an approximation of how you would see a person "in the flesh" if you were
having a casual conversation. You wouldn't be paying any attention to their lower
body, so that part of the picture is unnecessary.
The MS is appropriate when the subject is speaking without too much emotion or
intense concentration. It also works well when the intent is to deliver information,
which is why television news presenters frequently use it. You will often see a
story begin with a MS of the reporter providing information, followed by closer
shots of interview subjects providing reactions and emotion. As well as being a
comfortable, emotionally neutral shot, the mid shot allows room for hand gestures
and a bit of movement.
Medium Close Up MCU
The medium close up is half way between a mid shot and a close up. This shot
shows the face more clearly, without getting uncomfortably close.
Close-up CU
In the close up shot, a certain feature or part of the subject takes up most of the
frame. A close up of a person usually means a close up of their face unless
specified otherwise).
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Close-ups are obviously useful for showing details and can also be used as a cut-in.
a close-up of a person emphasizes their emotional state. Whereas a mid-shot or
wide-shot is more appropriate for delivering facts and general information, a close-
up exaggerates facial expressions which convey emotion. The viewer is drawn into
the subject’s personal space and shares their feelings.
Extreme Close Up ECU
The ECU gets right in and shows extreme detail. You would normally need a
specific reason to get this close. It is too close to show general reactions or emotion
except in very dramatic scenes.
Cutaway CA
A cutaway is a shot that's usually of something other than the current action. It
could be a different subject, a close up of a different part of the subject e.g. the
subject's hands, or just about anything else. The cutaway is used as a "buffer"
between shots to help the editing process, or to add interest/information.
Cut-In CI
Like a cutaway, but specifically refers to showing some part of the subject in
detail. Can be used purely as an edit point, or to emphasize emotion etc. For
example, hand movements can show enthusiasm, agitation, nervousness, etc.
Two Shot
There are a few variations on this one, but the basic idea is to have a comfortable
shot of two people. Often used in interviews, or when two presenters are hosting a
show.
A "One-Shot" could be a mid-shot of either of these subjects. A "Three-Shot",

unsurprisingly, contains three people.
Two-shots are good for establishing a relationship between subjects. If you see two
sports presenters standing side by side facing the camera, you get the idea that
these people are going to be the show's co-hosts. As they have equal prominence in
the frame, the implication is that they will provide equal input.
A two-shot could also involve movement or action. It is a good way to follow the
interaction between two people without getting distracted by their surroundings.
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Over the Shoulder Shot OSS
Looking from behind a person at the subject, cutting off the frame just behind the
ear. The person facing the subject should occupy about 1/3 of the frame. This shot
helps to establish the positions of each person, and get the feel of looking at one
person from the other's point of view. A variation of this shot can be a bit wider
and include the shoulder of the person facing the subject.
Noddy Shot
Common in interviews, this is a shot of the person listening and reacting to the
subject. In fact, when shooting interviews with one camera, the usual routine is to
shoot the subject using OSS and one-shots for the entire interview, and then
shoot some noddies of the interviewer once the interview is finished. The noddies
are edited into the interview later.
Point-of-View Shot POV
Shows a view from the subject's perspective. This shot is usually edited in such a
way that it is obvious whose POV it is.
Weather Shot
The subject is the fine day. The sky takes up at least 2/3 of the frame. This type of
shot is common in television programs where the weather is of particular interest,
e.g. Sports shows. Although the usual purpose of this shot is to show the weather,
it is also useful as an establishing shot, for setting the general mood or for
overlaying graphics.
CAMERA ANGLES
Camera angles and movements combine to create a sequence of images, just as

words, word order and punctuation combine to make the meaning of a sentence.
You need a straightforward set of key terms to describe them.
Describing Shots
When describing camera angles, or creating them yourself, you have to think about
three important factors
— The FRAMING or the LENGTH of shot

— The ANGLE of the shot
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— If there is any MOVEMENT involved

When describing different cinematic shots, different terms are used to indicate the
amount of subject matter contained within a frame, how far away the camera is
from the subject, and the perspective of the viewer. Each different shot has a
different purpose and effect. A change between two different shots is called a
CUT.
Framing or Shot Length
1. Extreme long shot
This can be taken from as much as a

quarter of a mile away, and is generally
used as a scene-setting, establishing shot.
It normally shows an EXTERIOR, e.g.
the outside of a building, or a landscape,
and is often used to show scenes of
thrilling action e.g. in a war film or
disaster movie. There will be very little detail visible in the shot, it's meant to give
a general impression rather than specific information.
2. Long Shot
This is the most difficult to categories
precisely, but is generally one which
shows the image as approximately "life"
size i.e. corresponding to the real
distance between the audience and the
screen in a cinema the figure of a man
would appear as six feet tall. This category includes the FULL SHOT showing the
entire human body, with the head near the top of the frame and the feet near the
bottom. While the focus is on characters, plenty of background detail still emerges:
we can tell the coffins on the right are in a Western-style setting, for instance.
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3. Medium Shot
Contains a figure from the knees/waist

up and is normally used for dialogue
scenes, or to show some detail of action.
Variations on this include the TWO
SHOT containing two figures from the
waist up and the THREE SHOT contains 3 figures.... NB. Any more than three
figures and the shot tend to become a long shot. Background detail is minimal,
probably because location has been established earlier in the scene - the audience
already knows where they are and now wants to focus on dialogue and character
interaction. Another variation in this category is the OVER-THE-SHOULDER-
SHOT, which positions the camera behind one figure, revealing the other figure,
and part of the first figure's back, head and shoulder.
4. Close-Up
This shows very little background, and
concentrates on either a face, or a
specific detail of mise en scène.
Everything else is just a blur in the
background. This shot magnifies the
object think of how big it looks on a
cinema screen and shows the importance of things, be it words written on paper,
or the expression on someone's face. The close-up takes us into the mind of a
character. In reality, we only let people that we really trust get THAT close to our
face - mothers, children and lovers, usually - so a close up of a face is a very
intimate shot. A film-maker may use this to make us feel extra comfortable or
extremely uncomfortable about a character, and usually uses a zoom lens in order
to get the required framing.
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5. Extreme Close-Up
As its name suggests, an extreme version
of the close up, generally magnifying
beyond what the human eye would
experience in reality. An extreme close-
up of a face, for instance, would show
only the mouth or eyes, with no
background detail whatsoever. This is a very artificial shot, and can be used for
dramatic effect. The tight focus required means that extra care must be taken when
setting up and lighting the shot - the slightest camera shake or error in focal length
is very noticeable.
The relationship between the camera and the object being photographed i.e. the
ANGLE gives emotional information to an audience, and guides their judgment
about the character or object in shot. The more extreme the angle i.e. the further
away it is from eye left, the more symbolic and heavily -loaded the shot.
1. The Bird's-Eye view

This shows a scene from directly overhead, a very unnatural and strange angle.
Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally not recognizable at first
umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs. This shot does, however, put the audience in
a godlike position, looking down on the action. People can be made to look
insignificant, ant-like, part of a wider
scheme of things.
A cameraman, raised above the action, gets a

high angle shot
2. High Angle
Not so extreme as a bird's eye view. The camera is elevated above the action using
a crane to give a general overview. High angles make the object photographed
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seem smaller, and less significant or scary. The object or character often gets
swallowed up by their setting - they become part of a wider picture.
3. Eye Level
A fairly neutral shot; the camera is positioned as though it is a human actually
observing a scene, so that eg actors' heads are on a level with the focus. The
camera will be placed approximately five to six feet from the ground.
4. Low Angle
These increase height useful for short actors like Tom Cruise or James McAvoy
and give a sense of speeded motion. Low angles help give a sense of confusion to a
viewer, of powerlessness within the action of a scene. The background of a low
angle shot will tend to be just sky or ceiling, the lack of detail about the setting
adding to the disorientation of the viewer. The added height of the object may
make it inspire fear and insecurity in the viewer, who is psychologically dominated
by the figure on the screen.
5. Oblique/Canted Angle
Sometimes the camera is tilted i.e. is not placed horizontal to floor level, to
suggest imbalance, transition and instability very popular in horror movies. This
technique is used to suggest POINT-OF-View shots i.e. when the camera becomes
the 'eyes' of one particular character, seeing what they see — a hand held camera is
often used for this.
1.2.1. CAMERA MOVEMENT
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A director may choose to move action along by telling the story as a series of cuts,
going from one shot to another, or they may decide to move the camera with the
action. Moving the camera often takes a great deal of time, and makes the action
seem slower, as it takes several second for a moving camera shot to be effective,
when the same information may be placed on screen in a series of fast cuts. Not
only must the style of movement be chosen, but the method of actually moving the
camera must be selected too.
There are seven basic methods:
1. Pans
A movement which scans a scene horizontally. The camera is placed on a tripod,
which operates as a stationary axis point as the camera is turned, often to follow a
moving object which is kept in the middle of the frame.
2. Tilts
A movement which scans a scene vertically, otherwise similar to a pan.
3. Dolly Shots
Sometimes called TRUCKING or TRACKING shots. The camera is placed on a
moving vehicle and moves alongside the action, generally following a moving
figure or object. Complicated dolly shots will involve a track being laid on set for
the camera to follow, hence the name. The camera might be mounted on a car, a
plane, or even a shopping trolley good method for independent film -makers
looking to save a few dollars. A dolly shot may be a good way of portraying
movement, the journey of a character for instance, or for moving from a long shot
to a close-up, gradually focusing the audience on a particular object or character.
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4. Hand-held shots
The hand-held movie camera first saw widespread use during World War II, when
news reporters took their windup Arriflexes and Eyemos into the heat of battle,
producing some of the most arresting footage of the twentieth century. After the
war, it took a while for commercially produced movies to catch up, and
documentary makers led the way, demanding the production of smaller, lighter
cameras that could be moved in and out of a scene with speed, producing a "fly-on-
the-wall" effect. This aesthetic took a while to catch on with mainstream
Hollywood, as it gives a jerky, ragged effect, totally at odds with the organized
smoothness of a dolly shot. The Steadicam a heavy contraption which is attached
a camera to an operator by a harness. The camera is stabilized so it moves
independently was debuted in Marathon Man 1976, bringing a new smoothness
to hand held camera movement and has been used to great effect in movies and TV
shows ever since. No "walk and talk" sequence would be complete without one.
Hand held cameras denote a certain kind of gritty realism, and they can make the
audience feel as though they are part of a scene, rather than viewing it from a
detached, frozen position.
5. Crane Shots
Basically, dolly-shots-in-the-air. A crane
or jib, is a large, heavy piece of
equipment, but is a useful way of moving
a camera - it can move up, down, left,
right, swooping in on action or moving
diagonally out of it. The camera operator
and camera are counter-balanced by a
heavy weight, and trust their safety to a
skilled crane/jib operator.
6. Zoom Lenses
A zoom lens contains a mechanism that changes the magnification of an image. On
a still camera, this means that the photographer can get a 'close up' shot while still
being some distance from the subject. A video zoom lens can change the position
of the audience, either very quickly a smash zoom or slowly , without moving the
camera an inch, thus saving a lot of time and trouble. The drawbacks to zoom use
include the fact that while a dolly shot involves a steady movement similar to the
focusing change in the human eye, the zoom lens tends to be jerky unle ss used
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very slowly and to distort an image, making objects appear closer together than
they really are. Zoom lenses are also drastically over-used by many directors
including those holding palmcorders, who try to give the impression of
movement and excitement in a scene where it does not exist. Use with caution -
and a tripod!
7. The Aerial Shot
An exciting variation of a crane shot, usually taken from a helicopter. This is often
used at the beginning of a film, in order to establish setting and movement. A
helicopter is like a particularly flexible sort of crane - it can go anywhere, keep up
with anything, move in and out of a scene, and convey real drama and exhilaration
— so long as you don't need to get too close to your actors or use location sound
with the shots.
Some basic camera movements
Mounted Camera Pan
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Mounting the camera on a tripod, simply move the camera horizontally from left to
right. Pan shots are used to show the viewer more of the scenery. This technique is
also often used to show views from high places, such as overlooks. Pan shots
should begin with a still shot, then pan, then finish with a still shot. You should
practice panning at various speeds until you find the speed that works best for you.
Mounted Camera Tilt

A tilt done with a mounted camera is quite simple. You just move the camera up or
down, without lowering or raising the position of the camera. This is just like
panning, only it is done vertically. This video camera technique is used to follow
the subject that you are photographing, or to show the viewer a large object from
top of bottom or from bottom to top. You should note that when you tilt from
bottom to top, the object looks larger or thicker. When you tilt from top to bottom,
the object looks smaller or thinner. As with panning, you should begin with a still
shot, tilt, then stop on a still shot. Again, practice this technique at various speeds
until you find what works for you.
Mounted Camera Pedestal

This video camera technique is pretty much the opposite of the tilt technique. You
do not tilt the camera, but you either raise or lower the position of the camera. This
technique is simply used to get the proper view that you are looking for. If you
wanted to shot pictures of a baby, you would want to lower the camera. If you
wanted to shot a tall person, you would raise the height of the camera. The purpose
would be to make it appear that the subject is 'eye to eye' with the viewer.
Moving Camera Dolly

This video camera movement technique involves the use of a camera dolly, like the
camera dolly's you might see on a movie set. You can make your own dolly with a
wheelchair, a scooter, a skateboard, a rolling cart, or many other devices that have
wheels. This video camera movement technique is used to follow your subject. The
use of a dolly opens up many possibilities, especially when used in conjunction
with other techniques. Remember that you will want to be able to roll backwards as
well as forward. Practice using this technique, and once you have it down, try
mixing it with other techniques.
Moving Camera Floating Stabilizer

Floating stabilizer devices are used to follow a subject around twists and turns. The
stabilizer is strapped to the photographer, and the camera is mounted to the
stabilizer with metal jointed which are controlled by gyroscopes. This video
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camera movement technique is a step up from the dolly technique. The movement
of a dolly is limited, floating stabilizer devices remove those limitations. As with
the dolly technique, you should learn the video camera movement fundamentals of
this technique, then try mixing it with other techniques to get different effects.
Moving Camera Boom

A camera boom is a smaller version of the cranes that are used for construction. A
camera boom is used to get a view of subjects or scenes from above. These are
commonly used in filming movies, and the boom moves up, down, and around.
Moving Camera Handheld

Using this technique, the photographer simply holds the video camera, and moves
wherever, and however, he needs to move to get the shot that he wants. When
using this technique, you should avoid using the zoom feature on your camera.
Zooming while using the handheld technique will make your shot appear to be
shaky. Instead of zooming, move closer to the object you are shooting.
Camera Lens Zoom

You can get many different effects when using the zoom feature on your camera.
This works well when combined with other video camera movement techniques.
You should practice zooming at different speeds, as different situations will call for
different speeds of zooming. Zooming can create many different illusions, which
can affect the viewers’ perception of size and distance. Alternately, zooming can
be used to more adequately portray the size or distance to a viewer. It is
recommended that you use a tripod when using the zoom technique.
Camera Lens Rack Focus

This is an interesting video camera movement technique, which can give your
shots more impact. This technique calls for focusing the camera on one object in a
close up shot, causing everything in the background to be out of focus, and then
causing the object itself to become out of focus while the background becomes in
focus. This is done by changing the focal length so that one object will go out of
focus while another comes into focus. The two objects must be at a correct distance
away from each other for this technique to work, and you will want to use a tripod
for this type of shot.
Learn how to use all of the features on your camera, and then combine the use of
those features with different movements to get the most out of your shots. Video
camera movement techniques can really spice up your home movies, and give
them the style and flair that you see in Hollywood movies!
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Three notes about shot movement:
1. A note about photographer responsibility - you owe it to your viewers not to

make them motion sick, unless, of course, that is your goal! Rapid pans, tilts,
repeated zooms can make a person feel woozy, and may also prevent them
from clearly seeing the video you collected.
2. The standard rule with moving shots is this: whenever possible, start your
sequence stationary on a subject, then pan/tilt/zoom/reverse zoom, then hold
stationary again. This helps enormously for editing purposes. For example, if
you want to move your camera from one end of a mountain range to another,
start focused on one side of the mountain range and hold that shot for three
seconds stationary position, then pan to the other side slowly enough so
the video won't be a blur), then stay focused on the other end of the
mountain range for three seconds stationary position. If you edit or cut
away in the middle of a pan/zoom/tilt/reverse zoom, you may make your
viewer disoriented.
3. In general, use shots with movement sparingly. Try to put a still shot no
pan, tilt, or zooming in between two pans/tilts/zooms. This gives the viewer
a moment to get their bearings.
Panning
Panning and tilting are performed with a camcorder resting on the head of a tripod.
Panning is moving the camera laterally. Two basic kinds of panning are the
following pan and the surveying pan.
In the following pan, the camera operator pans to follow a character, such as into
the scene or from one spot to another. The surveying pan looks for a character or
an object; for example, the character is already in a scene, and the camera pans to
meet him or her.
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1.2.2. Tilting
Tilting is often done simply as a matter of course, such as tilting down to follow an
action. However, you can also tilt to achieve a particular effect, such as tilting up
or down to denote height or depth.
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Dolly
Dollying refers to moving the camera forward or backward in a scene. Although, at

first glance, dollying may seem similar to zooming, the two are different in terms
of how and why you use them. You dolly by moving the camera, whereas you
zoom in and out by adjusting the lens.
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1.2.3. Truck
A truck is a lateral, sideways, travel shot, with the entire camera and tripod being
moved right or left. The truck shot differs from a pan in that the depth of field in a
truck shot is maintained as the whole unit, the tripod and camera - moves past the
objects.
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Arc
An Arc is a move that incorporates trucking and panning at the same time. The
camera moves out from the subject, simultaneously making a circular move, an
arc, while panning and, sometimes, tilting to keep the subject in frame. This
movement is used in musical and dramatic presentations.
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ZOOM
All camcorders are equipped with a zoom lens with a servo button marked T for
tight and W for wide). Zooming in and out changes the focal length and,
therefore the size of the image with varying speeds while the camera is stationary.
Be careful not to zoom too quickly on your subjects and use sparingly.
Zoom In Example
CAMERA USE
A camera whether it is video or still, digital or film, attached to a computer or a
phone - is basically a box designed for trapping light. It can be as simple as a
cardboard box with a pinhole punched in it or as elaborate as those on a space
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telescope. Whatever the design, its purpose is to record patterns of light and
shadow and colour, for future reference.
When you use a camera you are trapping images. There are many similarities
between the language used for hunting and the language of photography - shoot,
stalk, line-of-sight, capture, pin etc. A camera can be a very powerful weapon -
especially in war time. Is it a coincidence that Princess Diana named after the
goddess of hunting was chased to her death by paparazzi?
Selecting your shot

Subject
Always consider the purpose of a shot
before you start to set it up. Fair enough,
you've found your subject, but what do
you want to show about it/them? If your
subject is human - are they wearing the
right clothes? Are they in the right
mood? Are they doing the right thing in
the right place? If your subject is
inanimate, think about what it represents,
and whether you best communicate that
by showing part of it or all of it.
Background
Unless you are using a close up or plan
to crop your photograph very tightly you
need to consider the background of your
photograph. Does it match your subject -
think colours and textures? Does your subject show up against the background? If
there is a mismatch between the two is this for a very specific reason? Does the
background give additional information about the subject? What mise-en-
scène will be included in your image?
By carefully considering the relationship between background and subject you can
make your images much more powerful.
Light
Light creates your image - use it wisely. As a general rule, the light should be
behind you NOT behind your subject i.e. never stand your subject in front of a
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window. Remember that light has two purposes - to reveal and to create shadows,
which hide. Make sure that whatever you want to show is bathed in plenty of
bright light.
The time of day and the weather conditions when you are filming/photographing
will have an effect on your images. Whilst most digital cameras video and still
cope reasonably well in low lighting conditions your images will still turn out
rather dull. The most interesting times of day to capture an image are early
morning and late afternoon - the angle of sunlight creates some very interesting
shadows and the light if it is not too polluted has a soft quality. If you have a
choice, always try to photograph an outdoor subject at these times.
Also remember that artificial i.e. indoor) light will give your pictures an oran ge
cast unless you take steps to correct it. Your camera may have an indoor or
incandescent bulb setting that will do this for you.
Getting the Perfect Shot
Looking through the lens

Pointing your camera and looking through the lens is just the beginning of the
process. You will need to consider carefully the angle that you choose, as well as
selecting what will and what will not be in your image. One of the most underused
pieces of photography equipment is feet - try moving around and seeing what
effect a different perspective has on your image - take pictures from different
angles.
Composition
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The composition of an image is simply what it is made up of. An image will

display a series of objects or people, and when referring to its composition we look
at their arrangement within the picture. Often we infer meaning through objects'
relationships with each other. Is one depicted as larger? More central? Better lit?
How much space is there separating the objects?
Images are usually composed around the 'rule of thirds'.
 Clear Introduction to Rule of Thirds in photography
 Positive and Negative Space - an artist writes
Apart from arranging objects within the picture, another decision that is made in
composition is focus, or depth of field. This dictates the depth into the picture in
which objects are in clear focus. You may beside to blur out the background, in
order to place more emphasis on central or foreground objects. Or you may decide
to have everything in your picture in equal focus, for instance in a landscape shot,
or a group photo.
Framing
Framing — deciding where an image begins and ends — is as vital to the meaning
of an image as composition. There are a whole variety of camera angles which can
be selected to frame a shot see left button bar), and often what is left out is as
important as what is included. What is beyond the picture, for instance, what a
model could be looking at, is the source of much ambiguity and enigma. We infer
meaning from the relationship between the camera and subject a close up is
intimate, a long shot implies emotional distance or major status difference).
By framing two objects together in the same image, we imply a connection
between them, especially if there is a physical link, perhaps through a graphic or
colour, between them. By isolating an object within the frame - for instance
showing a swimmer against an expanse of nothing but sea - we can make it seem
insignificant and lonely.
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Compare these two pictures, taken from exactly the same angle within a second or
so of each other.
The angle hasn't changed but the framing is very different.
A zoom lens has been used so that the Needle on the right is framed by the
buildings lower down, and the clouds around it, giving a sense of context. We can
tell it's a very tall building, whereas the first shot compresses the height and makes
the top seem closer to the photographer.
Stability
For best results with video, or using a still camera in low light, you should use a
tripod where possible. Even when using a still camera, you should endeavor to be
as balanced and motionless as possible. Take a deep breath and hold your breath -
keep your arms close by your sides.
Remember, people take pictures, not cameras. Your equipment is only a tool -
some of the best images are captured by disposable cameras which happened to be
in the right place at the right time. Get shooting!
1.3. LENSES: THE BASICS
Apart from protecting it from the elements and occasionally cleaning it, the
average person doesn't think too much about a camera's lens.
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However, variables associated with camera lenses have a major effect on how a
viewer sees subject matter. The cameraperson who understands this commands a
significant amount of creative power.
To start our investigation of this "power," let's look at some basic information
about lenses starting with the most basic of all lens attributes: focal length.
The focal length of a lens affects the appearance of subject matter in several ways.
Lens Focal Length
We define focal length as the distance from the optical center of the lens to the
focal plane target or "chip" of the video camera when the lens is focused at
infinity.
We consider any object in the far distance to be at infinity. On a camera lens the
symbol "∞” indicates infinity.
Since the lens-to-target distance for most lenses increases when we focus the lens
on anything closer than infinity, we specify infinity as the standard for focal length
measurement.
Focal length is generally measured in millimeters. In the case of lenses with fixed
focal lengths, we can talk about a 10mm lens, a 20mm lens, a 100mm lens, etc. As
we will see, this designation tells a lot about how the lens will reproduce subject
matter.
1.3.1. Zoom and Prime Lenses
Zoom lenses came into common use in the early 1960s. Before then, TV cameras
used lenses of different focal lengths mounted on a turret on the front of the
camera, as shown on the right. The cameraperson rotated each lens into position
and focused it when the camera was not on the air.
Today, most video cameras use zoom lenses. Unlike the four lenses shown here,
which operate at only one focal length, the effective focal length of a zoom lens
can be continuously varied, taking it from a wide-angle to a telephoto perspective.
To make this possible, zoom lenses use numerous glass elements, each of which
are precisely ground, polished, and positioned and can be repositioned to change
the magnification of the lens.
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As the lens is zoomed, groups of these lens elements must move independently at
precise speeds. With prime lenses, the focal length of the lens cannot be varied. It
might seem that we would be taking a step backwards to use a prime lens or a lens
that operates at only one focal length.
Not necessarily. Some professional videographers and directors of photography

especially those who have their roots in film feel prime lenses are more predictable
in their results. Prime lenses also come in more specialized forms, for example,
super wide angle, super telephoto, and super fast sensitive to light. Even so, for
normal work, zoom lenses are much easier and faster to use. The latest of HDTV
zoom lenses are extremely sharp, almost as sharp as the best prime lenses.
Angle of View
Angle of view is directly associated with lens focal length. The longer the focal
length in millimeters, the narrower the angle of view in degrees.
You can see this relationship by studying the drawing on the left showing angles of
view for different prime lenses.
A telephoto lens or a zoom lens operating at maximum focal length has a narrow
angle of view. Although no exact definition for a "telephoto" lens exists, we would
consider the angles at the top of the drawing from about 5 to 10 degrees in the
telephoto range.
The bottom of the drawing from about 45 to 90 degrees represents the wide -angle
range for this lens.
The normal angle of view range lies between telephoto and wide angle.
When you double the focal length of a lens, you double the size of an image on the
target; and, as you would assume, the reverse is also true.
Put another way, with the camera in the same position, a short focal lens creates a
wide view and a long focal length creates an enlarged image in the camera. Note
the two images below.
Another concern in using different focal length lenses at different distances is the
relative amount of background area you'll include in the picture.
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The drawing below shows the major differences for telephoto, normal, and wide-
angle lenses in this case 70mm, 20mm, 10mm, and 5mm lenses. Although the
subject remains in the same place, note the differences in the background area
covered with each lens focal length.
A Zoom vs. a Dolly
Another way to alter what the camera sees is to move dolly the camera toward or
away from a subject. Although it might seem this would produce the same effect as
zooming the lens in and out, that's not quite true.
When you zoom, you optically enlarge smaller and smaller parts of the picture to
fill the screen. When you dolly a camera you physically move the entire camera
toward or away from subject matter. The latter is similar to how you would see the
central and surrounding subject matter if you were to walk toward or away from it.
Some directors, especially in motion pictures, prefer the more natural effect of a
dolly, even though it's much harder to achieve smoothly.
ZOOM RATIO
Zoom ratio is used to define the focal length range for a zoom lens. If the
maximum range through which a particular lens can be zoomed is 10mm to
100mm, it's said to have a 10:1 ten -to-one) zoom ratio 10 times the minimum
focal length of 10mm equals 100mm.
That may be fine, but with this designation, you still don't know what the minimum
and maximum focal lengths are. A 10:1 zoom lens could have a 10 to 100mm, or a
100 to 1,000mm lens, and the difference would be quite dramatic.
To solve this problem, we refer to the first zoom lens as a 10 X 10 ten -by-ten and
the second as a 100 X 10. The first number represents the minimum focal length
and the second number the multiplier. So a 12 X 20 zoom lens has a minimum
focal length of 12mm and a maximum focal length of 240mm.
The zoom lenses on most handheld field cameras have ratios in the range of 10:1 to
30:1. The photos below show the effect of zooming from a wide-angle position to a
telephoto view with a 30:1 zoom lens.
Although one manufacturer makes a zoom lens with a 200:1 zoom ratio, the ratio
used for network sports is generally 70:1 or less. A camera with a 70:1 zoom lens
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could zoom out and get a wide-shot of a football field during a game and then
zoom in to fill the screen with a football sitting in the middle of the field.
Motorized Zoom Lenses
Originally, the cameraperson manually controlled the zoom lens by push rods and
hand cranks. Today built-in, variable-speed electric motors do a much smoother
and more controlled job. We refer to these electric zooms as servo-controlled
zooms.
Although servo-controlled lenses can provide a smooth zoom at varying speeds,

directors often prefer manually controlled zoom lenses for sports coverage,
because the camera operator can adjust them much faster between shots. This can
make the difference between getting to a new shot in time to see the critical action
and missing it.
Although most videographers work within the limits of the lens supplied with their
cameras, it's possible to modify the focal length of most lenses both zoom and
prime lenses by using a positive or negativ e supplementary lens. Supplementary
lenses can increase or decrease the basic focal length and coverage area of lenses.
Thus far, we've assumed that varying the focal length of a lens simply affects how
close the subject matter seems to be from the camera. That's true, but we will see in
the next section that focal length also affects the subject matter in a number of
other important and even dramatic ways.
UNIT 2. LIGHTING
Lighting can emphasize important details or hide them. It can flatter a subject by
bringing out positive attributes, and it can de-emphasize or hide less attractive
attributes. Lighting can even impart a sinister and hostile look. It all depends on
how you choose to use the concepts.
Television is based on the medium of light; in fact, without light there could be no
video. Just as sound must be skillfully controlled in audio production, light must be
expertly controlled in television.
As video — especially HDTV — has begun to emulate the more artistic

dimensions of film, there has been a greater emphasis on creative lighting. But,
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before you can successfully control light, you need to understand and control its
three basic characteristics:
 coherence quality
 color temperature
 intensity
2.1. Lights: Hard Light

Light that is transmitted directly from a small point source results in relatively
coherent parallel rays. This gives the light a hard, crisp, sharply defined
appearance. The light from a clear, unfrosted light bulb, a focused spotlight, or the
noonday sun in a clear sky, all represent hard light sources.
Hard light casts a sharp, clearly defined shadow. When hard light is used to
illuminate a face, imperfections in the skin stand out. The result is less than
flattering. Several types of lighting instruments are used in TV to create hard light,
including the beam-spot projector and the ellipsoidal spotlight.
Soft Light
Soft diffused light has the opposite effect . Soft light sources are used in
production to create a broad, even area of light. In the field, videographers often
rely on umbrella reflectors to create a soft lighting effect. This is simply a light
bounced off the inside of a silver or white, umbrella-like reflector.
Because soft light tends to hide lines, wrinkles and blemishes, it's desirable in
doing glamour work. A soft light source placed close to the camera minimizes
surface detail. The effect is commonly referred to as flat lighting.
Although it has certain applications, especially in extreme close-ups of objects

where shadows would obscure important details, flat lighting leaves subject matter
somewhat "dimensionless." When used over a large area, it can impart an arid and
sterile-looking appearance.
Lighting: Ultra-Soft Lighting

There are a few occasions when ultra-soft lighting is necessary to keep video
equipment from exceeding its brightness or contrast range limitations and as a
result compressing losing important detail.
2.2. Basics of Lighting: Studio Lighting

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Studio lighting can be broken down into two categories, continuous and flash.
While continuous lighting has two main advantages there are many disadvantages.
The good points of continuous light:
 It's inexpensive, and makes a good starting point for anyone on a small
budget.
 You can see what the light is doing and where the shadows and highlights
are.
The main disadvantages of continuous light:
 It generally produces more heat than light, very uncomfortable!

 The light that it produces is not balanced to daylight.
What does this mean in practical terms? The heat produced by a continuous light
can make you and your subject very hot and bothered, but because of the very
bright light it will also have the effect of closing down the iris in your model's
eyes, which it is generally accepted, doesn't make a good portrait.
We have all taken photos in artificial light and ended up with yellow pictures! To
your eyes, the light from a tungsten bulb looks white, but it isn't. Colour
temperature the colour of the light is measured in degrees Kelvin, daylight is
around 5,600K and a tungsten bulb is more like 3,200K and therefore records on
daylight balanced film as yellow.
This can be overcome in three ways: Firstly, you can use tungsten balanced colour
film. Secondly, you can put a filter on your lens, which will enable you to use any
daylight film.
The big problem with these two solutions is that as the tungsten filament in the
bulb burns it leaves a small residue on the inside of the glass envelope. This means
that the colour of the light gradually becomes more yellow as the bulb ages.
This brings us to flash. With a normal on-camera flashgun there is no way of

knowing what the lighting effect will be, except to say that if you are using it fitted
on the camera - it will be pretty awful! The advantages of studio flash are -
modelling lamp, consistency, power and control.
Modelling Lamp
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Studio flash units are fitted with a continuous lamp, which can be seen on this
photograph sitting in the centre of the circular flash tube. Because of its position it
gives a very accurate indication of the angle and quality that the flash will produce
when fired. This makes your lighting easy to set-up, because what-you-see-is-
what-you-get'.
As this lamp is relatively low powered you don't get the heat or brightness problem
we talked about with continuous light. The only thing to remember is that the flash
will be a much stronger light, so the shadows will be darker and the highlights will
be lighter. To trick your eye/brain built-in compensation device when setting up
lighting, first close one eye a camera only has one) then squint through your
lashes. This has the effect of increasing the contrast level you can see and is much
more like what the camera will record.
Consistency
Remember how we said that as tungsten bulb burnt it got more and more yellow?
Well with flash every time you press the shutter the colour of the light from the
flashtube is balanced to daylight.
Power
Modern flash units give huge amounts of power, released in a fraction of a second
typically with a unit such as an Elinchrom this is around 1/2500th second!). For
most home users a unit with a power of 250, 300, 500 or 600 watt/seconds is
usually sufficient. Watt/seconds or Joules the same thing is the measure of the
power that a flash unit can produce. So if your 600w/s unit was set up two metres
from your subject and you were getting a flashmeter reading of f/16, then a 300w/s
unit in the same place would give a stop less at f/11.
2.3. Videography and Photography Lighting - Direction

You can convey a wide variety of tones and moods just by altering a video or
photo's lighting direction. Learn how to control and improve your work and see
how big of a difference lighting direction makes.
One of the most important factors in determining the mood of your photos or
videos is the direction from which the light comes. You can light a subject from
any direction, from above, from the side, from behind and from below.
Usually light comes from a combination of sources in varying intensity. For

clarity, this video will demonstrate the effects of the different lighting directions
individually.
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: Lighting set-up
1. Frontal light. Frontal light is often considered Beauty light. It is the scheme that
is most commonly used in magazine covers, for example. In portraiture, frontal
light emphasizes central features of your face, eyes nose and mouth, and can make
the subjects face appear thinner. A good way to create beauty light on a subject is
to have a light directly from the direction of the cameras lens.
2. Side light. Side light is the most versatile direction and can be used to create a
variety of looks. In side light, the height of the light is also very important.
While a light above the subject’s eye level will accentuate shadows in the eye
sockets and under the nose and chin, a light below the subjects chin level will light
up its eyes and accentuate the volume of features such as nose and jaw.
3. Lighting from above. Light from above is very common in life. The sun lights
us from above, as do interior fluorescents and ceiling lighting fixtures. This type of
light can create shadows in the eye sockets if the source is too close to the subjects
face. An overhead light, placed relatively far from the subject will give a good
amount of light to its eyes and help define features in the way we are used to
seeing them in everyday situations.
4. Light from below is a stylized choice. Often used in horror and suspense films
for it eerie effect. You can achieve this setup by placing your source under the
level of your subject’s shoulders. For better results with this setup, place your light
close to the subject, as its dramatic tone usually calls for strong shadows.
5. Backlight. A Light source coming from directly behind a subject results in

silhouette. Light coming from behind and above is a good complement in portrait
photography. In order to get your subject silhouetted make sure your exposure is
set for the light, not the subject.
Lighting Direction
Creating a well-lit image requires that you make several choices according to what
you want to achieve. When you light a portrait or a scene you must decide ahead of
time the effect you want it to have on a viewer. By knowing the effect of each light
direction you can choose the combination that best suits your goal.
Lighting Rules
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Lighting in a nutshell: first you get these itsy bitsy lighting instruments and place
them. Seriously, lighting a nutshell follows the same rules as lighting an elephant.
Those rules are:

1. Get enough light on the scene so that your camera can "see".
2. Position your lights to create shadows, which will, in turn, create the illusion
of depth and texture on a smooth flat TV screen.
3. Maintain consistent color temperature unless you are using color for
dramatic effect.
Enough light –
The most recent color TV cameras can produce a remarkably good image in just a
couple foot candles of light, the amount you might find in a typical living room.
This does not mean, however, that the camera makes a good picture at that low
level. When the camera chips are gasping for photons, the amplifier circuits crank
way up to yield a picture that is grainy and has poor color rendition. It's a lot
like turning up the volume on your radio to hear a distant station; you increase hiss,
noise, and interference from other stations. Most TV cameras today, even if they
are rated for 1.5 lux minimum sensitivity, require nearly 120 lux, to generate a
clean, clear, normally amplified the +18 dB boost circuits are not engaged
picture. Even at 120 lux, the camera lens has to be open all the way around f/2
yielding a diminished depth-of-field and perhaps fuzzy corners in the picture due
to lens aberrations. Most TV cameras today are rated at 2000 lux with the lenses
set at f/8 yielding excellent depth-of-field. Two thousand lux is the brightness you
find in a TV studio or outdoors on a lightly cloudy day.
If you are racing around with an ENG camera, your only hope is to place your
subject under some existing light and maybe enhance the brightness a little with
the onboard camera light. It is surprising how much brightness you get from a 25
watt onboard light when you’re illuminating a newsperson only 5 feet away. This
type of light isn't beautiful, but at least it makes a picture.
Blinded by the light-
Normally you want light to be behind you the camera), not shining into the
camera lens from behind the subject. Perhaps you've already seen what happens
when your camera follows a person walking indoors across an open door or
window flooded with daylight.
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Everything in the scene goes dark except what's outdoors leaving your subject in
silhouette. Possible solutions: Lock your camera's auto gain and auto iris circuits
on manual so that the window gets overexposed while your interior shot remains
unchanged. This still doesn't make a pretty shot. Covering the window glass with a
neutral density gel a sheet of tinted plastic -like material may help, but the
technique doesn't work on open doors, and requires you to carry around huge rolls
of gel material. Another solution is to pour lots of interior light onto the subject,
equal in brightness and color temperature to the outdoor light.
You'll come across dozens of situations where a desk lamp in a scene silhouettes
your performer, or too much sky in an outdoor shot darkens the desert roadway, or
your performer is forced to stand with the sun to his/her back i.e. the talent is
standing at the edge of a canyon and the only way to have the canyon as a
backdrop is to shoot into the sun.
No problem --- In the case of the desk lamp, just insert a low wattage bulb to
tone down the brightness. Gel the bulb to the right color temperature if necessary.
If the sky is too bright in your outdoor scene, either tilt your camera down to
reduce the percentage of sky in the shot, or employ a graduated filter on your lens
to darken the top part of the picture. As for the sun to your talent's back, set up a
few reflectors to bounce the light into the talent's face. Now the sunlight becomes a
back light adding dimension to the scene. This shot, in fact, is often preferred over
the sun-in-the-face shot because the uncontrolled sun tends to make the talent
squint; the more controlled reflected light can be positioned to yield desired
shadows without the squints.
Me and my shadow-
If you've just arrived from Mars, you've probably noticed that TV screens are
nearly flat. Engaging imagery is three-dimensional. Somehow you have to create
the illusion of texture and dimension in your picture to keep it interesting. You do
this with light and shadow. The basic rules of 3- and 4-point lighting haven't
changed since, here they are:
If you have only one light 1 -point lighting, place it to one side and above the
camera aiming at the subject. If the light is too close to the camera, your subject
will appear featureless no shadows. If the light gets too low, the subject will look
spooky or ominous. Campfires and candlelight are the only illumination that
normally comes from below. We are accustomed to light coming from above, from
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ceilings and the sun. Light from above and to the side of the camera will create a
shadow under the chin and along one side of a face, giving it dimension.
One light alone does not do a great job. It is often so harsh that it creates super
black shadows, which exceed the contrast capability of the camera. You may
diminish these shadows by bouncing your light off a white surface such as a wall
or ceiling behind and above you, or by using a light with a large reflector, or one
covered with specular dimpled glass, or with a fine screen called a scrim,
or a white fiberglass sheet. All of these will weaken the light and soften the
shadows. On faces, soft shadows are more flattering than
hard shadows.
Two-point lighting adds much more flexibility and I feel it is the minimum number
of lights that you need to do a creditable lighting job. The first light, called the key
light, creates the basic illumination for the scene; you might think of it as the sun.
Place the lamp to one side of the camera and above it. How far you place the light
from the camera is a matter of taste. The farther you move the light from the
camera, the more pronounced the shadows will be, making your subject more
dimensional, but you don't want to overdo it. You might place the lamp at an angle
of 20 degrees to 45 degrees to one side and 30 degrees to 45 degrees above the
subject. When working with a single light, you keep it closer to the camera to
downplay the shadows. When you have two lights, the second light
takes over the job of downplaying the shadows. A naked key li ght may be too
harsh for video portraiture: every zit and wrinkle will show. Soften it with a scrim.
47
48
The second light, the fill light fills in the shadows you just made. This light is
generally placed 20 degrees to 45 degrees to the side and 30 degrees to 45 degrees
above the camera-to-subject-axis just like the key light but on the opposite side of
the camera from the key light. The fill light is generally softer, not making strong
shadows of its own, but mitigating the shadows made by the key light.
The fill light generally has a larger reflector and scrim to weaken the light and
soften its effect. The fill light shouldn't be as strong as the key light; you don't want
to erase the shadows, just diminish them to the point where they add subtle
dimensionality. The fill light may be half the wattage of the key light or be placed
farther from the subject, weakening the light, or be gelled or scrimmed to weaken
the light. The fill light may often be dimmed up to 20% without ruining your color
temperature.
Three-point lighting adds a third light, a back or modeling light that sets the subject
off from its background. The backlight, which is a hard, focused light, positioned
45 degrees to 75 degrees up from horizontal behind the subject, places a rim of
brightness around heads and shoulders. Position the light far enough out of the
scene so that it doesn't shine into your camera lens. Make the light bright enough to
do the job without being obvious.
Even the experts don't trust their eyes when lighting, and view the camera's image
through a TV monitor when adjusting the brightness of the lights. Although the
process can be done with light meters and calculations, it is quick and easy to
observe the TV screen and use common sense and your innate aesthetic prowess
when adjusting lights. Be careful not to aim the light directly down on your talent.
This would create a halo across the top of a person's head and illuminate their nose.
As the person's head moved, their nose would dip into and out of the light blinking
on and off like Rudolph, the White-Nosed Reindeer.
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Three-point lighting will get you through most situations. Most small studios and
office shots don't have room for a backdrop to be placed far from the talent. This
means the background gets illuminated by the spillage from the key and fill lights,
and you cannot do much about it. In larger areas, the backdrop or set may be far
enough from the talent to become dark. It is appropriate for the background to be
darker than the foreground; after all, you want the foreground to be the center of
attention. If the background becomes too dark, you need to add a fourth light thus
the term 4-point lighting, which is called the set light. This fixture can be
positioned overhead or near the floor or anywhere out of sight of the camera,
aimed at the set. If the set is small, nearly any light will do the job. If the
background is a tall curtain that must be illuminated evenly, special fixtures with
semi-parabolic reflectors are used. When aimed towards the set from above, the
fixture will beam most of its light towards the bottom of the set, which is farther
away, and beam a smaller amount of light at the top of the set, which is nearby.
This keeps the nearby part of the set from becoming overly bright.
Color temperature –
Lights come in different colors as we all know, but white light can have subtle
color differences that are not obvious to the naked eye. This explains why we can
buy a blue suit in a store and wears it outside only to find it's sort of brown. The
store lights make the colors look different than the outdoor light. The amount of
redness or blueness found in white light is called color temperature and is
measured in degrees Kelvin. A Kelvin degree is about 273 degrees higher than the
same temperature measured on the centigrade scale. Physicists derive color
temperature by heating a very black object hotter and hotter. As the temperature
rises, the color changes. At first the object would glow red at 500 degrees K, then
orange at 2000 degrees and white hot at 3500 degrees K. Applying more heat, the
body would glow bluish-white at 6000 degrees through 10,000 degrees. Above
10,000 degrees, the color gets no bluer. Probably the instrument melts at that point
setting off smoke detectors all over the physics laboratory.
Thanks to physicist Max Planck, who first described this phenomenon and the
patience of his local fire department, the subtle coloration of white light can be
described by its color temperature. Incandescent light in a home, as well as outdoor
light in the early morning or around sunset, is about 2000 degrees K. Early or late
daylight or the light from professional quartz studio bulbs is about 3200 degrees K,
slightly less red than home light bulbs. Mid-day light is about 5500 degrees K as is
HMI Halogen Metal Iodide) lights.
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This light is bluer and looks "colder" than 3200 degrees K studio lights. Daylight
on a hazy or foggy day could be as high as 7000 degrees K. Fluorescent lamps
maybe around 3500 degrees to 6000 degrees K but have strong amounts of green
and may be missing other colors entirely making them hard to describe on the
color temperature scale. Professional fluorescent lamps are made which
approximate a 3200 degree color temperature.
When setting up your camera you can adjust your color temperature filters and
white balance the camera for tungsten, halogen, fluorescent, or outdoors light and
get a good image. A problem arises when you have two different colored lights in
the same scene. If, for instance, you illuminated a face with a fluorescent
light on one side and incandescent light from the other, the fluorescent cheek will
look greenish-blue and the incandescent cheek would look reddish. By adjusting
your camera you could make one side of the face look fine, but the other side
would be ready for trick-or-treat.
Dimming an incandescent light cools it and makes it redder just like the physics
experiment. You may get away with 10 to 20% dimming before the color shift
becomes noticeable, but beyond that you create a color temperature problem,
especially if the light coming from the opposite side of someone's face is running
undimmed the full 3200 degrees K. If you have to dim, say, your fill light more
than 20%, it may be time to relamp the fill fixture with a lower wattage bulb or add
a scrim or neutral density gel, then run the lamp undimmed. The color temperature
of light can be changed by placing a colored filter, called a gel short for gelatin,
from which it is made) into the lighting fixture.
Blue filters seriously reduce the amount of light that comes from a lamp,
sometimes making it necessary to use more lights and more power. Once solution
to this problem is to avoid electric lamps altogether and using a simple reflector,
bounce the existing sunlight onto the dark side of the face. A white sheet or a white
foam core board would bounce a soft reflected light. The light may be so soft that
the reflector will need to be near the subject. Placing wrinkled tin foil over the
foamcore multiplies its reflectivity, allowing the reflector to be used from farther
away from the talent. The foil reflector, however, would make a much focused
beam that may be a little hard on your talent's eyes.
A third solution to the above dilemma: HMI lights. HMI lights are color balanced
to 5400 degrees K and are perfect companions for sunlight. A fourth solution is to
use professional fluorescent lights. They come in banks of 2-6 and their bulbs are
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manufactured to produce a certain color temperature. Most are dimmable,

usually from 60% to 150% without changing color temperature.
Kinds of lights –
TV studios typically use tungsten halogen lamps in big clumsy fixtures with
clamps to hang them from the ceiling grid. Key lights are usually focusable which
means the bulb can be moved closer or farther from the reflector or a front lens
spreading the light into a wide flood or a narrow spot. Fill lights are usually large,
with scoop-like reflectors. To soften the light, sometimes several are used side by
side. Professional soft lights have the lamps inside a big white box that reflects the
light smoothly over a larger surface. Fiberglass or steel mesh scrims can be slid in
front of lights to soften their beams. Colored gels can be slid into the same slots to
change the color of the lights. Hinged flaps called barn doors, affixed to the front
of the instrument allow the beam to be aimed and shielded from certain areas of the
stage. A backlight, for instance, would have the top barn door turned down like a
visor so that light would strike the subject but would be shielded from the camera.
HMI lights are a favorite for outdoor portable shooting because they make a large
amount of usable light with minimal power. For instance, because of its outdoor-
compatible color temperature and high efficiency, a 1200-watt HMI light produces
just about as much light as a 10 kilowatt tungsten lamp after the tungsten light
passes through the blue gel. HMI lights are less likely to overburden office or
home electrical outlets, and because of their efficiency they don't turn offices and
homes into ovens or stress a smaller building's air conditioner.HMI lights have two
disadvantages. First, they are more expensive. Second, the instruments don't
plug directly into a wall outlet. Instead, they plug into large and heavy ballast, a
transformer that powers the light.
Rules for using Lights
No basic article TV lights would be complete without warnings about how to

handle them. Never move a lamp while it is lit. The hot filament is almost gaseous,
making it very delicate. If you bump the lamp, the filament may break apart and
the light will go out. When your light does go out, turn off the fixture's power
unplugging it is even safer), and let it sit while you search for a replacement bulb.
Bulbs and fixtures get hot and you will fricassee your fingertips if you go fishing
for the bulb too soon. A glove might be helpful here.
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BSCMCAJ-401: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound
The replacement bulb's glass should never be touched with your fingers. Small
amounts of oil from your fingertips will decrystallize the glass when it heats up,
causing it to crack. Instead, transport the bulb by its packing, and slip it into its
socket without touching the glass with your fingers. Once the fixture is relamped,
you can plug it in and turn it on.
Don't unplug or plug in fixtures while they are turned on. Lusty sparks will jump
from the plugs as you make or break an active circuit. Turn off the studio dimmer
for the light or throw the light switch before disconnecting it.
If using extension cords, remember that lights use a lot of power. Check the
temperature of your extension cords near their plugs from time to time; don't wait
until you smell smoke. Also, don't turn all of your lights on at the same time; the
power surge may trip your circuit breaker. Office and school electrical outlets are
often good for 30 amps 3600 watts and older homes may be good for only half
that much. Heavy-duty extension cords are generally rated at 15 amps which
translate to 1800 watts of power. You'll be overworking your extension cord if you
try to run two 1000-watt lights from it.
Lastly, Murphy's 44th Law of Lighting states that lighting systems will work
during rehearsal but will fail during the show. The likelihood of failure increases
with the importance of the show. Therefore, don't operate lights at the limit of your
power capacity. Also consider that VCRs, cameras, and computers consume power
and do not perform well on a starvation diet. You may be able to light the scene,
but the rest of your gadgets will become under voltage valetudinarians.
2.4. Filters
A filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical

filter that can be inserted in the optical path. The filter
can be a square or rectangle shape mounted in a holder
accessory or, more commonly, a glass or plastic disk
with a metal or plastic ring frame, which can be
screwed in front of the lens.
Filters allow added control for the photographer of the

images being produced. Sometimes they are used to
make only subtle changes to images; other times the
image would simply not be possible without them.
53 Y
The negative aspects of using filters, though often negligible, include the
possibility of loss of image definition if using dirty or scratched filters, and
increased exposure required by the reduction in light transmitted. The former is
best avoided by careful use and maintenance of filters, while the latter is a matter
of technique; it usually will not be a problem if planned out properly, but in some
situations does make filter use impractical.
Since all kinds of digital effects are available in the edit bay, glass lens filters
might seem old fashioned. Who needs a star filter when you can just dial one in?
True, but digital magic takes time, skill and often the budget for plug-in programs.
Sometimes it's quicker and simpler to create effects right in the camera with lens
filters. And sometimes it even looks better than the electronic equivalent.
The most common lens filters are used to control five aspects of video: brightness,
color, light quality, focus and resolution.
Polarizers
Let's start with polarizers - filters so versatile that they straddle three out of five of
these areas: brightness, color and light quality. A polarizer is made of two rings:
the back one screw onto the front of the lens, but the front one rotates freely. A
polarizer reduces overall brightness by about 1.5 aperture f - stops for instance,
from f16 to f9.5. A polarizer can also change colors somewhat, especially
darkening blue skies or water, for dramatic effect.
Finally, a polarizer can alter light quality by suppressing reflections on glass and
water and by reducing specular highlights, which are small, bright reflections from
water, shiny metal or glass.
Brightness Control
Neutral density filters limit the amount of light entering the lens, allowing
camcorder's aperture to open by one or more f-stops. For example, an ND3 opens
one stop and an ND6 two stops. Opening the aperture reduces depth of field,
throwing backgrounds out of focus for portraits, flower close-ups and similar
shots.
When parts of an image are just too bright for even your smallest f-stop, they flare
out to blank, ugly white. In this case, a neutral density filter may not widen the
aperture, but it will reduce the overall light enough to prevent this unpleasant
54
effect. This can be a common occurrence where the sky is visible in a shot on a
sunny day. For even better control, a graduated neutral density filter starts clear at
one side and darkens progressively. By positioning it with the dark side up, you
can control over-bright skies in scenic shots.
Color Control
Overall color tints are easy to add and fine-tune in post production, so you might
not need actual glass in the field. Still, graduated color filters can create some
great effects. A graduated colored filter can turn a noon sky into a sunset, without
giving foreground subjects sudden sunburn. A graduated blue or green filter with
the color on the bottom can jazz up dull lake or ocean water colors.
Light Quality Control
We said that a polarizer can reduce sparkles off water, glass, or bright metal - but
what if you want to enhance them? Star filters and similar filters are great for gee-
whiz treatments of lights.
Focus Control
Camcorders focus so closely that close-up lenses diopters are rarely needed. But
what if you need to shoot one subject six inches away and another other 100 feet
away while keeping both of them sharp? The answer is a split-field diopter. This
sneaky device will focus one half of your lens very close, even though the focus
setting on the camcorder is distant or even at infinity.
Resolution Control
A diffusion filter can reduce the natural resolution of your lens, to create smoke,
fog or steam effects. Experiment with multiple thicknesses until you get the effect
you want. Another trick can be to smear petroleum jelly around the edge of an
inexpensive clear-glass lens not on your camera's lens!) for a romantic soft -focus
look on your leading lady. Diffusion can also be used to soften wrinkles and
blemishes in portrait shots. Be careful, however, when intercutting close-ups when
only one is diffused. The change in sharpness from shot to shot will give the trick
away.
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Reflectors
Reflectors are so versatile, useful and simple that professional videographers

deploy them even in high-rent productions. Advanced amateurs may know how to
use reflectors for outdoor fill light, but that's only their most obvious application.
So let's conduct a quick flyover of professional reflector techniques, both outdoors
and in.
First, let’s take a quick taxonomy of reflector species. Reflectors are either rigid or
flexible. Rigid reflectors may be faced in order, from brightest to softest with
shiny aluminum, matte aluminum, wrinkled aluminum or white paper. Paper-faced
reflectors are usually foamcore: rigid Styrofoam sandwiched between paper
surfaces and available at any art or craft store. Flexible reflectors are usually cloth
spread across thin metal hoops that can be folded for storage. Fabrics may be
metallic for greater reflectivity or plain for a soft, diffuse effect. They come in
white or sometimes gold.
Which to choose? Flexible reflectors are light and easily stored, but they're
unstable in any breeze, making their light waver visibly on-screen. Hard reflectors
are cheap to buy or easy to make for almost nothing but they're bulky and rigid,
making them difficult to transport and store away.
Since these critters are most often used in wide open spaces, let's see how to
employ reflectors outdoors as key, fill, rim or background lights.
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Reflector Key Light
With the sun shining, why make your primary light a reflector? Often the sun's in
the wrong position or the subject's standing in adjacent shade. In fact, the sun can
become a gorgeous rim light, outlining the subject's head and shoulders and
separating them from the background.
Start by placing your subject with the sun behind them between ten and two
o'clock. Then use a white reflector placed between four and eight o'clock, close to
the subject and just below eye level, to fill in nose and chin shadows. If you want
to get fancy, use a reflector on either side, with the key unit closer, so the subject
is lighter on that side.
A reflector key light also works well when the subject is in the shade. Bounce the
light in, moving the reflector in or out until it is two to three times as bright as the
ambient shade light that is ultimately creating the fill.
Reflector Fill Light
More often, we'll use the sun as the key and the reflector for the fill, with each
light source placed between three and nine o'clock, though some limit the arc to
four to eight on our clock face. As always, place the reflector just slightly below
the subject's eye level to fill nose and chin shadows. Too high a position delivers a
Hitler moustache effect and too low creates a vampire. If the sun is at seven to
eight o'clock, you can often get a nice effect with the reflector all the way around
to three o'clock, filling the subject's profile.
Every type of reflector can and should be used for fill. For close-ups, a diffuse
white card looks most natural, but its intensity is too low for the throws required in
longer shots. If you're short-handed, have subjects aim a white card, held below
the frame line, up at themselves for their close-ups. It often works great.
When higher intensity is needed, bring in the aluminum or metallic fabric models.
They have enough punch to work effectively out of camera range. Always try to
use the softest version that will deliver enough fill, starting with a metallic fabric
model.
Using aluminum reflectors for key or fill light requires care, because they throw a
hard, narrow beam and they can make subjects squint unattractively. Make sure
you place them far enough away to reduce their intensity.
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Reflector Rim Light
Those hard aluminum surfaces are perfect for rim-lighting the subject, especially
when the sun is between four and eight o'clock. Place the reflector very high and
opposite the sun or as nearly opposite as possible while staying out of frame.
Rim lighting works best when a second reflector is delivering fill light, as
described in the previous section. If the sun is close enough to six o'clock and low
enough in the sky, fill light may be unnecessary, but the golden glow of rim light
might look wonderful.
When the subject is in shade, rim lighting doesn't work, unless the protected spot
is just outside a sunny area. A hard aluminum unit in the sun can often bounce
light off a second hard unit in the shade and back onto the subject's hair and
shoulders. That's what bright aluminum reflectors are for: very long throws of
relatively narrow light beams. In bright sunlight, hard aluminum units set as far as
100 feet away, from which position they can spread a broad, diffuse light on
subjects without hurting their eyes.
Reflector Background light
Suppose you have a subject in the sun with, say, a shaded building wall as
background. That makes for great facial exposure, but often a boring background.
To spark it up, fill in the backing with one or more hard aluminum reflectors
softer models are too low -intensity to work.
Here, the keys to success are angle and distance. If the wall is parallel to 12
o'clock, behind the subject, try to get the reflector as close as 11 o'clock sun angle
permitting to rake the background with an oblique wash of light.
If you have the resources, aim multiple reflectors at different areas of the
background. With care, you can produce a variegated and interesting wash of light
that looks quite natural.
Reflectors indoors
Reflectors are not as versatile indoors because the light sources they depend on
aren't as powerful as sunlight. Even so, you can easily use them to make one light
do the work of two.
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If you're working with just one spotlight, use it as a key light and place a large,
white card out of frame on the opposite side. The result is a very soft, natural
looking fill light. You can even soften the naturally hard spot beam a bit with spun
glass diffusion e.g. a furnace filter) and still put out enough light for the reflector.
Even if you have more spotlights, you may want a softer look to your lighting
design. To achieve it, turn the lights away from the subject and bounce them back
in with reflectors. In this application, metallic cloth or crinkled aluminum types
work better than ultra-soft white cards.
So there's a quick rundown on reflectors. Once you see how versatile they are,
you'll realize that reflectors aren't lights for poverty-stricken productions: they're
versatile tools that pros use all the time.
Foamcore, cloth and even some hard reflectors can be colored gold instead of
white. Hoop-and-fabric units are sometimes two-sided, with one side gold and one
side silver. Gold reflectors are very useful for warming up the light they throw.
Here are just a few ways to use them:
 To simulate the magic hour look of sunset

 To counteract the naturally bluish cast of open shade
 To warm up one light source also useful i n creating day-for-night effects
 To add glamour to close-ups, either as fill light or as a warm rim light on
hair and shoulders.
The most economical way to acquire a warm reflector is by buying a piece of

tinted foamcore. Instead of true gold, try a lighter yellow color to start, then
experiment until you find what suits your needs. We use two types of reflectors –
spot and flood. Spot reflectors have a 10° beam width that concentrates all the
light in one central spot while the rest of the area remains mildly illuminated.
For videography and photography purposes we use flood reflectors with a beam
width of 100°. Flood reflectors evenly illuminate large areas with the same light
intensity. All reflectors are made of aluminum resistant to high temperatures and
possessing excellent reflective characteristics.
Videography refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic

media e.g., videotape, hard disk, or solid state storage, streaming media. The term
includes methods of electronic production and post production. It is the equivalent
of cinematography, but with images recorded on electronic media instead of film
stock.
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The word combines "video" from early Greek and later Latin, meaning "I see" or "I
apprehend", with the Greek terminal ending "graphy", meaning "to write". Its
contemporary sense is rooted in an article titled "Videography: What Does It All
Mean?"
The advent of digital imaging in the late 20th century began to blur the distinction
between videography and cinematography. Today digital cameras are rapidly
rendering film cameras into collectors' items.
The videography market has grown to include distribution as well as production.

With this growth has come market segmentation, based on the application: event
video, corporate video, broadcast video, etc.
The advent of the Internet has created a global environment where videography
covers many more fields than just shooting video with a camera. Included under
the videography umbrella are digital animation such as Flash, gaming, web
streaming, video blogging, still slideshows, remote sensing, spatial imaging,
medical imaging, and in general the production of most bitmap- and vector-
based assets. As the field progresses videographers may produce their assets
entirely on a computer without ever involving an imaging device, using software-
driven solutions. Moreover, the very concept of sociality and privacy are being
reformed by the proliferation of cell-phone video cameras, which are spreading at
an exceptional rate in industrialized societies.
A videographer may be the person actually operating the camera or he or she may
be the person in charge of the visual design of a production the latter being the
equivalent of a cinematographer).
Videography also refers to the compiling of an artist's music videos or video

releases compare with " filmography".
Multi-Temp Light for photography or videography
Modern video cameras have a superb low light capability that makes available-
light recording possible and the most used method of shooting video. However, if
you need better control of a scene and a higher quality image, supplemental
lighting may be needed. As you may have observed, low light levels increase the
graininess of video images. Conversely, more light results in higher resolution and
higher quality images. We feel that the flexibility of our Multi-Temp Light will
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help you achieve professional results while making the Multi-Temp your
favorite artificial light source.
The Multi-Temp Light uses four cool burning fluorescent light bulbs of slightly
different colors to provide lighting that closely replicates natural daylight. The
compact fluorescent light bulbs generate the approximate four times the light
output of incandescent bulbs with a life expectancy of approximately 5,000 hours.
The bulbs are warm to the touch but don’t generate the scalding heat that makes
incandescent or halogen bulbs such a burn and fire hazard.
Why 4 different color temperature bulbs
For years light bulb manufacturers have tried to create the perfect light source by
experimenting with different filaments and bulb coatings. There were daylight
fluorescents, halogens and even high tech metal discharge lamps, but none was
perfect. We discovered that like an orchestra achieving a wonderful sound by
combining multiple players and instruments. We can achieve a very high quality
natural light by combining multiple lights of different characteristics in slightly
different locations. This is what makes the Multi-Temp Light different from other
artificial lights.
The user can select one, two, three or four different bulbs resulting in 15 possible
color combinations that can change the character of the video image. Additionally,
some users set their video camera "White Balance" under one color temperature
and then switch to different color temperatures to create a warmer or cooler look
without the use of filters.
Illuminations: Lights for Different Jobs
The three main types of movie lights are spotlights, floodlights, and softlights.
Spotlights
Spotlights are small-source instruments,
61 PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNI
meaning that the lamp and reflector are rarely bigger than six inches across
tho ugh film studio spots can be way bigger). All but the cheapest models can be
focused, narrowing or widening the light beam by moving the lamp forward or
back in its housing.
Because of their small light source and their ability to focus, spotlights throw a
relatively directional and "hard-edged" beam, meaning that its intensity falls off
very quickly at the perimeter. Nowadays, all spotlights use special halogen lamps.
Tiny 12-volt spotlights can be camera-mounted. Versatile models have multiple

heads and lamps, for varied lighting intensities and beam-spread; and they can be
fitted with barn doors, filters, and even Munchkin soft boxes. Used alone, on-
camera spots can produce crude-looking lighting; but they can be invaluable
supplements to stand-mounted units.
Because you can soften spotlights they are the most versatile lighting instruments,
suitable for key, fill, rim, and background illumination.
Floodlights
Because floods are larger

light sources than spots,
they have the opposite
virtues and vices. Lacking
lenses and focus systems,
they are simple and less
expensive; and their soft-
edged light beams take little
practice to manage. On the
down side, they are difficult
or plain impossible to mask,
spilling their beams all over
the place.
The smallest floodlights are broads: shallow rectangular pans usually fitted with
two narrow barn doors. Used naked, they can throw effective washes on walls and
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other backgrounds, but because they are still relatively small, they often need extra
softening, usually with sheets of white spun glass held in front of them on frames.
Pans are very large lights some over four feet square) that throw ultra -soft even
light beams that seem to wrap around subjects. Pans contain several high-accuracy
fluorescent tubes, and some models allow you to switch them individually. Pans
are fairly clumsy to use; but vendors have added conveniences like bodies that
clam-shell shut to form their own cases and fluorescent ballast units that function
as counter weights. Typically balanced for daylight, pans work well with location
windows and existing fluorescent ceiling lights. Like all, fluorescents, they are
more efficient than lights with halogen lamps, putting out substantially more light
and less heat per watt of power.
Softlights
Pans bridge the gap

between floodlights
and softlights.
Softlights are very
large lights sources
typically 1 ½ to 4
feet square) created
by placing the
instrument inside a
fabric enclosure or
else aiming it at a
reflective umbrella.
All softlights
deliver a diffuse
beam that is easy to
use and looks very
natural. On the
down side, you can't
control the edges of softlight beams though some types include accessories to
limit the beam spread.
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Some soft lights are really accessories for small spotlights, which mount at the rear
of a fabric cube with opaque sides and translucent front. Other versions are "pure"
softlights, with open lamp-and-socket assemblies designed for specific housings.
PhotoFlex, for example has a proprietary tent engineered like an umbrella.
Actual umbrellas have been used as softlights for decades. Mounted on a stand,
the umbrella reflects light onto the subject from a small spotlight clamped to the
bottom of its "handle" and aimed into the fabric bowl. Umbrellas are versatile,
inexpensive, and easy to carry and store. You can get different levels of diffusion
by using different fabrics -- say, silver-thread cloth or plain white. For a super-
duper soft effect, fit a translucent white umbrella and reverse the unit so that the
spot aims at the subject through the diffusing cloth.
Lamps
Nowadays, almost all professional lights use either halogen or fluorescent lamps.
Halogen lamps are small and very bright for their power consumption. They burn
at precisely 3,200K color temperature, for perfect indoor white balance, and unlike
household light bulbs yes, bulbs they d on't dim and yellow as they age.
On the down side, halogen lamps get so hot that their envelopes must be made of
quartz, rather than conventional glass. Touching them cause serious burns; and
even when the lamps are cold, human fingers leave skin oil deposits that will make
the quartz shatter spectacularly when heated. Fluorescent lamps now come in all
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shapes and sizes. When you buy conventional fluorescent tubes, be sure to get the
"high accuracy" type for good color temperature.
UNIT 3. SOUND
3.1.1. Unit of Sound
Sound is perceived through the sense of hearing. Humans and many animals use
their ears to hear sound, but loud sounds and low-frequency sounds can be
perceived by other parts of the body through the sense of touch as vibrations.
Sounds are used in several ways, notably for communication through speech and
music. They can also be used to acquire information about properties of the
surrounding environment such as spatial characteristics and presence of other
animals or objects.
The decibel dB is used to measure sound level, but it is also widely used in
electronics, signals and communication.
Humans can generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz.
Sound above the hearing range is known as ultrasound and that below the hearing
range as infrasound.
Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical or mechanical inscription and

re-creation of sound waves, usually used for the voice or for music.
The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and
digital recording.
3.2. What is a microphone?
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A device for turning acoustic power into electric power is called a microphone.
Acoustic power is real sound waves. In other words, it changes sound into an
electric signal. These signals are usually sent to an amplifier or recording device.
There are many different brands and also different types. Still, they all have one
thing in common: they all use a diaphragm.
This diaphragm is a thin part, sometimes made of metal that vibrates when sound
goes to the microphone. When the diaphragm shakes, it causes the other parts of
the microphone to create signals.
Every studio needs at least one mic, but which type and which model is best?
All microphones convert sound energy into electrical energy, but there are many
different ways of doing the job, using electrostatics, electromagnetism, piezo-
electric effects or even the change in resistance of carbon granules. Fortunately for
SOS readers pondering over which mics to buy, the field of choice is narrowed
considerably when it comes to mics used in music recording or live performance.
The vast majority of mics used in these applications are either capacitor
electrostatic) or dynamic electromagnetic) models. Both types employ a
moving diaphragm to capture the sound, but make use of a different electrical
principle for converting the mechanical energy into an electrical signal. The
efficiency of this conversion is very important, because the amounts of acoustic
energy produced by voices and musical instruments are so small.
Major Microphone Designs

There are six common microphone designs:
 Hand held - the type held by on-camera talent or used for on-location
interviews
 Personal mic lavaliere / clip -on mic) - Whether hung from a cord
around the neck lavaliere) or clipped to clothing, these are all ref erred
to as personal mics.
 Shotgun- used for on-location production to pick up sounds a
moderate distance from the camera
 Boundary effect microphone - also called PZ or PZM mics These rely
primarily on reflected sounds from a hard surface such as a tabletop
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 Contact mics - which pick up sound by being in direct physical

contact with the sound source. These mics are generally mounted on
musical instruments.
 Studio microphones- the largest category of microphone. These
include a number of application designs that we'll discuss.
These six categories include different transducer types, or approaches to converting

sound waves into electrical energy.
Dynamic Microphones
The dynamic mic also

called a moving-coil
microphone) is considered
the most rugged
professional microphone.
This type of mic is a good
choice for electronic
newsgathering ENG work,
where a wide variety of
difficult conditions are
regularly encountered.
In dynamic microphone
sound waves hit a
diaphragm attached to a coil of fine wire. The coil is suspended in the magnetic
field of a permanent magnet.
When sound waves hit the diaphragm they move the coil of wire within the
magnetic field. As a result, a small electrical current is generated that corresponds
to the original sound waves. This signal must be amplified thousands of times.
When small size, optimum sensitivity, and the best quality are all prime
considerations, another type of mic, the condenser mic, is often preferred.
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Condenser/Capacitor Microphones
Condenser microphones a lso called capacitor or electrets condenser mics are

capable of top-notch audio quality. Condenser mics aren't as rugged as dynamic
mics, and problems can result when they are used in adverse weather conditions.
Condenser mics work on the principle that governs an electric condenser or

capacitor. An ultra-thin metal diaphragm is stretched tightly above a piece of flat
metal or ceramic. In most condenser mics a power source maintains an electrical
charge between the elements.
Sound waves hitting the diaphragm, cause fluctuations in an electrical charge,

which then must be greatly amplified by a preamplifier pre -amp. The pre -amp
can be located within the microphone housing or in an outboard electronic pack.
Although most pre-amps output an analog signal, some of the newer models
immediately convert the output to digital.
Because they require a pre-amp, this means that, unlike the dynamic mics
discussed earlier, most condenser mics require a source of power, either from an
AC standard Alternating Current el ectrical power supply or from batteries.
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An AC power supply for a condenser mic is sometimes built into an audio mixer or
audio board. This is referred to as a phantom power supply. When this type of
power supply is used, the mic cord ends up serving two functions: it delivers the
signal from the mic to the mixer and it carries power from the mixer to the pre-amp
of the condenser mic.
Of course, using batteries to power the pre-amp of the condenser mic is more
convenient you don't have to use a special mixer or audio board connected to an
electrical power source.
But, battery-powered condenser mics introduce a problem of their own: at the end
of their life cycle the batteries can go out without warning.
To get around any unexpected problems, especially on important productions, two

miniature condenser mics are often used together. If one mic goes out, the other
can immediately be switched on. This double microphone technique is called dual
redundancy, a term that is somewhat redundant in itself.
Ribbon Mics
Except possibly for an announce booth shown here), ribbon mics are seldom used
in TV production. Although they can impart a deep, resonant "coloring" to sound,
they are fragile and highly sensitive to moving air. This precludes their use outside
the studio and on most booms, which covers most TV production applications.
Ribbon mics were primary used in radio studios.
Boundary Effect Mics
PZ also called PZM stands for sound pressure microphone for standard video
work, which comes under the heading of a boundary effect microphone. This mic
relies entirely on reflected sound.
In specific situations, such as when placed on a tabletop, a PZ mic will provide a

pickup that's superior to that of other types of mics.
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Contact Mics
As the name suggests, contact mics

pick up sound by being in direct
physical contact with the sound
source. These mics are generally
mounted on musical instruments,
such as the surface of an acoustic
bass, the sounding board of a piano,
or near the bridge of a violin.
Contact mics have the advantage of

being able to eliminate interfering
external sounds and not being
influenced by sound reflections
from nearby objects. Their flat sides distinguish them in appearance from small
personal mics.
Directional Characteristics
In an earlier module we talked about the angle of view of lenses -- the area that a
lens "sees." Microphones have a similar attribute: their directional characteristics,
or, you might say, the angle of view that they "hear."
In microphones there are three basic directional categories:
 Omni directional
 Bi-directional
 Unidirectional
Omni directional Mics
Omni directional mics also called non directional mics are more or less equally
sensitive to sounds coming from all directions.
Although this attribute would have advantages in radio where several people could
stand or be seated around a single microphone, in video production it's almost
always more desirable to use some form of directional mic. For one thing, this will
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reduce or eliminate unwanted sounds behind -the-camera noise, ambient on-

location noise, etc. while maximizing sound coming from talent.
Bi-directional Mics
In a bi-directional sensitivity pattern bipolar pattern the mic is primarily

responsive to sounds from two directions. Although commonly used in radio
interviews for people sitting across from each other at a table, until the advent of
stereo, bi-directional also called figure eight sensitivity patterns had limited use
in television. We'll get into stereo and the need for this type of directional pattern
in a later module.
Unidirectional Mics
The term unidirectional simply refers to a general classification of mics that are
sensitive to sounds coming primarily from one direction.
There are four subdivisions in this category -- each being a bit more directional:
 Cardioids
 Super cardioids
 Hyper cardioids
 Parabolic
Although these terms may sound as if they belong in a medical textbook, they
simply refer to how narrow the mic's pickup pattern "angle of view" is.
Cardioids
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The cardioids pattern is named after a sensitivity pattern that vaguely resembles a
heart shape. Mics using a cardioids pattern are sensitive to sounds over a wide
range in front of the mic, but relatively insensitive to sounds coming from behind
the mic.
Although this pattern might be useful for picking up a choir in a studio, the width
of cardioids pattern is too great for most TV applications. When placed two or
more meters 7 or more feet from a speaker, it tends to pick up unwanted,
surrounding sound, including reverberation from walls.
Super cardioids
The super cardioids are even more directional than the cardioids sensitivity pattern.
Whereas the cardioids have about a 180-degree angle of acceptance, the super
cardioids have about 160-degrees of coverage. When this type of mic is pointed
toward a sound source, interfering off -axis sounds tend to be rejected. This polar
pattern is similar to that of our ears as we turn our head toward a sound we want to
hear and try to ignore interfering sounds.
Hyper cardioids and Lobar
Even more directional are the hyper cardioids and lobar patterns with 140-degrees
of coverage. Because off-axis sounds will be largely rejected, they have to be
accurately pointed toward sound sources. Some highly directional shotgun mics are
included in the hyper cardioids category.
Shotgun Mics
So-called shotgun mics with their hyper cardioids or narrower angles of acceptance
are one of the most widely used types of mics for on-location video work. Since
they are quite directional, they provide good pickup when used at a distance of 2 to
4 meters 7 -13 feet from the talent. Like other types of directional microphones,
they tend to reject sound that would interfere with the on-camera talent.
Audio mixers
In professional audio, a mixing console, digital mixing console, mixing desk

Brit., or audio mixer, also called a sound board or soundboard, is an electronic
device for combining also called " mixing", routing, an d changing the level, tone,
and/or dynamics of audio signals. A mixer can mix analog or digital signals,
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depending on the type of mixer. The modified signals voltages or digital samples
are summed to produce the combined output signals.
Mixing consoles are used in many applications, including recording studios, public
address systems, sound reinforcement systems, broadcasting, television, and film
post-production. An example of a simple application would be to enable the signals
that originated from two separate microphones each being used by vocalists
singing a duet, perhaps to be heard through one set of speakers simultaneously.
When used for live performances, the signal produced by the mixer will usually be
sent directly to an amplifier, unless that particular mixer is “powered” or it is being
connected to powered speakers.
Each signal that is input into the mixer has its own channel.
Each channel on a mixer has an audio taper pot, or potentiometer, controlled by a

sliding volume control fader, that allows adjustment of the level, or amplitude, of
that channel in the final mix. A typical mixing console has many rows of these
sliding volume controls. Each control adjusts only its respective channel or one
half of a stereo channel; therefore, it only affects the level of the signal from one
microphone or other audio device. The signals are summed to create the main mix,
or combined on a bus as a submix, a group of channels that are then added to get
the final mix for instance, many drum mics could be grouped into a bus, and then
the proportion of drums in the final mix can be controlled with one bus fader).
There may also be insert points for a certain bus, or even the entire mix.
On the right hand of the console, there are typically one or two master controls that
enable adjustment of the console's main mix output level. In recent years, with the
demand for larger consoles, the main mix and submix controls have started to be
placed in the center of the console. The idea behind this is that larger consoles
often need two people to operate them, and that the first channels used are often
the lower numbered channels. With the mains and subs in the middle, two people
can easily control their own set of 16, 24, or 32 channels as well as easily reach the
main controls. It is very rare to see this setup on boards with 24 or fewer channels.
Finally, there are usually one or more VU or peak meters to indicate the levels for
each channel, or for the master outputs, and to indicate whether the console levels
are over modulating or clipping the signal. Most mixers have at least one
additional output, besides the main mix.
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Sound Editing
Audio editing is the process of taking recorded sound and changing it directly on
the recording medium analog or in RAM digital.
Audio editing was a new technology that developed in the middle part of the 20th
century with the advent of magnetic tape recording. Prior to magnetic tape, editing
and the repairing of breaks was performed on wire recorders with solder and
extra wire to reinforce the new joint. After World War II, reel-to-reel tape
machines became prevalent and edits were made with straight razors and special
tape to connect pieces of magnetic tape that had been cut. Audio editors would
listen to recorded tapes at low volumes, and then located specific sounds using a
process called scrubbing, which is the slow rocking back and forth of the tape
reels across the playback heads of the tape deck.
With the development of microcomputer technology, sound recordists were able to

digitize their recordings and edit them as files within a computer's RAM. The
earliest audio editor was written by Sound stream Inc specifically for the PDP-11
minicomputer platform. Digital audio workstations appeared using proprietary
software and hardware solutions but after the personal computer became widely
available in the mid '80s, much the power of a DAW came into the hands of home
and small business users through software audio editing programs written
specifically for personal computers. The earliest program to become widely used in
this application was a wave editor called Sound Designer in the late 1980s and
early 1990s. Sound Designer was created by a company called Digidesign who
achieved early industry dominance. Today, the most popular retail audio editing
programs not associated with specific hardware are: Audacity, Adobe Audition,
Sony Sound Forge, Digidesign Pro Tools LE and Goldwave.
A sound editor is a creative professional responsible for selecting and assembling

sound recordings in preparation for the final sound mixing or mastering of a
television program or motion picture. Sound editing developed out of the need to
fix the incomplete, undramatic, or technically inferior sound recordings of early
talkies, and over the decades has become a respected filmmaking craft, with sound
editors implementing the aesthetic goals of motion picture sound design.
Techniques
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There are primarily 3 divisions of sound that are combined to create a final mix,
these being dialogue, effects, and music. In larger markets such as New York and
Los Angeles, sound editors often specialize in only one of these areas, thus a show
will have separate dialogue, effects, and music editors. In smaller markets, sound
editors are expected to know how to handle it all, often crossing over into the
mixing realm as well. Editing effects is likened to creating the sonic world from
scratch, while dialogue editing is likened to taking the existing sonic world and
fixing it. Dialogue editing is more accurately thought of as "production sound
editing", where the editor takes the original sound recorded on the set, and using a
variety of techniques, makes the dialogue more understandable, as well as
smoother, so the listener doesn't hear the transitions from shot to shot often the
background sounds underneath the words change dramatically from take to take.
Among the challenges that effects editors face are creatively adding together
various elements to create believable sounds for everything you see on screen, as
well as memorizing their sound effects library.
The essential piece of equipment used in modern sound editing is the digital audio
workstation, or DAW. A DAW allows sounds, stored as computer files on a host
computer, to be placed in timed synchronization with a motion picture, mixed,
manipulated, and documented.
3.3 SOUND & CAMERA
NEVER forget that the piece you are preparing is an audio-visual production. Note
that audio comes before visual. It is absolutely vital that you get the sound right for
your video without good sound, your work will look amateurish and sloppy. A
slick soundtrack can often hide the cracks in your images. Therefore you need to
plan your sound just as carefully as you plan your images.
If your audience is viewing your work via YouTube, the image might be reduced
to a couple of inches wide, but the sound will be as big and powerful as their
computer speaker get that to work in your favour, not against you. Video produced
for handheld mobile devices needs excellent sound to enhance the storytelling, as
images are so small. Sound can help you keep your audience's attention.
There are several different sorts of sound that you can use. Using computer editing
software, you can layer them in, adjust volume and sync images to particular
sounds. Use 'J-cuts', where you lay in a couple of seconds of sound from one clip
over the end of the one before, thus leading the audience into the visuals. Some
75
sound you will record using your camera, other sound will come from other
sources. Be inventive!
Sound Recorded With Your Camera
Room Noise and Ambient Sound

You will learn very quickly that, with a video camera, there is no such thing as
silence. If you are filming indoors your camera will pick up what is known as
'room noise' - the hum created by electrical appliances especially air conditioning
units!), the buzz of fluorescent lights, the echo of sound waves bouncing off the
walls big rooms sound very different to little rooms, the noises of a building as it
creaks gently around you. Professional sound recordists will always record two
minutes of room noise with no one talking or moving as it can come in very
useful for patching up a soundtrack. Room noise is deadened by soft furnishing, so
if you are seeking to minimize harsh sounds, film in a room with carpets, curtains
and lots of soft cushions! You will need to take up the volume to compensate,
however.
Outside there is also a lot of background noise, or ambient sound - passing traffic,
birdsong, wind, nearby or distant people, aircraft, reversing trucks, squawking
sirens - a whole cacophony of sounds that you cannot control. This is the noise of
everyday life, and without it images begin to look very odd indeed. You therefore
need to record it to add meaning to your filmed sequences, but you need to take
care that it is not too loud and that it does not drown out any vital dialogue or voice
over. You have some control over volume levels when editing, but it is better to
capture your sound effectively at source. It is also worth capturing around two
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minutes of ambient sound outside as, again, you may need to patch up your
soundtrack.
Dialogue, or Spoken to Camera sound

There is a microphone on the front of your camera. Most home video cameras
come with an omni directional microphone which basically records all the sounds
that are present in front of the camera. This means that you must ensure that the
dialogue you are trying to capture is much louder than any background noise. More
sophisticated models will also have an external mic jack where you can plug in a
more powerful, directional microphone.
Recording human voices is perhaps the most difficulty-fraught area of working in
video. Digital video cameras are reasonably good at coping with indoor levels of
lighting, however, they are not good at recording sound and this is something you
have to work around creatively, especially when interviewing a subject.
NB - zooming the camera in on a subject does not also zoom the microphone.
Keep these tips in mind for audio recording that is easy to hear and a pleasure
to listen to.
1. Use a Quality Microphone

Microphones built in to camcorders are generally low quality. They don't always
pick up sound well, and sometimes you'll end up hearing the sound of the
camcorder operating. If possible, use an external microphone whenever you're
shooting videos. A lavaliere, or lapel mic, like the type newscasters use, is
unobtrusive and especially helpful if you want to hear someone's voice clearly.
2. Monitor the Sound

If you can plug headphones into your camera, do it! They'll allow you to hear
exactly what the camera hears, so you'll know if your subject is speaking loudly
enough, or if the background noises are too distracting.
3. Limit Background Noises

Background noises can be distracting in a video, and can make for difficult editing.
Turn off fans and refrigerators so you don't hear them humming. If there's a
window open, close it and shut out the traffic noises.
4. Turn off the Music
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If there's music playing in the background, turn it off. Leaving it on while you're
recording will make editing difficult because you can't cut and rearrange clips
without hearing the jumps in the music. If you like the music and want it in the
video, it's better to add in the recording later on.
5. Record Background Sound
Think about what sounds are distinctive to the event you're recording, and try to
capture those on tape. If you're at a carnival, the music of the merry-go-round and
the sound of the popcorn popper will really add to the mood of your video and help
viewers feel as if they are there with you. Try to record these sounds clearly,
without worrying too much about the video footage. While editing you can move
the audio clips around and have them playing underneath different parts of your
video.
6. Watch Out For Wind

Recording outdoors on a windy day is difficult because the impact of the wind on
the microphone can create loud slapping or popping sounds. You can buy a wind
protector for your microphone to cut down on this effect or, in a pinch, slip a fuzzy
sock over the mic!
7. Add It Later
Remember, you can always add sound later. If you're recording in a loud area, wait
and record narration later when you're in a quieter space. Or you can wait and add
sound effects, which are available with many editing programs.
SUMMARY
video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially developed by
the television industry but now common in other applications as well. Video cameras are used
primarily in two modes. The first, characteristic of much early television, is what might be called
a live broadcast, where the camera feeds real time images directly to a screen for immediate
observation; in addition to live television production, such usage is characteristic of security,
military/tactical, and industrial operations where surreptitious or remote viewing is required. The
second is to have the images recorded to a storage device for archiving or further processing; for
many years, videotape has been the primary format used for this purpose, but optical
disc media, hard disk, and flash memory are all increasingly used. Recorded video is used not
only in television and film production, but also surveillance and monitoring tasks where
unattended recording of a situation is required for later analysis.
We define focal length as the distance from the optical center of the lens to the
focal plane target or "chi p" of the video camera when the lens is focused at
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infinity. We consider any object in the far distance to be at infinity. On a camera

lens the symbol "∞” indicates infinity. Since the lens-to-target distance for most
lenses increases when we focus the lens on anything closer than infinity,
we specify infinity as the standard for focal length measurement. Focal length is
generally measured in millimeters. In the case of lenses with fixed focal lengths,
we can talk about a 10mm lens, a 20mm lens, a 100mm lens, etc. As we will see,
this designation tells a lot about how the lens will reproduce subject matter.
Zoom ratio is used to define the focal length range for a zoom lens. If the
maximum range through which a particular lens can be zoomed is 10mm to
100mm, it's said to have a 10:1 ten -to-one) zoom ratio 10 times the minimum
focal length of 10mm equals 100mm.
Lighting can emphasize important details or hide them. It can flatter a subject by
bringing out positive attributes, and it can de-emphasize or hide less attractive
attributes. Lighting can even impart a sinister and hostile look. It all depends on
how you choose to use the concepts. Television is based on the medium of light; in
fact, without light there could be no video. Just as sound must be skillfully
controlled in audio production, light must be expertly controlled in television.
TV studios typically use tungsten halogen lamps in big clumsy fixtures with
clamps to hang them from the ceiling grid. Key lights are usually focusable which
means the bulb can be moved closer or farther from the reflector or a front lens
spreading the light into a wide flood or a narrow spot. Fill lights are usually large,
with scoop-like reflectors. To soften the light, sometimes several are used side by
side. Professional soft lights have the lamps inside a big white box that reflects the
light smoothly over a larger surface. Fiberglass or steel mesh scrims can be slid in
front of lights to soften their beams. Colored gels can be slid into the same slots to
change the color of the lights. Hinged flaps called barn doors, affixed to the front
of the instrument allow the beam to be aimed and shielded from certain areas of the
stage. A backlight, for instance, would have the top barn door turned down like a
visor so that light would strike the subject but would be shielded from the camera.
A filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted in

the optical path. The filter can be a square or rectangle shape mounted in a holder
accessory or, more commonly, a glass or plastic disk with a metal or plastic ring
frame, which can be screwed in front of the lens.
Videography refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic

media e.g., videotape, hard disk, or solid state storage, streaming media. The term
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includes methods of electronic production and post production. It is the equivalent

of cinematography, but with images recorded on electronic media instead of film
stock.
Sound is perceived through the sense of hearing. Humans and many animals use
their ears to hear sound, but loud sounds and low-frequency sounds can be
perceived by other parts of the body through the sense of touch as vibrations.
Sounds are used in several ways, notably for communication through speech and
music. They can also be used to acquire information about properties of the
surrounding environment such as spatial characteristics and presence of other
animals or objects.
A device for turning acoustic power into electric power is called a microphone.
Acoustic power is real sound waves. In other words, it changes sound into an
electric signal. These signals are usually sent to an amplifier or recording device.
There are many different brands and also different types. Still, they all have one
thing in common: they all use a diaphragm.
Audio editing was a new technology that developed in the middle part of the 20th
century with the advent of magnetic tape recording. Prior to magnetic tape, editing
and the repairing of breaks was performed on wire recorders with solder and
extra wire to reinforce the new joint. After World War II, reel-to-reel tape
machines became prevalent and edits were made with straight razors and special
tape to connect pieces of magnetic tape that had been cut. Audio editors would
listen to recorded tapes at low volumes, and then located specific sounds using a
process called scrubbing, which is the slow rocking back and forth of the tape
reels across the playback heads of the tape deck.
80
QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE
1. Name the types of video cameras.

2. What is crane movement?
3. Name different types of lenses.
4. Name different types of shots.
5. What are the basics of lighting?
6. What types of lights can be used in videography?
7. What is sound?
8. What is the unit of sound?
9. What is meant by voicing?
10.Name the types of microphones.
11.What are audio mixers?
12.What are the various parts of a video camera?
13.What is meant by videography?
14.Explain different types of shots that can be taken by camera.
15.Write a note on camera movements.
16.Discuss lights and lighting.
17.How does use of filters and reflectors affect photography of videography?
18.What are the techniques used in lighting?
19.Explain the types of microphones. What are their functions?
20.How are audio mixers used for recording?
SUGGESTED READING
1. Broadcasting in India by G.C. Awasthy Allied Publishers, N.D.

2. Tangled Tapes: The Inside Story of Indian Broadcasting by K.R. Mullick
Sterling Publications
3. Satellite Television in Asia by Srinivas Melkote, Binod C. Agarwal & Peter
Shields American Press Association
81

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Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights &

Study Material for Students

: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN MEDIA WORLD

Mass communication and Journalism is institutionalized and source specific. It

Other titles of Mass Communication and Journalism professionals are script

: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights and Sound

2.1 Lights and lighting

: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights and Sound

: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

BASICS OF CAMERA, LIGHTS AND SOUND

 To learn about Video camera and Types of video camera

A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition,

Video cameras are used

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Thing to look into while using a video camera:

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor CMOS) sensors are becoming

: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Lenses for High-Resolution Cameras

To improve sensitivity, many high-resolution CCD sensors include micro-lens

: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

1.2. SHOT TYPES

Extreme Wide Shot EWS)

Very Wide Shot VWS)

: Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

The VWS also a Wide Shot WS)

Medium Close Up MCU

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Extreme Close Up ECU

A "One-Shot" could be a mid-shot of either of these subjects. A "Three-Shot",

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Over the Shoulder Shot OSS

Point-of-View Shot POV

Camera angles and movements combine to create a sequence of images, just as

— The FRAMING or the LENGTH of shot

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

— If there is any MOVEMENT involved

1. Extreme long shot

This can be taken from as much as a

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

Contains a figure from the knees/waist

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

1. The Bird's-Eye view

A cameraman, raised above the action, gets a

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

1.2.1. CAMERA MOVEMENT

Basics of Camera, Lights & Sound

There are seven basic methods: