A. C.

CIRCUITS
Definitions of terms

1. Resistance (R) – This is the opposition to the flow of an electric current in a material due to the
collisions between electrons and the atoms of the material.

2. Inductance (L) – Is the property of an electric circuit which opposes instantaneous changes in the
currents through the circuit.

3. Capacitance (C) – Is the property of an electric circuit which opposes instantaneous changes in the
voltage across the circuit.

4. Reactance (X) – This is the non-resistive opposition to the flow of current in an a.c. circuit. It is either
due to the capacitance or due to the inductance of the circuit.

5. Inductive reactance (XL) – Is the opposition to the flow of current in an a.c. circuit due to the
inductance of the circuit.

6. Capacitive reactance (XC) – Is the opposition to the flow of current in an a.c. circuit due to the
capacitance of the circuit.

7. Impedance (Z) – Is the total opposition to the flow of current in an a.c. circuit

8. Phase angle (ϕ) – This is the angular displacement between the current and the voltage in an a.c.
circuit. If the current is ahead of the voltage, the phase angle is leading and if the current is behind the
voltage, the phase angle is lagging.

Purely Inductive Circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of a coil connected to an ac source of e.m.f.
IL

VS L VL
AC
Source

1
An ac inductive circuit has a current changing at the rate of ∆ i/ ∆ t resulting in a back e.m.f, e = -L
∆ i/ ∆ t . The back e.m.f opposes the variations of the current and delays them by a quarter cycle or 90o
relative to the voltage across the load, VL. The voltage reaches a maximum while the current is still zero.
Thus the current lags the voltage by 90o. This may be shown by a phasor diagram or a waveform
diagram as below.
Phasor diagram VL

90o
(Angular frequency) = 2 ffff2
IL

Waveform diagram
VL
VL
IL
IL

0 0o 90o 180o 270o 360o

IL

VL

Purely Capacitive Circuits

Consider a circuit consisting of a capacitor connected to an ac source of e.m.f.
IC

AC Source C VC
VS

2
Suppose the voltage across the capacitor increases by a small amount v in t seconds with an average
charging current of i amperes, then;
Increase in charge = i.t = C.v
v
Therefore, i = C.
t
= C × rate of change in voltage
Thus the current is a maximum when the voltage across the capacitor is zero (but changing at maximum
rate). When the voltage reaches a maximum, its rate of change becomes zero and the voltage becomes
zero.
When the voltage starts decreasing, IC increases in the negative direction, reaching a maximum when VC
reaches zero (and starts increasing in the opposite direction). IC becomes zero again when VC reaches a
negative maximum. When VC starts decreasing, IC increases in the positive direction reaching a
maximum when VC reaches zero.
The phase relations between the current and voltage are shown below. The current leads the voltage by a
phase angle of 90o.
Waveform diagram
+VC VC

+IC
IC

0 0o 90o 180o 270o 360o

-IC

-VC

Phasor diagram IC

90o
VC

Inductive Reactance (XL)

The inductive reactance is directly proportional to both the frequency of the applied voltage and the
inductance of the coil. It can be shown that the magnitude of inductive reactance is given by:
XL = 2 π fL ohms

3
Example 1
A coil with an inductance of 0.5H is connected to a 240V, 50Hz ac supply. Calculate:
(a) The inductive reactance
(b) The current in the circuit

Sol.
(a) XL = 2 π fL ohms
= 2×3.14 × 50 × 0.5 = 157Ω

VS 240
(b) I = = = 1.53 A
XL 157

Capacitive Reactance (XC)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to both the frequency of the applied voltage and the
capacitance of the capacitor. It can be shown that the magnitude of the capacitive reactance is given by:
1
XC = ohms
2 π fC

Example 2
A capacitor is connected to a 240V, 50Hz supply. If the current in the circuit is 3A, calculate:
(a) The capacitive reactance
(b) The capacitance

Sol.
VS 240
(a) XC = = = 80Ω
I 3

1 1
(b) C = 2 πf X = = 39.8µF
C 2× 3.14 ×50 80

Series R-L Circuit

Consider a resistance connected in series with an inductance as shown below

4
 I

L VL

AC Source VS

R VR

Characteristics of the series R-L circuit

(i) The current through all the components, I is the same
(ii) The voltage across R is in phase with I
(iii) The voltage across L leads I by 90o
(iv) The supply voltage, VS is the vector sum of VR and VL

Phasor diagram V VS
VL

ϕ VR
I (Reference)

Using Pythagoras’s theorem;

2 2
VS = √ (V R +V L )………………………………………………………………. (i)

And the phase angle (between I and VS) is given by;

−1 VL
ϕ = tan V lagging …………………………………..…………………… (ii)
R

Impedance of the R-L series circuit

VS
Impedance, Z =
I

5
 2 2
√ (V R +V L )
Therefore, Z =
I

V 2R +V 2L
Therefore, Z = 2
I
2
Therefore, Z2 = R2 + X L
2
Therefore, Z = √ ( R2 + X L) …………………………………………………. (iii)

Equation (iii) may be represented on an impedance triangle as shown below;

R = Z cos ϕ
V Z
XL
XL = Z sin ϕ

ϕ
R
XL
Tan ϕ =
R

XL
Therefore, ϕ = tan−1 lagging……………………………………………. (iv)
R

Example 3
A coil with an inductance of 0.5H and a resistance of 100Ω is connected to a 120V, 50Hz supply.
Determine:
(a) The impedance of the circuit

(b) The circuit current

(c) The phase angle

Sol.
(a) XL = 2 π fL ohms
= 2×3.14 × 50 × 0.5 = 157Ω
2
Z = √ ( R 2 + X L)
= √ (1002 + 1572❑) = 186Ω
6
 VS 120
(b) I = = 186 = 0.645 A
Z

XL −1 157
(c) ϕ = tan−1 = tan 100 = 57.5o lagging
R

Example 4
When a coil is connected to a 120V, 50Hz supply, it draws a current of 0.9 at a phase angle of 72o
lagging. Determine:
(a) The impedance of the circuit
(b) The resistance and the inductance of the coil

Sol.
VS 120
(a) Z = = 0.9 ≅ 133Ω
I

(b) R = Z cos ϕ = 133 cos 72o

= 133 × 0.309 ≅ 41.2 Ω

XL = Z sin ϕ = 133 sin 72o

= 133 × 0.951 ≅ 127 Ω

XL 127
L = = 2× 3.14 ×50 = 0.404 H
2 πf

Series R-C circuit

Consider a resistance connected in series with a capacitance as shown below

7
 I

C VC

AC Source VS

R VR

Characteristics of the series R-C circuit

(i) The current through all the components, I is the same
(ii) The voltage across R is in phase with I
(iii) The voltage across C lags I by 90o
(iv) The supply voltage, VS is the vector sum of VR and VC

Phasor diagram
I
ϕ VR

VC
V VS

Applying Pythagoras’s theorem;

VS = √ (V 2R +V 2C )………………………………………………………………. (i)

And the phase angle (between I and VS) is given by;

−1 VC
ϕ = tan V leading …………………………………..………..…………… (ii)
R

Impedance of the R-C series circuit

VS
Impedance, Z =
I

8
 2 2
√ (V R +V c )
Therefore, Z =
I
2 2
V R +V c
Therefore, Z = 2
2
I
2
Therefore, Z2 = R2 + X c
2
Therefore, Z = √ ( R2 + X c) …………………………………………………. (iii)

Equation (iii) may be represented on an impedance triangle as shown below;

R
ϕ
R = Z cos ϕ
XC XC = Z sin ϕ
V Z

XC
Tan ϕ =
R
XC
Therefore, ϕ = tan−1 leading……………………………………………. (iv)
R

Example 5
A 10µF capacitor is connected in series with a 200Ω resistor to a 400V, 50Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The impedance of the circuit
(b) The current in the circuit
(c) The phase angle of the circuit

Sol.
1 1
(a) XC = = = 318.5Ω
2 π fC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×10 ×10−6

Z = √ ( R2 + X 2c) = √ (2002 +318.52) ≅ 376Ω

VS 400
(b) I = = ≅ 1.06 A
Z 376

XC −1 318.5
(c) ϕ = tan−1 = tan 200 ≅ 57.9o leading
R

9
Example 6
A capacitor is connected in series with a 50Ω resistor to a 120V, 60Hz supply. If the
power dissipated in the resistor is 5W, calculate:
(a) The current in the circuit
(b) The capacitance of the capacitor

Sol.
(a) P = I2. R
P 5
∴ I = √ = √ 50 ≅ 0.316 A
R

VS 120
(b) Z = = 0.316 ≅ 379 Ω
I

X C = √ ( Z2 - R2) = √ (3792 - 502) ≅ 376 Ω

C = 1/2πf X C = 1/ 2×3.14 × 60 ×376 ≅ 7.01µF

Example 7
A capacitor with a capacitive reactance of 200Ω is connected in series with an unknown resistance to a
9V a.c. supply. If the phase angle of the circuit is 20o leading, calculate:
(a) The impedance of the circuit
(b) The circuit current
(c) The voltage drops across the capacitance and the resistance
(d) The resistance

Sol.
XC 200 200
(a) Z = = o =
0.342
≅ 585 Ω
sin ϕ sin 20

VS 9
(b) I = = ≅ 0.0154 A
Z 585

(c) VC = I . XC = 0.0154 × 200 ≅ 3.08 V

VR = √ (V 2S + V 2C) = √ (92 – 3.082) ≅ 8.46 V

(d) R = VR/ I = 8.46 / 0.0154 ≅ 549 Ω

The R-L-C series Circuit

10
 I

R VR

AC Source L VL
VS

VC
C

Characteristics of the series R-C circuit

(i) The current through all the components, I is the same
(ii) The voltage across R is in phase with I
(iii) The voltage across L leads I by 90o
(iv) The voltage across C lags I by 90o
(v) The supply voltage, VS is the vector sum of VR, VL and VC

Phasor diagram (Assuming VL VC)

VL

V VS
(VL - VC)

ϕ VR
I

VC
Applying Pythagoras’s theorem;
2 2
VS = √ (V R +(V L −V C ) )…………………………………………………………. (i)

And the phase angle (between I and VS) is given by;

11
 −1 (V ¿ ¿ L−V C )
ϕ = tan VR
¿ lagging ………………..,…………………..………..…… (ii)

NB: If VL > VC; ϕ is lagging

If VC > VL; ϕ is leading

Impedance of the R-L-C series circuit

VS
Impedance, Z =
I

√ (V 2R +(V L−V C )2 )
Therefore, Z =
I
2 2
(V R +(V L −V C ) )
Therefore, Z = 2
2
I

Therefore, Z2 = R2 + (V L +V C )2
2
Therefore, Z = √ ( R2 + (V L−V C ) ) ……………………………….……………………. (iii)

Equation (iii) may be represented on an impedance triangle as shown below;

When XL > XC, i.e. when ϕ is lagging

V Z
XL XC

ϕ
R

X L− X C
Tan ϕ =
R

−1 X L −X C
Therefore, ϕ = tan lagging ……………………………………………. (iv)
R

12
 When XC > XL, i.e. when ϕ is leading
R
ϕ

XC - XL
V Z

X C− X L
Tan ϕ =
R

X C− X L
Therefore, ϕ = tan−1 leading ………………………………..……………. (v)
R

Example 8
A resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.5H and a capacitance of 100µF are connected in series to a
200V, 50Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The impedance of the circuit
(b) The current in the circuit
(c) The v.d.s across the resistance, the inductance and the capacitance
(d) The phase angle

Sol.
(a) XL = 2 π fL = 2×3.14 × 50 × 0.5 ≅ 157 Ω

1 1 ×10 6
XC = = ≅ 31.85 Ω
2 πfC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×100

Z = √ ( R2 + (X L −X C )2) = √ (122 + (157−31.85)2 ) = 126 Ω

VS 200
(b) I = = ≅ 1.59 A
Z 126

(c) VR = I . R = 1.59 × 12 ≅ 19.1 V

VL = I . XL = 1.59 × 157 ≅ 250 V

VC = I . XC = 1.59 × 31.85 ≅ 50.6 V

−1 X L −X C −1 157−31.85
(d) ϕ = tan = tan ≅ 84.5o lagging
R 12
13
Example 9
A coil with a resistance of 20Ω and an inductance of 0.15H is connected in series with a 100µF
capacitor to a 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The current in the circuit
(b) The v.d.s across the coil and the capacitor
(c) The phase angle of the circuit

Sol.
(a) XL = 2 π fL = 2×3.14 × 50 × 0.15 ≅ 47.1 Ω
6
1 1 ×10
XC = = ≅ 31.85 Ω
2 πfC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×100

Z = √ ( R2 + (X L −X C )2) = √ (202 + (47.1−31.85)2) ≅ 25.2 Ω

VS 230
I = = ≅ 9.14 A
Z 25.2

(b) ZL = √ ( R2 + X L2 ) = √ (202 + 47.12 ) ≅ 51.2 Ω

VL = I . ZL = 9.14 × 51.2 ≅ 468 V

VC = I . XC = 9.14 × 31.85 ≅ 291 V

−1 X L −X C −1 47.1−31.85
(c) ϕ = tan = tan ≅ 37.3o lagging
R 20

Example 10
A coil and a capacitor are connected in series to a 6V, 400Hz supply. The voltage across the coil is 48V
and that across the capacitor is 52V. If the circuit current is 0.1A and the phase angle is 60o leading,
Determine:
(a) The resistance and the inductance of the coil
(b) The capacitance of the capacitor
(c) The impedance of the circuit

Sol.
(a) VR = VS cos ϕ = 6 cos 60o = 6 ×0.5 = 3V

14
 R = VR / I = 3 / 0.1 = 30 Ω

VL = √ (V 2CL - V R2) = √ (48 2 - 32) ≅ 47.9 V

XL = VL / I = 47.9 / 0.1 = 479V

XC 479
L = = ≅ 0.191 H
2 πf 2× 3.14 × 400

(b) XC = VC / I = 52 / 0.1 = 520 V

1 1
C =
2 πf X C
= 2× 3.14 × 400× 520 = 766 nF

(c) Z = VS / I = 6/ 0.1 = 60 Ω

Parallel R-L Circuit

Consider a resistance connected in parallel with an inductance as shown below
I

IR
IL

AC Source VS
R L

Characteristics of the parallel R-L circuit

(i) The supply voltage, VS is across all the components
(ii) The current through the resistance is in phase with VS
(iii) The current through the inductance lags VS by 90o
(iv) The circuit current, I is the vector sum of IR and IL

15
 Phasor diagram VS
ϕ IR

IL
V I

Using Pythagoras’s theorem;

2 2
I = √ (I R + I L )………………………………………………………………. (i)

And the phase angle (between I and VS) is given by;

−1 I L
ϕ = tan lagging …………………………………..…………………… (ii)
IR

Impedance of the parallel R-L circuit

VS 1 I
Since Z = , then Z = V
I S

2 2
1 √ ( I R + I L)
Therefore, =
Z VS

I 2R + I 2L
Therefore,
1
Z ( )=
2
V 2S

1 1 1
Therefore, 2 = 2 + 2
Z R XL

Therefore,
1
Z
= (
1 1
)
√ 2 + 2 …………………………………………………. (iii)
R XL
1
= Admittance, Y
Z
1
= Conductance, G
R
1
= Inductive susceptance, BL
XL
Therefore; Y = √ (G2 + B2L ) …………………………..……..…………… (iv)

Equation (iv) may be represented on an admittance triangle as shown below;

16
 G
ϕ

BL
V Y

BL
Tan ϕ =
G

BL −1 R
Therefore, ϕ = tan−1 = tan X lagging…………………………………. (v)
G L

Example 1
A resistance of 500Ω is connected in parallel with an inductance of 2H to a 250V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate:
(a) The branch currents
(b) The circuit current
(c) The impedance of the circuit
(d) The phase angle

Sol.
VS 250
(a) IR = = = 0.5 A
R 500
XL = 2 π fL = 2×3.14 × 50 × 2 ≅ 628 Ω
VS 250
IL = = = 0.398A
XL 628
(b) I = √ (I 2R + I 2L ) = √ (0.52 +0.398 2) = 0.639 A
V 250
(c) Z = S = = 391Ω
I 0.639
−1 R −1 500
(d) ϕ = tan X = tan = 38.5o lagging
L 628

Parallel R-C Circuit

Consider a resistance connected in parallel with a capacitance as shown below

17
 I

IR IC

AC Source VS
R C

Characteristics of the parallel R-C circuit

(i) The supply voltage, VS is across all the components
(ii) The current through the resistance is in phase with VS
(iii) The current through the capacitance leads VS by 90o
(iv) The circuit current, I is the vector sum of IR and IL

Phasor diagram V I
IC

ϕ IR
VS

Using Pythagoras’s theorem;

I = √ (I 2R + I 2C )………………………………………………………………. (i)

And the phase angle (between I and VS) is given by;

−1 IC
ϕ = tan leading …………………………………..…………………… (ii)
IR

Impedance of the parallel R-C circuit

VS 1 I
Since Z = , then Z = V
I S

2 2
1 √ ( I R + I C)
Therefore, =
Z VS
18
 2 2

Therefore,
1
Z ( )=2
I R+ I C
VS
2

1 1 1
Therefore, 2 = 2 + 2
Z R XC

Therefore,
1
Z
=
1
( 1
)
√ 2 + 2 …………………………………………………. (iii)
R XC

1
= Admittance, Y
Z
1
= Conductance, G
R
1
= Capacitive susceptance, BC
XL
Therefore; Y = √ (G2 + B2C ) ………………………………………..…………… (iv)
Equation (iv) may be represented on an admittance triangle as shown below;

V Y BC

ϕ
G

BC
Tan ϕ =
G

BL −1 R
Therefore, ϕ = tan−1 = tan X leading…………………………………. (v)
G C

Example 2
A 1.2kΩ resistor is connected in parallel with 2µF capacitor to a 240V, 60Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The branch currents
(b) The circuit current
(c) The impedance of the circuit
(d) The phase angle

Sol.
VS 240
(a) IR = = = 0.2 A
R 1200

19
 6
1 1 ×10
XC = = ≅ 1327 Ω
2 πfC 2× 3.14 ×60 ×2
VS 240
IC = = = 0.18A
XC 1327
(b) I = √ (I 2R + I 2C ) = √ (0.22 +0.182 ) = 0.27 A
V 240
(c) Z = S = = 890Ω
I 0.27
−1 R −1 1200
(d) ϕ = tan X = tan = 42.1o leading
C 1327

The Parallel R-L-C Circuit

I

IR
IL IC

AC Source VS
R L C

Characteristics of the parallel R-L-C circuit

(i) The supply voltage, VS is across all the components
(ii) The current through the resistance is in phase with VS
(iii) The current through the inductance lags VS by 90o
(iii) The current through the capacitance leads VS by 90o
(iv) The circuit current, I is the vector sum of IR, IL and IC

20
 Phasor diagram (Assuming IL > IC)
IC

VS
ϕ IR
IL - IC

V I

IL
Using Pythagoras’s theorem;
2 2
I = √ (I R + ( I L−I C ) )………………………………………………………………. (i)

And the phase angle (between I and VS) is given by;

−1 I L −I C
ϕ = tan lagging …………………………….………..…………………… (ii)
IR

N.B: When IL > IC, the phase angle, ϕ is lagging

But when IC > IL, the phase angle, ϕ is leading

Impedance of the parallel R-L-C circuit

VS 1 I
Since Z = , then Z = V
I S

2 2
1 √ ( I R + ( I L −I C ) )
Therefore, =
Z VS

Therefore, ( Z1 ) = ¿ ¿
2

( )
2
1 1 1 1
Therefore, 2 = 2 + X − X
Z R L C

( ( ) ) ……………………………………………. (iii)
2
1 1 1 1
Therefore, = √ 2+ −
Z R X L XC

21
 1
= Admittance, Y
Z
1
= Conductance, G
R
1
= Inductive susceptance, BL
XL
1
= Capacitive susceptance, BC
XC
2 2
Therefore; Y = √ (G + ( B L−BC ) ) ………………………………………..…………… (iv)
Equation (iv) may be represented on admittance triangles as shown below;

(a) When IL > IC or XC > XL:

G
ϕ

BL - BC
V Y

(b) When IC > IL or XL > XC:

V Y BC - BL

ϕ
G
B L −B C
Tan ϕ =
G

Therefore, ϕ = tan−1
BL −BC
G
−1 1
( 1
)
= tan R X − X ……………………………. (v)
L C

N.B: When XC > XL, ϕ is lagging

When XL > XC, ϕ is leading

Example 3
A resistance of 50Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitance of 100µF are connected in parallel to a
100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The branch currents
(b) The circuit current and the impedance
(c) The phase angle
22
Sol.
VS 100
(a) IR = = = 2A
R 50
XL = 2 π fL = 2×3.14 × 50 × 0.15 ≅ 47.1 Ω
VS 100
IL = = = 2.12A
XL 47.1
6
1 1 ×10
XC = = ≅ 31.85 Ω
2 πfC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×100
VS 100
IC = = = 3.14A
XC 31.85
` (b) I = √ ¿ = √ ¿ = 2.25A
V 100
Z = S = = 44.5Ω
I 2.25
−1
( 1 1
(c) ϕ = tan R X − X = tan 50
L
)
C
−1
(1
47.1
−
1
31.85 )
= 27.0o leading

RESONANCE
Electrical resonance is a condition in an R-L-C series or parallel ac circuit in which the circuit current is
in phase with the supply voltage. This comes about when the circuit’s inductive and the capacitive
effects are equal and therefore neutralize each other. The resonant circuit behaves like a purely resistive
circuit.
Resonance occurs at a particular frequency for a given R-L-C circuit. This is called the resonance
frequency of the circuit.

Series Resonance
This occurs in an R-L-C series circuit when the capacitive reactance and the inductive reactance are
equal and neutralize each other. The effective impedance of the series resonant circuit is therefore equal
to the resistance of the circuit.
Since Z = √ ( R2 + ( X L −X C )2)
When XL = XC; Z = R
The series resonant circuit behaves like a purely resistive circuit and the phase angle is zero.
Since at resonance the impedance is only due to the resistance, the impedance is a minimum and the
circuit current is a maximum. Thus a series resonant circuit is called an acceptor circuit.

23
 Variation of Z and I with frequency in a series ac circuit

I
fr = Resonance frequency

Z
R
f
fr
The series resonance frequency, fr may be derived as follows:
Since XL = XC
1
Then 2 π fL =
2 πfC
4 π fr L C = 1
2 2

1
∴ fr =
2 π √ ( L C)

Example 1
A coil with an inductance of 0.4H and a resistance of 25Ω is connected in series with 100nF capacitor to
10V variable frequency supply. Determine:
(a) The resonance frequency
(b) The impedance and the circuit current at fr
(c) The v.d.s across the coil and the capacitor at fr

Sol.
1 1
(a) fr = = = 796Hz
2 π √ ( L C) 2× 3.14 ×√ ( 0.4 ×100 × 10−9 )
(b) Z = R = 25Ω
VS 10
I = = = 0.4A
R 25
(c) XL = 2 π fL = 2×3.14 × 796 × 0.4 ≅ 2000 Ω
ZL = √ ( R2 + X 2L) = √ ( 25 +2000 )
2 2
≅ 2000Ω
VCL = I× Z L= 0.4 × 2000 = 800V
XC = XL = 2000Ω
VC = I × XC = 0.4 ×2000 = 800V

24
Voltage Magnification in a Series Resonant Circuit
Since the current is a maximum in a series resonant circuit, while XL and XC may have any value, the
values of VL and VC may be higher than the value of VS. This phenomenon is called voltage
magnification. The ratio of VL or VC to VS is called the magnification factor, Q.
I.e. Magnification factor, Q = VL / VS = VC / VS

Since VL = I∙XL, VC = I∙XC and VS = I∙R; then Q = XL/R = XC/R

N.B.:
a) The magnification factor is inversely proportional to the value of R. When R is the
resistance of the coil, the ratio Q is also called the quality factor of the coil since it
determines the selectivity of a tuning circuit made up of a coil and a capacitor.
b) Magnification also occurs at frequencies at frequencies close to the resonance
frequency, fr

Example 2
A coil has a resistance of 200Ω and an inductance of 5H. Resonance occurs when it is connected in
series with a capacitor to a 20V, 1kHz supply. Calculate:
a) The value of the capacitor
b) The magnification factor
c) The voltage across the capacitor at resonance
Sol.
1
(a) fr =
2 π √ ( L C)
1 1
∴c= 2 2 = = 5.07×10-6 = 5.07µF
4 π ×fr×L 4 × 3.14 ×10002 × 5
2

(b) XL = 2 π fL = 2×3.14 × 1000 × 5 ≅ 31.4 kΩ

Q = XL/R = 31400/200 = 157

(c) VL = VS × Q = 20×157 = 3.14kV

Parallel Resonance
In a parallel RLC circuit, resonance occurs when the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance
become equal and neutralize each other. The effective impedance is then equal to the resistance of the
circuit.

( ( ) ), when X = X
2
1 1 1 1
Since
Z
= √ 2+ X − X L C
R L C

( ) =0
2
1 1
Then −
X L XC
25
 Therefore, Z =
1
√( 1
R )
2
,
1
Z
=
1
R
and Z = R

Also since XC = XL, IL = IC. I.e. the currents in the inductive and the capacitive branches
cancel out making the circuit current equal to the current in the resistive branch.
1
Since XL = XC, the resonance frequency, fr = 2 π √ ( L C ) just like in the series resonant
circuit.
As the circuit is effectively resistive, the phase angle of the circuit is zero, i.e. the circuit
current is in phase with the supply voltage.
At parallel resonance, the effective impedance is a maximum making the circuit current a
minimum. The parallel resonant circuit is thus called a rejector circuit.
Variation of Z and I with frequency in a parallel ac circuit

fr = Resonance frequency

Z
f
fr

Current magnification in a parallel resonant circuit

Since the circuit current depends on the resistive branch while the currents in the other branches
may have any value, the values of IL and IC may be greater than the circuit current at fr. This
phenomenon is called current magnification. The ratio of IL or IC to I is called the current
magnification factor of the parallel resonant circuit.
Magnification factor, Q = IL/I = IC/I
Since IL = VS/XL and I = VS/R,

VS VS V R R
Then, Q =
XL
÷ = XS × V = X
R L S L

R
Also since XC = XL , Q = X
C

Example1
26
A 5kΩ resistor, a 0.5H inductor and a 2µF capacitor are connected in parallel to a 100V, variable
frequency supply. Calculate:
(a) The resonance frequency
(b) The circuit current
(c)|Currents IL and IC
(d) The magnification factor

Solution:
1 1
(a) fr = = = 159 Hz
2 π √ ( L C) 6.28 √ ( 0.5 × 2×10−6 )

(b) I = IR = VS/R = 100/5000 = 0.02 A = 20mA

(c) XC = XL = 2 π fL = 6.28 × 159 × 0.5 = 500Ω

IL = IC = VS/XL = 100/500 = 0.2A

(d) Magnification factor, Q = R/XL = 5000/500 = 10.0

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

Power in AC resistive circuits

Since a resistive load can only convert electrical energy into heat energy and not vice versa, the power
dissipated is true power or active power, P.
2
Vr
P = I r .R = V r . I r =
2
watts
R

Power in an inductive circuit

The nature of the power in an inductive circuit can be determined by plotting the graphs
of IL and VL and that of their product on the same axes (taking into consideration that IL
lags VL by 90o).
27
 +Ve Power

IL

Voltage,
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 Ө
Current 0
& Power

VL
-Ve

Note that:
(a) The power waveform is sinusoidal with twice the frequency of voltage and current waveforms

(b) Between 0o and 90o, the current is rising and building up a magnetic field around the coil, i.e. energy
is being stored

(c) Between 90o and 180o, the current is decreasing leading to a collapse of the magnetic field. The
stored energy is being returned to the circuit.

(d) Between 180o and 360o, the current rises and then falls in the negative direction. Energy is taken
from and then returned to the circuit.

(e) Power is positive while energy is being taken from the circuit and negative while energy is being
returned to the circuit. The average power per cycle of the applied voltage is zero, i.e. the true power in
an inductive circuit is zero.

The product of the current and the voltage in an inductive circuit does not represent true power. The
product represents the rate at which electrical energy is taken from and returned to the circuit. This
product is called the reactive power of the inductive load and its units are volt-amperes-reactive (vars).

Reactive power, QL = IL.VL Vars ……………………………….……… (i)

Since IL = VL/XL and VL = IL.XL;

Then the reactive power; QL = I L . X L Vars ………………………… (ii)

2

2
VL
QL = Vars …………………..……… (iii)
XL

28
Example 1
An inductor of 5H draws a current of 0.5A from a 50Hz ac supply. Calculate the reactive power of the
circuit.
Sol.:
XL = 2 π fL = 6.28 ×50 ×5 = 157Ω
QL = I L . X L = 052 × 157 = 39.25Vars
2

Power in a capacitive circuit

The current in a purely capacitive circuit leads the voltage by 90o. The nature of the power in the circuit
can be investigated by plotting the graphs of IC, VC and the graph of their product on the same axes (as
shown below).
+Ve Power
VC

IC

Voltage,
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 Ө
Current 0
& Power

-Ve

From the above diagram, it can be noted that;

(a) The power waveform is sinusoidal with twice the frequency of voltage and current waveforms

(b) The power waveform is alternately positive and negative for equal intervals of time

(c) The power waveform is positive when VC is rising, i.e. the capacitor is being charged to store energy

(d) The power waveform is negative when VC is decreasing, i.e. the capacitor is discharging. The stored
energy is being returned to the circuit.

29
(e) The average power over a cycle is zero which means that the product of IC and VC does not represent
true power

The product of IC and VC represents the rate at which electrical energy is taken from and returned to the
circuit. This product is the reactive power of capacitive load and its units are volt-amperes-reactive
(Vars).

Reactive power, QC = IC.VC Vars ……………………………….……… (i)

Since IC = VC/XC and VC = IC.XC;

Then the reactive power; QC = I C . X C Vars ………………………… (ii)

2

2
VC
QC = Vars …………………..………. (iii)
XC

Example 2
Calculate the value of a capacitor which will have a reactive factor of 50vars when connected to a 120V,
50Hz supply.
2
VC
Sol. QC =
XC
2
VC 1202
XC = = = 288Ω
QC 50

1 1 1
XC = , C = = ≅ 11.1µF
2 πfC 2 πf X C 6.28× 50 ×288

Power in an RL series circuit

This circuit is equivalent of many industrial loads, e.g. electric motors as these consist of coils with
resistance.
Consider a circuit whose resistance and inductive reactance are equal. Under such conditions, the phase
angle is 45o lagging. The nature of power in such a circuit can be studied by plotting the graphs of the
current, the voltage and that of their product, on the same axes (as shown below).

30
 +Ve
Power

VS

I
Voltage,
Current 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 Ө
& Power 0

-Ve

From the above diagram, it can be noted that;

(a) The power waveform is sinusoidal with twice the frequency of voltage and current waveforms. Its x-
axis is displace upwards compared to the normal axis
(b) The waveform is neither all positive (as for the purely resistive load) nor equally positive and
negative (as for the reactive loads)
(c) The positive amplitudes are greater than the negative amplitudes showing that the average power
over a cycle is not zero. There is some true power dissipated in the circuit due to the resistance.
(d) The product of the current and the voltage is neither equal to the true power nor is it equal to the
reactive power in the circuit. The product represents the rate at which energy is taken from the circuit
(irrespective of the amount utilized)
(e) The product of I and VS in this circuit gives the apparent power measured in volt-amperes (VAs)

Apparent power, S = I × VS ………………………………..……………………. (i)

Since; I = VS/Z and VS = I×Z,

Then apparent power, S = I2 × Z ……….……………………………..………… (ii)

V 2S
And S = ……………………………..…………….………… (iii)
Z

Example 3

31
An electric motor draws a current of 3A at a phase angle of 36.9o lagging from a 240V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate the apparent power of the circuit.

Sol.
S = I × VS = 3 ×240 = 720 VA

The power triangle

Consider a series RL circuit;
The true power, P = I.VR

The reactive power, Q = I.VL

The apparent power, S = I.VS

And VS = √ (V 2R +V 2L )

Therefore, V S = V R +V L
2 2 2

Multiplying the whole equation by I2 gives;

(I.VS)2 = (I.VR)2 + (I.VL)2 \

Therefore, S2 = P2 + Q2 …………………………………………… (i)

Since the above equation obeys Pythagoras theorem, the relationship may be represented on a right
angled triangle (called the power triangle) as shown below:

The power triangle:

V S Q

ϕ ϕ is the phase angle of the circuit

P

Therefore;

P = S cos ϕ .............................................................. (ii)

Q = S sin ϕ ............................................................... (iii)

−1 Q −1 P
ϕ = tan S = cos S …………………….. (iv)

The power factor (p.f.)

32
This is defined as the ratio of the true power to the apparent power. It is also equal to the cosine of the
phase angle of the circuit (cos ϕ). Thus P = S cos ϕ = S x p.f.

The power factor is a measure of the fraction of the apparent power supplied that is true power. If the
p.f. is zero, this implies that there is no true power. If the p.f. is 1.0 (unity), this implies that all the
apparent power is true power.

N.B: Inductive loads have a lagging p.f. while capacitive loads have a leading p.f.

The reactive factor (r.f.)

This is defined as the ratio of the reactive power to the apparent power. It is equal to the sine of the
phase angle of the circuit (sin ϕ). Thus Q = S sin ϕ = S x r.f.

Example 4
An inductive load draws a current of 10A at a phase angle of 30o from a 250V, 50Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The apparent power
(b) The power factor
(c) The true power
(d) The reactive power

Sol.
(a) S = I x VS = 10 x 250 = 2.5 kVA
(b) P.f. = cos ϕ = cos 30o = 0.866 lag.
(c) P = S cos ϕ = 2.5 x 0.866 = 2.17 kW
(d) Q = S sin ϕ = 2.5 x sin 30o = 2.5 x 0.5 = 1.25 kVar

Example 5
A lamp rated 100W/120W is to be used on 240V, 50Hz supply by connecting it in series with a suitable
current limiting capacitor. Calculate:
(a) The value of the capacitor
(b) The p.f. of the circuit

Sol.
(a) I = P/VR = 100/120 = 0.833A
VC = √ V 2S −V 2R = √ 2402−1202 = 207.8V
XC = VC/I = 207.8/0.833 = 249.5Ω

33
 1 1
C= = = 12.8µF
2 πf X C 6.28× 50 ×249.5

−1 VC −1 207.8
(b) ϕ = tan =¿ tan = 60o
VR 120

P.f. = cos ϕ = cos 60o = 0.5 lead.

Example 6
A 100Ω resistance and a 100µF capacitance are connected in series to a 240V, 50Hz supply. Determine:
(a) The impedance of the circuit
(b) The circuit current
(c) The phase angle
(d) The apparent power
(e) The true power

Sol.
1 1
(a) XC = = −6 = 31.85Ω
2 π fC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×100 ×10

Z = √ ( R2 + X 2c) = √ (1002 +31.852) ≅ 104.9Ω

(b) I = VS/Z = 240/104.9 = 2.29A

XC −1 31.85
(c) ϕ = tan−1 =¿ tan = 17.67o lead.
R 100

(d) S = I.VS = 2.29 x 240 = 549VA

(e) P = S cos ϕ = 549 x cos 17.67 = 549 x 0.9528 = 523W

Example 7
An industrial installation has a total load of 100kW and the supply voltage is 415V, 50Hz. Calculate the
apparent power and the current drawn from the supply when the power factor is:
(a) 0.5 lagging
(b) Unity

Sol.
P 100
(a) S1 = = = 200 kVA
cos ϕ 1 0.5
34
 I1 = S1/VS = 200,000/415 = 482A

P 100
(b) S2 = = = 100 kVA
cos ϕ 2 1.0
I2 = S2/VS = 100,000/415 = 241 A

Power factor correction

It is obvious from Example 7 that a low power factor causes an unnecessarily high current to be drawn
from the supply. This is undesirable because the higher the current;
(a) The bigger the supply cables, the transformers and switchgear which need to be used

(b) The bigger the size of the alternators which need to be used to be used to supply the load

(c) The larger the power losses which occur in the supply lines

(d) The higher the voltage regulation due to the increased v.d.s in the power lines

For the above reasons, power supply companies’ require large consumers to maintain the power factors
of their installations at a value of 0.9 or higher.

Most industrial loads have considerable inductive reactance and consequently have lagging power
factors. When a capacitance is connected in parallel with an inductive load, the p.f. of the circuit is
raised because the capacitive reactance partially or fully cancels out the inductive reactance. The process
of raising the p.f. of a load or installation is called p.f. correction or improvement.

Example 8
An electric motor draws a current of 10A at a p.f. of 0.7 lagging from a 240V, 50Hz supply. Determine
the value of the capacitance required to improve the p.f. to:
(a) Unity
(b) 0.9 lagging

Sol.
(a) ϕ1 = cos-1 0.7 = 45.57o
S = I.VS = 10 x 240 = 2400VA
P = S x cos ϕ1 = 2400 x 0.7 = 1680W
QC = QL = √ S 2−P2 = √ 24002−16802 = 1714Vars
2
VS 240 2
XC = = = 33.6Ω
QC 1714

35
 1 1
C= = = 94.8 µF
2 π f XC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×33.6
(b) ϕ2 = cos-1 0.9 = 25.84o
QC = P (tan ϕ2 – tan ϕ2 ) = 1680 (tan 45.57o – tan 25.94o)
= 1680 (1.020 – 0.4843) = 901Vars
2
VS 240
2
XC = = = 63.9Ω
QC 901
1 1
C= = = 49.8 µF
2 π f XC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×63.9

Example 9
An alternator can supply a true power of 300kW at a p.f. of 0.6 lagging. If the p.f. is improved to unity,
calculate the additional true power the alternator can then supply.
Sol.

At unity p.f., P2 = S = P1/cos ϕ1 = 300/0.6 = 500 kW

Additional power supplied = P2 – P1 = 500 – 300 = 200 kW

Example 10
An electric motor operating from a 400V, 50Hz supply develops 10kW with an efficiency of 85% and a
p.f. of 0.7 lagging. Calculate:
(a) The apparent power
(b) The active and the reactive components of the current
(c) The capacitance required to correct the p.f. to 0.9 lagging

Sol.
(a) True input power, Pi = Po x 100/Efficiency = 10 x 100/85 = 11.76 kW
Apparent power, S = Pi /p.f. = 11.76/0.7 = 16.8 kVA

(b) I = S/VS = 16800/400 = 42A

Active component of I, IA = I x p.f. = 42 x 0.7 = 29.4A
Reactive component of I, IR = √ I 2 −I 2A = √ 422−29.4 2 = 30A

(c) ϕ2 = cos-1 0.9 = 25.84o, ϕ1 = cos-1 0.7 = 45.57o

36
 QC = P (tan ϕ2 – tan ϕ2 ) = 11760 (tan 45.57o – tan 25.94o)
= 11760 (1.020 – 0.4843) = 6300Vars
2
VS 400
2
XC = = = 25.4Ω
QC 6300
1 1
C= = = 126 µF
2 π f XC 2× 3.14 ×50 ×25.4

Example 11
A load takes a current of 100A at a p.f. of 0.7 lagging from a 230V, 50Hz supply. Another load takes a
current of 44A at a p.f. of 0.9 leading from the same supply. Calculate:
(a) The total true power
(b) The total reactive power
(c) The overall apparent power
(d) The total current drawn from the supply and its p.f.

Sol.
(a) P1 = I1 . VS cos ϕ1 = 100 x 230 x 0.7 = 16.1 kW

P2 = I2 . VS cos ϕ2 = 44 x 230 x 0.9 = 9.11 kW

Pt = P1 + P2 = 16.1 + 9.11 = 25.21 kW

(b) ϕ1 = cos-1 0.7 = 45.57o lag.

ϕ2 = cos-1 0.9 = 25.84o lead.

QL = I1 . VS sin ϕ1 = 100 x 230 x sin45.57o = 23000 x 0.7141 = 16.43 kVars

QC = I2 . VS sin ϕ2 = 44 x 230 x sin25.84o = 10120 x 0.4349 = 4.41 kVars

Qt = QL – QC = 16.43 – 4.41 = 12.02 kVar

(c) St = √ P2t −Q2t = √ 25.212−12.022 = 27.9 kVA

(d) I = St/VS = 27900/230 = 121A

37
 Overall p.f. = Pt/St = 25.21/27.9 = 0.904 lag.

Methods of p.f. correction

(a) Use of static capacitor banks – These capacitors may be connected across individual loads or to the
whole installation at the intake point.

(b) Use of 3-phase synchronous motors – Overexcited synchronous motors draw a leading p.f. and may
be used to correct the p.f. of large installations or distribution systems.

(c) Use of phase advancers – These are small dynamos (dc generators) mounted on the shafts of 3-phase
wound-rotor induction motors. The outputs of the dynamos are fed to the wound rotors and cause the
wound-rotor motors to behave like 3-phase synchronous motors.

38