IRC:SP:91 -2010

GUIDELINES
FOR
ROAD TUNNELS

Published by :

INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Kama Koti Marg,
Sector 6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi - 110022
NOVEMBER - 2010

Price Rs. 4001-

(Packing & postage charges extra)
IRC:SP:91-2010

First Published November, 2010

(All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication shall be reproduced, translated or

transmitted in any form or by any means without the permission of the
Indian Roads Congress)

Printed at : IG Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

(500 Copies)
 IRC:SP:91 -201 0

CONTENTS

Page No.

Personnel of Highways Specifications & Standards Committee

s ection

1. Introduction 1

2. Planning of Road Tunnels 7

3. Geo-Technical Investigations 19

4. Structural Design 27

5. Tunnel Construction Methodology 40

6. Safety During Construction of Tunnels 69

7. Ventilation and Lighting 79

8. Operation and Maintenance 88

Annex - A Terminology 98
Annex - B Environment Management Plan for Road Tunnels 102

Annex - C Core Log - 1 111

Annex - D Tunnel Instrumentation 11 2

Appendix - I Classification & Characteristics of Rock 116

Appendix - II Data Sheet of Geomechanical Classification of Rock 119

Masses and Assesment of Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
After Bieniawski 1989)

Appendix - Ill Data Sheet of Geomechanical Classification of Rock 121

Masses for Assesment of Tunnelling Quality Index
(After Barton ET AL 1974)

Appendix - IV Example for Determination of RMR & Q Values & 124

Support Requirements

Appendix - V Supports in The Tunnel 126

Codes of Practice/Acts/Rules for Tunnelling Work 127

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IRC:SP:91-2010

PERSONNEL OF THE HIGHWAYS SPECIFICATIONS AND

STANDARDS COMMITTEE
(As on 1 st May, 2010)

Sinha, AV. Director General (RD) & Spl. Secretary, Ministry of

1.
(Convenor) Road Transport & Highways, New Delhi
Puri, S.K. Addi. Director General, Ministry of Road
2.
(Co-Convenor) Transport & Highways, New Delhi
Kandasamy, C. Chief Engineer (R) S&R, Ministry of Road
3.
(Member-Secretary) Transport & Highways, New Delhi

Members

4. Datta, P.K. Executive Director, Consulting Engg. Services (I)

Pvt. Ltd ., New Delh i
5. Gupta, K.K. Chief Engineer (Retd.), Haryana PWD
6. Sinha, S. Addi. Chief Transportation Engineer, CIDCO,
Navi Mumbai
7. Kadiyali, Dr. L.R. Chief Executive, L.R.Kadiyali & Associates, New Delhi
8. Katare, P.K. Director (Projects-Ill), National Rural Roads
Development Agency, (Ministry of Rural Development),
New Delhi
9. Jain, Dr. S.S. Professor & Coordinator, Centre of Transportation
Engg., llT Roorkee, Roorkee
10. Reddy, K Siva Engineer-in-Chief (R&B) Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad
11. Basu, S.B. Chief Engineer (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, New Delhi
12. Bordoloi, A.C. Chief Engineer (NH) Assam, Guwahati
13. Rathore, S.S. Principal Secretary to the Govt. of Gujarat, R&B Deptt.
Gandhinagar
14. Pradhan, B.C. Chief Engineer (NH), Govt. of Orissa, Bhubaneshwar
15. Prasad, D.N. Chief Engineer (NH), RCD , Patna
16. Kumar, Ashok Chief Engineer, Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, New Delhi
17. Kumar, Kamlesh Chief Engineer, Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, New Delhi
18. Krishna , Prabhat Chief Engineer, (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, New Delhi
19. Patankar, V.L. Member (Tech.), National Highways Authority of India
New Delhi
20. Kumar, Mahesh Engineer-in-Chief, Haryana PWD
21 . Bongirwar, P.L. Advisor L&T, Mumbai
IRC:SP:91-2010

22. Sinha, A.K. Chief Engineer, (NH) , UP, PWD, Lucknow

23. Sharma. S.C. Director General (RD) & AS (Retd.), MoRT&H,
New Delhi
24. Sharma Dr. V.M. Consultant, AIMIL, New Delhi
25. Gupta, D.P. Director Genera (RD) & AS (Retd.), MoRT&H ,
New Delhi
26. Momin, S.S. Former Member, Maharashtra Public Service
Commission, Mumbai
27. Reddy, Dr. T.S. Ex-Scientist, Central Road Research Institute,
New Delhi
28. Shukla, R.S. Ex- Scientist, Central Road Research Institute,
New Delhi
29. Jain, R.K. Chief Engineer (Retd.) Haryana PWD, Sonepat
30. Chandrasekhar, Dr. B.P. Director (Tech.), National Rural Roads Development
Agency (Ministry of Rural Development), New Delhi
31 . Singh, B.N. Member (Tech.), National Highways Authority of India
New Delhi
32. Nashkar, S.S. Chief Engineer (NH), PW (R), Kolkata
33. Raju , Dr. G.V.S. Chief Engineer (R&B), Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad
34. Alam , Parwez Vice-President, Hindustan Constn. Co. Ltd .,
35. Gangopadhyay, Dr. S. Director, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
36. Singh, Nirmal Jit Director General (RD) & SS (Retd.), MoRT&H,
New Delhi
37. Sinha, V.K. Director General (RD) & SS (Retd.), MoRT&H,
New Delhi
38. Jain, N.S. Chief Engineer (Retd.), MoRT&H , New Delhi
39. Chief Engineer (Pig.) Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, New Delhi
40. Representative Director General Border Roads , New Delhi

EX-Officio Members

1. President, IRC (Liansanga), Engineer-in-Chief and Secretary, PWD

Mizoram, Aizawl
2. Director (General) RD & (Sinha, A.V.) Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Spl. Secretary New Delhi
3. Secretary General (lndoria, R.P.) Indian Roads Congress, Nlew Delhi

Corresponding Members

1. Justo, Dr. C.E.G. Emeritus Fellow, Bangalore University, Bangalore

2. Khattar, M.D. Consultant, Runwal Centre, Mumbai
3. Agarwal, M.K. Engineer-in-Chief (Retd.), Haryana PWD
4. Borge, V.B. Secretary (Roads) (Retd.), Maharashtra PWD, Mumbai

ii
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IRC:SP:91-201 O

1 INTRODUCTION

The Road Tunnels Committee (H-7) of the IRC was constituted in August 2006. The
Personnel of the H-7 Committee are as under:

Momin, S.S. Convenor

Vidwans, R.M. Co-Convenor
Mahale, J.G. Member-Secretary
Members
Bhandari, R.C. Patel, Saurin
Chopade, R.M. Ragavan, N.
Dutt, Sunil Rajvanshi, U.S.
Iyer, J. Chandrashekar Singh, Mangu
Jethwa, Dr. J. L. Saini, M.l.S.
Kulkarni, S.R. Rep. DGBR
Kumar, Vinod Rep. E-in-C PWD, Uttarakhand
Maji, Dr. Vidya Bhushan Rep. E-in-C PWD, HP
Nandargikar, S.R. (Bhuvan Sharma)
Navalkar, C.B. Rep. Secy. PWD, Tamil Nadu
Pandit, Ashish
Ex-officio Members
President, IRC (Liansanga)
DG (RD) & SS, MORTH (Sinha, AV. )
Secretary General, IRC (lndoria, R.P.)

This is the first time that such guidelines are being prepared for Road Tunnels in
the country by the IRC. Therefore, the Committee in its first meeting held on 18th
Oct, 2006 discussed the scope as suggested by IRC and decided upon various
topics to be taken up by the members. The Committee had several meetings and
prepared a draft for consideration of Highway Specification and Standards (HSS)
Committee. The draft was placed before the Highway Specification and Standards
(HSS) Committee on 1st May, 2010, wherein some comments were offered for
incorporation.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

The revised draft incorporating the comments of the Highway Specification and Standards
(HSS) Committee was presented before the Council in its 191 st meeting held on 22nd May,
201 Oat Munnar (Kerala). The document after discussion was approved by the Council for
printing as a publication of IRC. The valuable contributions of the members of the Road
Tunnels Committee (H-7) and suggestions of members of Highway Specification and
Standards (HSS) Committee and Council members are hereby acknowledged.

1.1 Tunnels are introduced into the road system in mountainous terrain to negotiate
mountain ranges and reduce the road length. The tunnels may also be introduced to avoid
passage through snow bound areas or pass below sea, creeks and rivers or even to
cross thickly populated urban areas etc. A road tunnel may also be considered in open
country on environmental grounds to protect areas of ecological interest. The fundamental
objective of road tunnel is to ensure safe transit of the road traffic in difficult terrain.

1.2 The decision to introduce a tunnel in a road system largely depends upon
the cost benefit ratio, traffic volume, category of road etc. Cost of Tunnelling is much
more than that of open excavation. The tu nnel cost is mainly dependent on topography,
geology and access. For expressways and high density corridors passing through
mountain ranges the option of tunnel is generally more economical considering life-
cycle cost and overall saving for the traffic using the shorter route.

1.3 The planning, design and construction of a road tunnel is a complex inter-
disciplinary task and requires expertise in different fields. The planning and design involves
site investigation, physical planning, conceptual design and detailed design with due
consideration for construction methods. All these aspects, construction methods, lighting
and ventilation, safety and operation and maintenance are dealt with in further sections.

1.4 Terminology: Annex-A contains definitions of terms that relate to planning,

design, construction and operation and maintenance of road tunnels.

1.5 Classification of Road Tunnels

1.5.1 Location wise
• Underground Tunnels: These are subterranean structures constructed
by Tunnelling methods.
• Underwater Tunnels: These are tunnels constructed by Tunnelling
methods below the bed or by placing precast segments/tubes, below
water bodies.
• Cut and Cover Tunnels: These are ducts constructed in open pits with
the space outside the ducts back-filled to original ground level.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

• Over ground Tunnels: Ducts constructed over the ground for protecting
roads in landslide/avalanche areas.

1.5.2 Shape wise

• 'D' Section : 'D' sections are most suitable for transportation tunnels.
The flat invert of 'D' shape greatly facilitates construction. However,
this section is not suitable for tunnels in soft ground.

2
AREA = 0.905 D
PERIMETER = 3.58 D

0- Section

1
----____--.J J
• Circular Section: Circular sections are structurally the best and are
commonly used for underwater tunnels, tunnels through soft ground
and for tunnels excavated with tunnel boring machines.

• Horseshoe Section: Horseshoe and Modified Horseshoe sections are

a compromise between 'D' Section and Circular Section and have
added advantage for accommodation of utility services, better head
room , etc.

3
IRC:SP:91-2010

2
AREA= 0.7860
PERIMETER = 3.14 D

+
Circular Section

2
AREA= 0.8293 o
PERIMETER= 3.267 D

;/
/
/
_/

Horseshoe Section Modified Horseshoe Section

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

• Egg Shaped Sections: Egg shaped and egglipse sections are best
suited for sewerage tunnels because of their hydraulic properties. They
are also used for road tunnels with high vertical pressure.

T AREA= 0.864 D2
. . . . - - - - -----:,,........--._:
PERJMETER • 3.317 0

1.
1.170

---+-
- 0' -- - -

Egg Shaped Section Egglipse Section

1.5.3 Construction method wise

• Drill and Blast Method: This method is suitable in medium and hard
strata. It is also adopted where excavation with machines like TBM, Road
Headers etc becomes unfeasible due to very high strength of rock.
• No-Blast Excavation: This method mainly envisages the use of Tunnel
Shields, Road Headers and Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM). These
techniques are suitable for various strata, to avoid vibrations and for
faster progress.

1.5.4 Length wise

• Short tunnels: Up to 500 m length
• Medium tunnels: Over 500 m to 1500 m length
Long tunnels: Over more than 1500 m length

(NOTE: For classification of tunnels on length basis for Expressways refer para 6.2 of
"Guidelines for Expressways VOL II: DESIGN")

1.5.5 Side coverage wise

Full Tunnel: Where side cover is adequate and full section tunnel is
possible.
• Half Tunnel: Where side cover is inadequate on valley side for full
section.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

1.6 Distinctive Features of Tunnelling

Following distinctive features of Tunnelling shall be kept in mind while planning and
designing,
Space inside tunnel is limited and therefore calls for use of specially
designed plant and equipment.
• Due to space limitations and linear nature of work, not many operations
can be carried out simultaneously, particularly at the tunnel face . Delay
caused at any stage gets carried through and can rarely be made up
Conventional methods of Tunnelling are normally with cyclic drilling
and blasting.
• Adequate ventilation and lighting need to be provided during
construction.
• Even in the compact and hard rock, possibility of meeting jointed and
weak zones, leading to accidental rock falls can not be ruled out.
A tunnel can pass through complex geological formations wherein
adverse geological occurrences like rock bursting, squeezing, swelling,
sudden ingress of water, emission of inflammable, poisonous & noxious
gases and high geothermic zones could be encountered.
• Urban tunnels pass below populated areas and built-in structures
where surface subsidence and ground vibrations are of paramount
consideration.
• Non-urban tunnels could pass below reserved forests containing
flora and fauna . It would therefore be necessary to ensure that
Tunnelling techniques chosen are such that disturbance and damage
to environment is avoided or at least minimized.
Efficient Tunnelling calls for a good understanding and appreciation of
the geological aspects. Modern techniques call for the application of
the right amount of appropriate supports applied at the optimum time,
based on sound understanding of geology and rock mechanics.
• Tunnelling is essentially a hazardous operation and appropriate Health,
Safety and Environmental measures must be implemented.
1.7 Open Cut vis-a-vis Tunnel Option
Tunnelling is an expensive process. Cost of tunnel excavation is several times more
than that of open excavation. However, deep open cuts are associated with problems
of land acquisition, landslides and impose maintenance problems during operation,
whereas properly designed and constructed tunnels do not pose such problems.
In view of these aspects of cost and maintenance, generally for non-urban tunnels, it
is preferable to restrict depth of open cuts to about 20 m to 30 m. Beyond this depth
the tunnel option is economical. These considerations need to be reviewed on the
basis of local ground conditions, geology and cost-benefit analysis.

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

2 PLANNING OF ROAD TUNNELS

2.1 Planning and design of road tunnels require adequate investigations and
studies, as underground structures are always associated with a lot of uncertainties.
It is preferable to carry out studies as listed below. Most of these investigations or
studies can be parallel activities.

2.2 Assessment of Functional Requirements

The starting point of planning of road tunnels is the Traffic Study which identifies the
volume and nature of traffic likely to be generated over the design life of the connecting
road network. The study also identifies the complexion of traffic i.e. number and types
of vehicles likely to use the tunnel and the design speed of traffic. The number of traffic
lanes required to be provided shall be decided, taking into account the outcome of the
traffic study. The need for footpaths/walkways and their widths shall also be decided
at this stage, particularly for urban tunnels. The minimum vertical clearance shall
be decided taking into consideration the local regulations and the height of loaded
vehicles likely to pass through the tunnel. Based on the traffic studies, preliminary
design of ventilation system and tunnel lighting shall be carried out. The preliminary
design of the side drains, which are generally located under the walkways meant for
pedestrians/maintenance personnel, shall also be carried out taking into consideration
the quantity of rainwater/seepage water likely to pass through the drains.

2.3 Conceptual Planning

The study of topo-sheets and maps of the area shall be carried out. Possible alternative
accesses to the tunnels shall be conceived, taking into account natural topography of
the area. In populated area, many existing alternative accesses would be available.
From various alternative options the access to be considered shall be one which
causes the least disturbance to existing structures, infrastructure, etc. The alternative
alignments shall be marked on the topo-sheets and maps/drawings. From the contours
longitudinal sections along the alignment shall be prepared and grades and levels of
tunnels and probable locations of tunnel portals plotted thereon.

2.4 Rough Setting-out of Alternative Layouts at Site and Reconnaissance

Survey

The topo-sheets and available maps of the area may not be up-to-date and may not
exactly indicate the present position in respect of structures, roads , service lines, etc.
For verification of the actual situation at the site, alternative conceptual layouts shall
be roughly set out at the site and reconnaissance survey of the area shall be carried
out. Salient features of the area and local constraints such as habitation, structures,
power transmission lines, pipelines, local roads etc. shall be noted and marked on
the topo-sheets/drawings. The feasibility of creating access roads for construction

7
IRC:SP:91-2010

work, if not already existing, shall also be examined. Necessary adjustments and
rea lignments in the layout of the conceptual alternatives shall then be made so as to
avoid or minimize disturbance to existing structures, monuments etc.

2.5 Preliminary Assessment of Geo-technical Conditions

As described in detail in a subsequent section entitled "Geo-technical Investigations",

data regarding general geology of the area as available with Geological Survey of India
and similar organizations of the State Government shall be collected . After setting out
of the conceptual alignments of the tunnel on the ground, geological mapping of the
area shall be carried out. Taking into account general geology of the area and the
data collected during geological mapping, preliminary assessment of geotechnical
conditions that are likely to be met with along the conceived alternatives shall be
made in the form of a proper report. A detailed geological investigation followed by
adequate rock mechanics assessment eliminates surprises and design inaccuracies
which could result in cost escalation and time over run.

2.6 Assessment of Impact on Environment

The assessment of impact on environment during construction and subsequent

operation of the tunnels shall be carried out for each alternative alignment by availing
of services of experts. A typical Environment Management Plan for various issues
pertaining to the tunnel project is appended as 'Annex-8 '. Disposal of excavated
muck is one of the major environmental issues to be dealt with in Tunnelling project.
In order to address this issue adequate and suitable land for dumping muck excavated
from the tunnel and open approach cuts shall be identified and acquired .

2.7 Assessment of Socio-Economic Impact

Assessment of socio-economic impact of the tunnels during operational stage shall be

carried out beforehand for each alternative alignment availing the services of experts.
Factors to be considered in this process would be resettlement, better access, cost
saving, effect on the social and economic welfa re of the community and connected
issues.

2.8 Geometrics of the Tunnel

2.8.1 The geometry of the tunnel is a very important aspect of tunnel design. The
main objective of road tunnel design is to ensure safe transit of traffic for which the
facility is designed, at least cost. The safety of traffic depends upon the geometrics of
tunnel i.e. its cross section, gradients and curvature. Generally a tunnel shall maintain
the same geometrical standards as on the adjoining carriageways in the open air
outside the tunnel. Where geometry is confined, such restriction shall commence at
least 150 m from the entrance of the tunnel along with speed restrictions.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

2 .8.2 Cross-section of the tunnel

The cross section of a tunnel mainly depends upon projected traffic volume, provision
of ventilation system (if any), geology of area and provision for pedestrian traffic,
particularly in urban areas. Considering the geotechnical conditions likely to be met
with, the traffic volume and functional requirements as given in Table 1 below, the most
economical section shall be selected. The finished width of a tunnel depends upon the
number of traffic lanes required considering future projected traffic and the number
and width of the footpaths I walkways, kerbs, crash barriers and drains required to be
provided.

2. 8.2.1 Width of the tunnel

The lane width of 3.5 m (3.75 m for Expressways) shall be kept for highway tunnels.
However, for urban areas the lane width may be reduced to 3.2 m and even to
3.0 m for low volume traffic roads. As far as possible the width of traffic lanes and
off-carriageways in road tunnels shall be same as that on the adjoining carriageways
in the open air. If the width of traffic lanes in tunnels is restricted as compared to
the adjoining carriageways in the open air, such restriction shall commence at least
150 m from the entrance of the tunnel along with speed restrictions.

2 8 2. 2 Height of the tunnel

The fi nished height of a tunnel would depend upon the minimum vertical clearance,
which shall not be less than 5.5 m. However for tunnel on road with low traffic volume
it may be reduced as per local regulations and the height of loaded vehicles likely to
pass through the tunnel. Such minimum vertical clearance shall be available over
the full width of the carriageway as mentioned in para 2.8.2. 1 above, irrespective
of the shape of tunnel. Space required above the minimum vertical clearance line
for accommodating tunnel ventilation and lighting fixtures proposed, if any, shall be
provided accordingly, duly considering the shape of tunnel proposed which in turn
depends upon strata met with.

Where tunnel cross sections of especially small dimensions are adopted due to various
constraints, dimensional templates shall be erected outside the portals at the point
of entry so that vehicles larger than the permitted size do not enter and get stuck.
Such templates shall be suitably strengthened to resist impact from over-dimensioned
vehicles without getting damaged, but at the same time not unduly stiff so as to damage
the vehicles excessively.

2. 8.2.3 Shape of the tunnel

In case of 'D' shaped tunnels, the geometry of the arch could be semi-circular, segmental
or multi-radius. The segmental or multi-radius arch is flatter and reduces the quantity

9
IRC:SP:91-2010

of excavation, concrete etc. However, under similar geotechnical conditions, semi-

circular arch is structurally more efficient as compared to segmental or multi-radius
arch.

2. 8.2.4 Bi-directional/uni-directional traffic tunnel

For tunnels on low volume traffic roads , bi-directional two lane cross-section shall be
adopted . For roads with projected traffic volume exceeding 10,000 vehicles/day/lane,
uni-directional twin tube tunnels each of two-lane, three-lane or at the most four-lane
cross section shall be adopted depending upon volume of projected traffic. In case of
twin tube tunnels the clear distance between the tubes shall be between 0.5 to 2 times
width of tunnel depending on the type of strata, the stresses generated and their effect
on stability.

2.8.2.5 Finished section of tunnel

Taking into account all these factors along with functional requirements as given in
Table 1 below and geotechnical conditions likely to be met with, necessary geometry
of finished section of the tunnels shall be determined.

* Cross passage as Egress between the two tubes

Table 1 Table Showing Functional Requirements Based on Lengthwise Classification of

Tunnels Having Bearing on Geometric Design

Classification Single Tube Bi-Directional Double Tube Uni-Directional

of Tunnel CP VN LG TE FS EG CP VN LG TE FS EG

Short Tunnel
NA --- *** --- --- --- --- --- *** --- --- ---
Up to 500 m

Medium Tunnel
500m to 1500 m
NA Yes Yes Yes Yes --- Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes *

Long Tunnel
NA Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes *
Above 1500 m

*** Lighting shall be provided for Urban Tunnels and preferably for tunnels longer
than 100 m in Non-urban area.
NA - Not Applicable
• CP - Cross Passage.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

• VN - Ventilation.
• LG - Lighting.
• TE - Telephone at spacing of about 200 m
• FS - Fire Safety - Fire extinguisher at spacing of about 50m
• EG Egress (Such egress shall have minimum dimensions of
2 m x 2.5 m height with adequate ventilation & lighting, and isolation
from main tunnel through fire proof doors)
Note 1: In case of long tunnels, provision of refuge to park at least 6 vehicles along the length of tunnel with one-
lane width, proper informatory signs, transitions and line of sight shall be planned at about 750 m intervals
beyond the leftmost lane.
Note 2: In case of twin tube tunnels, each tunnel tube with uni-directional traffic, cross passages connecting the two
tubes shall be planned at a spacing of about 300 m. In the event of an incidenVaccident in one of the tubes,
the other tube shall be used as an escape and rescue route by diverting the traffic through cross passages to
the extreme right lane of the other tube, so as to dear the tunnel in case of emergencies. The cross passages
shall be at an angle of about 300 to the alignment as shown in sketch below and shall have provision for
one traffic lane, edge strips, crash barriers/kerbs and walkways on either side. In normal conditions cross
passages shall be barricaded.
Note 3: For installation of facilities in expressway tunnels refer Table 6.01 of "Guidelines for Expressways Volume
-ll:DESIGN"

........
................
................
........................
-----------TUNNllLCJINDIU.INB ------------ -- --------~

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IRC:SP:91-2010

Typical sketches indicating tunnel cross sections for bi-directional and uni-directional
traffic conditions are given below.

LEGEND FOR SYMBOLS USED IN SKETCHES

Symbol Particulats Unit Dimensions
A Traffic Lane Width mm. As per design
B Pavement Thickness Type and Thickness as per design requirements
c Pavement Camber % Around 2 percent
D Edge Strip Width mm. Minimum 500 for Running Tunnels and 1000 for Cross Passages
E Crash Barrier Width mm. Type and Dimensions as indicated or as per design
F Kerb Width mm. Minimum 500 thick and 1000 high
G Drain Waterway Width mm. As per design and enough to accommodate the Footpath I Walkway
above.
H Drain Wall Thickness mm. As per design
I Drain Floor Thickness mm. As per design
J Drain Waterway Depth mm. As per design
K Footpath I Walkway mm. As per design
Slab Thickness
L Railing height mm. As per design
M Width of Median mm. As per design
R Radius of Roof Arch mm. As per design

_______ T_____ _
CLEARANCE LINE

Ml UM CLEARANCE 5500
CABLE BOX- -
FIRE FIGHTING -i---o
WATERLINE I
FOOTPATH
RAILING FOOTPATH
I CRASH BARRIER RAILING
TOP OF PAVEMENT CRASH BARRIER
DRAIN DRAIN~ ~N PIPE
J
I=
MINIMUM INVERT EXCAVATION IN INVERT
H GIEIDlo-- A •1...1• A -------! DIEI GH

Sketch 1: Section of Two Lane Bi-Directionla Traffic Tunnel

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

Sketch 2: Section of Two Lane Uni-Directionla Traffic Tunnel

MINIMUM INVERT EXCAVATION IN INVERT

H GI FI Of - - A -+-- A -+-- A --<( DI EI GH

Sketch 3: Section of Three Lane Uni-Directionla Traffic Tunnel

R1

MINIMUM I
CLEARANCE 5e;oo
CABLE BOX4--+---" '
FIRE FlGHTING-+---t-- J..I
WATER LINE
WM..t<WAY ON..Y FOR
'\ MAINTENANCE STAFF
'\ RAILING
"'\ ,_
'\
CRASH BARRIER
TOf> OF PAVEMENT

Sketch 4: Section of Four Lane Uni-Directionla Traffic Tunnel

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IRC:SP:91-2010

CABLE BOX
FIRE FIGHTING
WATER LINE
CLEARANCE 5600 FOOT PA
RAJU NG L
CRASH BARRIER = K
DRAINPIPE DRAIN
=c
bbd._L~~~~~~""""',~r--ir-=
AAVEMEHT
==~~~~~-L.bkJ -B
' INIMUM INVERT EXCAVATION IN INVER1'

HOIEIOJo- A A A

Sketch 5: Section of Four Lane Bi-Directionla Traffic Tunnel

Note: If geotechnical conditions prevent use of above section of 4 lane bi-directional Tunnel ,
two separate tunnels of two lane unidirectional cross section as per Sketch 2 above
shall be adopted.

2.8.3 Vertical alignment

The gradient along the tunnel length shall be very gentle. Steep gradient affects traffic
capacity, resulting in additional emission by vehicles and makes ventilation more
difficult. The tunnel gradients are generally limited to 4-6 percent in short tunnels
and to around 3 percent if length exceeds 500 m. Where steeper gradients become
necessary, the design of the ventilation system shall be done taking into consideration
the effect of steep gradients and possible incidences of fire. Generally a high point
somewhere in the tunnel shall be provided for efficient drainage of seepage water.

2.8.4 Horizontal alignment

The straight alignment is generally preferred. However the straight stretch shall not
be more than 1500 m in case of long tunnels to avoid the effect of monotony and
induction of an unconscious increase in speed. For the same reason last few meters
of the tunnel shall have gentle curve. The curves if provided shall be gentle and meet
the minimum radius requi rements for the design speed of the tunnel. Tunnel alignment
at the ends and open/approach cuts shall merge smoothly with adjoining road in the
open air. In case of twin tube tunnel, crossing of central median shall be planned at
suitable locations at approaches of both tunnels so as to allow emergency services
gain immediate access to either tube and also to send back diverted traffic to proper
traffic lanes.

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

For long tunnels the distance traversed shall be suitably marked so that motorists are
aware of distance covered and remaining distance. This is especially useful in times
of emergencies to give people a clear idea of distances involved in both the directions
for fast egress.

2.9 Preliminary Assessment of Tunnel Supporting System

Based on the geometry of the finished tunnel section and the anticipated geotechnical
conditions along the alignment, a preliminary rough assessment of the need, type and
quantum of tunnel supporting systems shall be made. The supporting system shall be
in the form of rock-bolts, shotcrete, steel ribs, forepoling , pipe roofing and concrete
lining, separately or in combination . This preliminary assessment shall be made on
the basis of past experience and supporting systems provided in other tunnels under
similar conditions by engaging services of geotechnical experts. A combination of rock
bolts and steel fibre reinforced shotcrete [SFRS] with or without lattice girder is the
present trend based on cost and time considerations and flexibility in construction.

2.10 Collection of Data on Construction Costs Prevailing in the Area

For rough assessment of cost of different alternatives, data regarding cost of various
construction materials and specialized construction manpower shall be collected.
Data in respect of construction costs in general and costs of similar projects in the
area shall also be collected.

2.1 1 Preliminary Estimation of Cost

Taking into account data on construction costs, quantum of tunnel excavation and
supporting system and appurtenant works etc. preliminary estimate of the cost shall
be made.

2.12 Selection of Alternative for Detailed Studies

Technical feasibility of each alternative shall be assessed in the light of physical,

environmental and other constraints. Construction costs of different alternatives
shall be compared. Considering merits and demerits of each alternative, one of the
alternatives shall be selected for further detailed studies.

2.13 Detailed Survey

A detailed survey of the tunnel alignment for the selected alternative shall then be
carried out. Drawings showing the longitudinal sections, cross-sections and contour
plans along the tunnel alignment shall be prepared.

15
IRC:SP:91-2010

2.14 Detailed Geotechnical Assessment

For designers and constructors of tunnel, the ground through which the tunnel passes
is the construction medium. As described in details, in a subsequent section entitled
"Geotechnical Investigations", realistic geotechnical and geophysical assessment of
the ground through which the tunnel would pass should be made. A detailed geological
mapping shall also be carried out based on the investigations.

2.15 Detailed Design of the Tunnel Supporting System

Geotechnical information and data should be used to assess the loads that are
likely to be caused on the periphery of the tunnel. Section of the tunnel shall then
be analyzed by empirical and/or numerical methods and need, type and quantum of
necessary supports be determined, as described in detail, in a subsequent section
entitled "Structural Designs".

2.16 Detailed Design of Permanent Ventilation and Lighting System

Taking into account the length, shape, size, tunnel environs and the complexion of the
likely traffic for which the tunnel has been designed, detailed design of the Ventilation
and the Lighting System shall be carried out by experts, as described in detail, in a
subsequent section entitled "Ventilation and Lighting".

2.17 Design of Drainage System

2.17 .1 In order to trap rainwater from hill slopes and prevent it from flowing into the
approach cuts and the tunnel, suitable catch water drains shall be provided above the
top of sides of the open/approach cuts and above excavated portals.

2.17.2 In the open/approach cuts discontinuous kerbs shall be provided to

demarcate the edge of the carriageway. Beyond the kerbs, side drains with adequate
waterway shall be provided in the open/approach cuts.

2.17 .3 Inside the tunnel, suitable side drains shall be provided behind the kerbs/
crash barriers. Suitable drain pipes going through the kerbs/crash barriers shall be
provided to lead seepage and wash water to the drains. The drains shall be located
below the walkways meant for the pedestrians and maintenance personnel, as
shown in the sketches below. The carriageway shall have suitable camber to facilitate
drainage into the side drains. In case of bi-directional tunnel, the camber shall be
from the centre outwards and in case of uni-directional tunnel from high speed lane
towards low speed lane. The vertical profile shall facilitate self draining of tunnel by

16
 IRC:SP:91-2010

providing high point somewhere in the tunnel. However, for long tunnels this may not
be possible and detailed drainage system shall be designed by providing sumps and
combination of self draining and pumping arrangements.

2.17.4 The black topped road surface inside tunnel, generally constructed on rocky
subgrade, gets damaged due to seepage water and creates sever problem for surface
drainage. Hence the pavement inside the tunnel and in approach cuts shall be of high
performance pavement concrete.

HAND RAILING 1000 HIGH

CLEAR LIN
DRAIN COVER I
W~AY SLAB
HAND RAILING 1000 HIGH

CLEAR LINE
DRAIN COVER I
W~AYSLAB
l
KERB ~NIMUM
325 DRAIN
WAJJ... RAIN Pl
DRAIN

PAVEMENT
B

~-------'I I F I
Details of Crass Barrier/Kerb with Poothpath Walkway

2.18 Tunnel Furnishings

Provision for installation of tunnel furnishings such as sign boards, fire fighting
arrangement, cable trays for telephone and power lines etc. shall be made in
consultation with relevant local authorities.

2.19 Aesthetics

The tunnel portals and other components shall be suitably designed with particular care
for good aesthetics, pleasing geometry, shapes and proportions, patterns, textures,
colours, etc. For important tunnels, particularly in urban areas, specially designed
internal paneling may be thought of for all internal surfaces, which would be amenable
for easy cleaning, improved acoustics and sound absorption as well as enhanced fi re
resistance. Muck dumping areas shall be suitably dressed to proper stable slopes,
shapes and turfed/landscaped to improve the environment and aesthetics.

17
IRC:SP:91-2010

2.20 Selection of Suitable Construction Technology

Various Tunnelling technologies have been described in broad details in subsequent

section titled "Methodology of Tunnelling". Choice of suitable construction technology
would depend on many inter-related aspects. Environmental considerations may
dictate the necessity for use of controlled blasting techniques or no-blast techniques.
Time constraints also may call for use of faster methods of Tunnelling as described
under no-blast techniques. In Tunnelling, stand up time of the strata is an important
factor for deciding advance of the tunnel in each cycle. In strata with long stand up
time, Tunnelling can go on without constraints with longest possible advances. At the
other end of the spectrum, is the ground with stand up time so low, that Tunnelling is
required to be carried by dividing and tackling the face in parts. Taking into account the
environmental aspect, cost considerations, time aspect and the nature of the ground
through which the tunnel would pass, the most appropriate Tunnelling technology
shall be selected.

2.21 Statutory Clearances and Approvals

All necessary statutory clearances and approvals shall be obtained before taking up
construction . These shall include at minimum;
a) Environmental and Forest (if any) clearances,
b) Permission for blasting in the area,
c) License for storage and handling of explosives,
d) Acquisition of right of way,
e) Approvals from Fire authority in case of urban tunnels
f) Clearance from Pollution Control Board

2.22 Detailed Estimation of Project Costs

Based on the data on cost of required construction materials, ownership and operation
cost of plant and equipment, cost of manpower, construction technology required to
be used and time required for completion of Tunnelling operations, detailed analysis of
cost of all the items of work should be prepared and total cost shall be analyzed.

2.23 Project Implementation

Upon completion of all these activities and steps, the project proposal would be ready
for further processing, if any and implementation

18
F

IRC:SP:91-2010

3 GEO-TECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

3.1 Site specific geological conditions along a tunnel alignment play a prominent
role in influencing major decisions regarding planning, designing and construction e.g.
• Alignment and portal locations
• Shape of the tunnel
• Tunnel supporting systems
• Minimum distance to be kept between twd tunnels
• Methodology of construction of tunnel including risk assessment
• Construction method and treatment of open cuUslopes

The starting point of all these designs is knowledge in respect of the behavior of
the Tunnelling media-likely to be met with during Tunnelling . It is therefore very
important that appropriate geo-technical investigations are conducted early in the
planning process. The objective of geological investigations is to understand the
history, topography, geology, environmental setting and the engineering properties
of the underlying strata. The geotechnical information regarding nature of ground,
groundwater conditions, engineering and other scientific parameters is essential for
anticipating ground behaviour which is useful to select tunnel shape, size, excavation
method & the support system, and other essential parameters for a cos t and time
effective tunnel design.

3.2 Relevant Strata

For designers and constructors of tunnels, the ground through which the tunnels
pass is the construction medium. It is therefore necessary to have fairly realistic
geotechnical assessment of the construction media and its environment. The most
important consideration is the condition of the ground mass just above crown of the
tunnel (generally for a height of 2 times width of tunnel) and at the level of the tunnel

3.3 Geo-technical Investigations

The methods available for carrying out geo-technical investigations are

• Collection of available data regarding Regional and Local Geology of
the area
• Detailed mapping of surface geology of the tunnel area
• Geophysical studies along the alignment of the tunnel
• Exploratory boring and/or Drifting: In-situ testing

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IRC :SP:91-2010

Besides the above, additional data shall be collected during actual construction as
given in para 3.4.

3.3. 1 Collection of available data regarding regional and local geology of the
area

Data regarding General Geology of the project area shall be collected from
a) Site reconnaissance survey to collect information on geological
features .
b) Geological Survey of India and similar organizations of the State
Government,
c) Nearby Engineering Institutions and Engineering Projects' in the
vicinity.

The data collected shall include general idea of in-situ stresses in the ground formations
of the region , which is required for assessment of rock mass quality.

3.3.2 Detailed mapping of surface geology of the tunnel area

After conceptual alternative alignments of the tunnel have been set out on the ground,
geological mapping of the area should be carried out to observe and to make note
of geological features such as type of strata, existence of outcrops, dip and strike
of strata, discontinuities, folds , faults, ground water regime etc. Taking into account
general geology of the area and the data collected during the study of surface geology,
a preliminary geological map shall be prepared and preliminary assessment of geo-
technical conditions that are likely to be met with, along the alternatives shall be
made. These studies along with other preliminary studies would help in arriving at the
technical feasibility of each alternative, rough cost of each alternative and selection of
preferred alignment for further detailed studies.

3.3.3 Exploratory boring and drifting

3.3.3.1 Determination of locations of bore holes

Locations of exploratory bore holes shall be decided considering salient features of

the ground profile above the tunnel, preliminarily assessed geological conditions and
the likely location of the portals conceived on the basis of the preliminary geological
map. If the profile of the ground above the tunnel is accessible and formations are likely
to be fairly uniform the bores shall be generally taken at an interval of about 200 m.
If the formations are likely to be heterogeneous the borehole interval shall be reduced

20
 IRC:SP:91-2010

to 100 m. If any specific geological feature is encountered additional bores shall be

taken. If the profile of the ground above the tunnel is not easily accessible nearest
accessible location shall be chosen. In any case, even for a shorter length tunnel,
minimum three bores shall be taken, one at each portal location and third in the
middle.

3.3.3.2 Geo-technical assessment by exploratory boring

For realistic gee-technical assessment of the ground , exploratory bores shall be drilled
to a depth of about 5 m below the expected level of invert of the tunnel. The cores shall
be collected from the relevant strata as defined above in para 3.2 above. Boring shall
be carried out using at least NX size coring bits and using double-tube core barrel
in normal situations and triple-tube core barrels in weak rocks, fault zones, shear
zones, crush zones, folded rocks etc. Use of triple tube core barrel helps preventing
mechanical breakage of rock cores due to rough handling .

3. 3.3.3 Observations and tests to be made during boring operations

During boring operations, following observations shall be made and tests shall be
carried out:
1) Rate of penetration in each 1.5 m drill run :
The rate of penetration gives a broad idea about toughness of the
strata.
2) Locations, if any, where rate of penetration changes suddenly:
Sudden change in the rate of penetration indicates change in the type
of strata. If the drill string suddenly drops, it will indicate presence of
hollow joint/cavity or joint with very soft matrix.
3) Quantum of drilling water:
Flow of drilling water going into the drill hole and water flushing out of a
drill hole shall be monitored continuously. Sudden loss of drilling water
indicates presence of open dry joints or fractured zone. Increase in the
rate of drilling water flushing out of a drill hole indicates intersection of
groundwater table. Sudden large increase in the rate of drilling water
flushing out of a drill hole would indicate artesian conditions.
4) Colour of drill water/sludge:
Observing carefully the colour of drill water/sludge coming out from the
borehole is important as it gives idea about the type of strata in which
bore is passing.

21
IRC:SP:91-2010

5) Permeability:
Permeability of rock strata is the amount of flow of water through rock
mass when it is saturated. Generally one permeability test shall be
carried out in each 6 m tier. However, one test shall be carried out in
each 3 m length of the borehole in the relevant strata, using Double
packers and using falling and constant head methods
The drilling data shall be recorded in the proforma given in the
Annex-C.

3.3,3.4 Preservation of cores samples

As soon as core is removed from the core barrel all pieces of core must be immediately
numbered serially, their depths and serial numbers painted on them and their lower ends
marked so as to ensure that all pieces are kept in correct order exactly representing
the depth from which they have been obtained. Lengths of all pieces of core shall be
measured and recorded in the daily drill report. Cores shall be immediately placed in
core boxes made according to standard specification, and all the necessary information
such as the name of the project, location of drill hole, drill meterage, drill hole number,
etc. shall be painted on the box. The cores of some soft and weak rocks disintegrate
on exposure to atmosphere. Cores of such rocks when raised to the surface should
be covered with a thin layer of wax by immediately immersing it in melted wax for
preventing its exposure to atmosphere. Such waxed core remains intact indefinitely
and the rocks in their true form as they occur in-situ are seen in the core and not in the
misleading disintegrated form . The core boxes shall be preserved till three years after
completion of the tunnel and after it is put to use.

3.3.3.5 Observations to be made on the core samples

Following observations shall be made by an expert geologist:

1) Lithology
Lithology will be useful to study the origin, formation, mineral
composition and classification of rocks. Study of core samples would
enable identification of nature and classification of the formations .
2) Nature of joints in the formations
A core would normally break only along pre existing divisional planes.
However, due to vibrations during drilling, particularly with a defective
machine or defective operation, core may also break even at places
where joints do not exist. It is necessary to distinguish between fractures

22
p
IRC:SP:91-2010

due to jointing and mechanical fractures caused by faulty drilling, by

examining the fracture surfaces. Inspection of the core samples would
also enable identification of location, orientation , spacing, thickness and
physical condition of joints, their tightness or openness and roughness
and alteration of joints in the formations and type of infill material.
3) Core recovery and RQD
A core recovery is the percentage of total length. of cores obtained as
compared to the total section cored including lost cored sections i.e.
core run. The RQD - Rock Quality Designation is the percentage of
cumulative length of pieces of core longer than 10 cm obtained from
a total section cored i.e. core run . RQD is normally assessed and
recorded for each meter of the core run. These observations help in
assessment of the strata in respect of jointing and other disturbances.

3.3.3. 6 Tests on core samples

Following tests shall be carried out in a competent laboratory. At least five samples of
each lithological category should be tested. If the lithology indicates that the relevant
ground mass is only of one category, at least a total of ten samples from different
levels shall be tested.
• Unconfined compressive strength and hardness
• Natural and dry density and specific gravity
• Rate of water absorption and porosity
Young's modulus of elasticity
Poisson's ratio
• Tri-axial strength (for structurally disturbed rock formation)
• Petrography - Hand and microscopic petrography
• Tensile strength - (in completely geologically disturbed area)

3.3.3. 7 Geo-technical assessment by excavation of exploratory drifts

Sometimes, when a tunnel passes below a high mountain, boring of exploratory holes
to cover the relevant strata becomes impracticable due to the excessive depth of
boreholes. In such a situation as also to gain information in respect of the hidden
geological features along the alignment, geo-technical assessment is carried out by
excavation of tunnels of small cross-section called exploratory drifts. These drifts give
an idea of the nature of strata likely to be met with.

23
IRC:SP:91-2010

Such information collected from drifts, which are at shallow depths from the ground
surface, shall be used only by a Tunnelling expert in association with an experienced
geologist since the behavior of rock masses under small cover in drifts is significantly
different than the behavior of the similar rock masses at higher depths actually
encountered during tunnelling.

3.3.4 Geo-technical assessment by geophysical methods

Initial geophysical assessment followed by a quantitative geological investigation

programme often provides reliable information in a short time.

3.3.4.1 Exploratory boring gives detailed information of the geological formations

at and around the location of the boreholes. However, when a tunnel passes below
a high mountain, boring of exploratory holes to cover the relevant strata becomes
impracticable due to necessary excessive depth of boreholes. In such a situation as
also to gain information in respect of the hidden geological features along the tunnel
alignment, geophysical methods should be resorted to. Geophysical surveys enable
in-situ determination of engineering properties of the strata such as profile of the strata,
hidden faults, discontinuities and voids, groundwater, elastic moduli and density etc.
Most often , these techniques do not directly measure the parameters and the same
have to be developed from the known geological data and the measured geophysical
contrast. Geophysical methods give qualitative assessment of the engineering
properties and do not provide quantitative results as are available from exploratory
boring.

3.3.4.2 Some of the methods of geophysical studies are

• Seismic Methods
• Electrical Resistivity

3.3.4.3 Seismic methods are the most commonly used methods of geophysical
surveys for engineering investigations. These methods are mainly based on application
of analogies of optical laws to seismic wave propagation. Seismic refraction and
reflection provide engineers and geologists with the most basic geological data
via simple procedures with common equipment. Seismic methods of subsurface
evaluation involve the generation of pulses of energy, usually at the ground surface,
consisting of compression, shear and surface waves that propagate through the
ground and are either reflected back toward the surface, or are refracted at and travel
along lithological boundaries. The wave energy which returns to the surface is picked
up by geophones placed at the ground surface. The geophones convert the wave

24
 IRC:SP:91-2010

energy to an electronic signal which is recorded on a seismograph. Refracted waves

travel along the interface of lower density material overlying higher density material,
for example sediment overlying bedrock. The speed of wave propagation of refracted
signals changes along the path, traveling at relatively slow speeds in the sediment,
at higher speeds along the bedrock interface, and slow speeds again as they return
to the surface. Refracted waves can only be detected at the surface for situations in
which higher velocity material underlies low velocity material. Reflected waves travel
downward until they meet an interface between layers of differing density. The speed
of wave propagation is constant at the speed of the overlying material. In the case
of sediment overlying bedrock, the wave will travel at the slower sediment speed.
Surface waves are the portion of the seismic energy pulse which travels along the
surface of the ground directly to the geophone.

3. 3.4.4 Electrical resistivity method generally enables broad mapping of rock

surfaces below, up to a depths of about 30 m. Electrical resistivity is a method for
assessment of soil and rock mass and vertical and horizontal discontinuities therein,
in by observing its resistivity and discontinuities in their electrical properties.

Distribution of electrical potential in the ground around a current-carrying electrode

depends on the electrical resistivities and disposition of the surrounding soils and rocks.
Grains of soil and rock are essentially nonconductive except those of metallic ores.
Therefore the resistivity of soils or rocks primarily depends on the amount of pore water
and the arrangements of the pores. Materials with different lithology therefore have
different resistivity. Igneous rocks have the highest resistivities while sedimentary rocks
tend to be most conductive because of their high water content and metamorphic rocks
fall in-between them. Interpretation is carried out by qualitative comparison between the
resistivity measurements observed in the field and the hypothetical models or on the basis
of empirical methods. The Electrical resistivity method makes use of this principle.

The usual practice in the field is to apply a direct current or alternating current of low
frequency through two electrodes implanted in the ground and to measure the difference
of potential between two additional electrodes that do not carry current, also implanted
in the ground, a few meters away. The difference in the electrical potential i.e. resistivity
of the ground between the two types of electrodes as above, is measured.

3.4 Corroboration of Data During Construction

Data collected during planning stage shall be got corroborated by following additional
investigations during actual construction. This will help in revalidating the initial design
or for making any course corrections required .

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IRC:SP:91-2010

3.4.1 Advance probing hole

Horizontal bore holes of suitable length shall be drilled at regular intervals at tunnel
faces to gather geological information about strata ahead of the face. This information
shall be used to plan further Tunnelling operations and changes in design, if required .
Adequate advance precautions shall be taken in case large ingress of water is
encountered from the probe hole.

3.4.2 Seismic method as described in para 3.3.4.3 above can also be used for
advance probing by detonating very small explosive charges on the tunnel face and
mapping the reflected/refracted waves to get some idea of the strata ahead.

3.4.3 Tunnel instrumentation

In-situ stress measurement is useful in long mountain tunnels. Adequate tunnel

instrumentation program shall be adopted for observation and monitoring the behavior
of excavated faces/surroundings, especially the state of in-situ stresses. The purpose
of instrumentation is to confirm that actual behavior of the Tunnelling media is similar
to the one assumed in design. Any variation from the design assumptions shall be
considered for correction in design during construction and for improving safety
measures. This aspect becomes more important in poor rock masses. The information
on Instrumentation is given in Annex-0 .

3.5 Assessment of RMR & Q

Study of cores and data collected from surface and subsurface observations shall be
used to evaluate parameters required for the assessment of RMR and Q described in
details in the section titled 'Structural Design'. These indices are useful for assessing
the characteristics of various lithological units. These two parameters are also used
for assessing method of excavation, support requirements , anticipating tunnel
deformations and construction problems.

The collected geological information should be used to prepare a geological L-section

of the tunnel. This L-section must cover the lithological units, geological discontinuities
with strike and dip direction along the tunnel axis.

3.6 Drawings to be prepared

Lithological Section i.e. longitudinal section along the alignment of the tunnel and its
approach/open cuts s~owing location of the boreholes shall be prepared, incorporating
therein all the relevant data collected during the geo-technical investigations. The
lithological section would give an idea about the spread of different formations

26
 IRC:SP:91-2010
along the tunnel alignment, together with expected Rock Mass Rating/Classification
(RMR & Q) to reasonable accuracy. The geophysical information shall be used to
supplement wherever necessary, to prepare a geological L - section of a tunnel.

4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.1 Preamble

In tunnelling, Structural Design is required for

Deciding the geometry of excavated periphery of the tunnel
Design of tunnel supporting systems
Deciding on the minimum distance between adjacent tunnels

The basis or the starting point of all these designs is the assessment of applicable
loads. For arriving at the quantum of these loads, it is necessary to have sufficient
knowledge in respect of the structural properties of the ground likely to be met with
during tunnelling. Such knowledge is obtained by carrying out detailed geological
and geotechnical studies, as set out in the section dealing with 'Geo-technical
Investigations'.

The rock mass through which a tunnel is driven could vary from a strong massive
formation to fissured , jointed and weak formation . Depending on the in-situ stresses
and other characteristics of the formations, the periphery of an underground opening
starts showing signs of deformation. In massive strong formations with low in-situ
stresses, the deformations could be insignificant (less than 1 percent of the excavation
size) needing no supports as against the fissured , jointed and weak formations needing
heavy support.

The tunnel supporting systems are divided into two major categories viz. Immediate
supports and Ultimate supports. The rock mass through which a tunnel is driven
could vary from a strong massive formation to fissured , jointed and weak formation.
Immediate support pressures are small in strong rocks, but high in weak rocks.
The ultimate support pressure is 1.7 times the immediate pressure irrespective of
the rock type. Rock mass rendered with proper immediate flexible supports allows
development of just sufficient deformation and self-adjustment without loosening
the rock mass and results in generation of minimum ultimate pressures. In massive
strong formations with low in-situ stresses, the deformations could be insignificant
needing no supports as against the fissured , jointed and weak formations needing
heavy supports. All methods of tunnel excavation and support systems presently

27
IRC:SP:91-2010

used, allow some degree of deformation in the surrounding rock mass. Present-
day approach is to reinforce the existing rock mass to the extent possible rather
than providing it with stiff ribs with lagging with packing behind. When advanced
construction techniques such as NATM are used, the design scheme and the
construction scheme go closely hand in hand and both have to be developed in a
holistic manner.

This section covers the structural design of immediate as well as ultimate tunnel
supports. As per current practice, immediate supports comprise of rock bolts, plain and
reinforced shotcrete with or without lattice girders embedded in it and ultimate supports
comprise of plain & reinforced shotcrete with or without lattice girders embedded in it.
Concrete lining with or without steel ribs embedded therein are generally used in weak
rocks, where high pressures are developed

There is a third element of 'time', in addition to pressure and deformations, which

particularly affects when the ultimate support should be provided. The element of
time is controlled by the rock type. Time element is often considered in terms of face
advance. Deformations in strong rocks stabilize early, generally within a distance of
30 where Dis the diameter of excavation size.

4.2 Study of Relevant Strata

4.2.1 Structural design of tunnel requires a thorough study of the following .

• Geology of the ground mass
• Effective cover
• Stress-strain characteristics
Mechanical characteristics of intact ground mass
Ground water conditions

4.2.2 The design shall be based on the most adverse combination of probable
load conditions, but shall include only those loads which have reasonable probability
of simultaneous occurrence. The methodology of construction is an important factor
in structural design, particularly in case of soft strata and soils. The loading conditions
vary from construction stage to operation stage & maintenance stage and the design
shall be checked for loading conditions during these stages.

4.2.3 The paras given below in this section pertain to tunnels in rock. The structural
design of tunnels in soft strata and soils is not covered in this section.

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

4.3 Various parameters to be considered

4.3.1 From observations made during exploratory boring

• Location of ground water table

4.3.2 From observations made on core samples

• Core recovery and RQD
• Lithology i.e. type of strata
• Spacing of joints
• Tightness or openness of joints
• Thickness of joints
• Orientation of joints
• Roughness of joints
Type and thickness of infill material of the ·joints

4.3.3 From data obtained from testing of core samples

• Dry density and specific gravity
• Unconfined compressive strength
Natural and dry density
• Rate of water absorption and porosity
• Young's modulus of elasticity
• Poisson's ratio

4.4 Assessment of Rock Mass

4.4.1 Based on the data collected in respect of the parameters enumerated in

para 4.3 above, assessment of rock mass shall be carried out in accordance with the
following Methods:
• Method based on Rock Mass Rating [RMR] as set out in Indian Standard
IS 13365 [Part 1]: 1992
• Method based on Rock Mass Quality [Q] as set out in Indian Standard
IS 13365 [Part 2]: 1998

These methods are further elaborated below.

4.4.2 Method based on Rock Mass Rating [RMR] as set out in Indian Standard
IS 13365 [Part 1]: 1992 and support design base thereon.

29
IRC:SP:91-2010

In this method following gee-mechanical properties are assessed and ratings in the
form of points are allotted as indicated in detail in Appendix-I & II :
I) Strength of intact rock material [MPa]:
This is the same as the Uni-axial compressive strength.
II) Rock Quality Designation [RQD]:
Rock Quality Designation indicates aggregate percentage of intact
pieces of core that are more than 100 mm in length when compared to
the total length of cores.
Ill) Spacing of Discontinuities [m]:
Spacing of discontinuities means spacing between joints.
IV) Condition of Joints:
Condition of joints indicates degree of roughness of joints.
V) Ground Water Condition:
Assessment of ground water condition is made on the basis of quantum
and pressure of ground water in the joints.
VI) Rating adjustment for joint orientations:
Assessment of orientation of joints vis-a-vis direction of tunnel
excavation is made taking into consideration as to how much favourable
is the orientation for tunnelling through.

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) Value is the sum of the ratings as per 'I' to 'V' above. Adjusted
RMR is total of 'I' to 'V' above plus adjustment as per 'VI' above.

Methodology for arriving at the RMR Values is set out in Appendix-II. An example for
determination of RMR is given in Appendix-IV.

4.4.3 Method based on rock mass quality [Q] as set out in Indian Standard
IS 13365 [Part 2]: 1998 and support design based thereon.

In this method following gee-mechanical properties are assessed and rating in the
form of points is allotted as indicated in details in Appendix-Ill:
a) Rock Quality Designation [RQD] :
As defined in 4.4.2 (II)
b) Joint Set Number [Jn] :
'Jn' indicates the number of joint sets
c) Joint Roughness Number [Jr] :

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

'Jr' indicates condition of joints in terms of degree of roughness of

joints
d) Joint Alteration Number [Ja] :
'Ja' indicates condition of joints in terms of degree of alteration of walls
of joints
e) Joint Water Reduction Factor [Jw] :
'Jw' is a measure of water pressure, which has an adverse effect on
shear strength of joints.
f) Stress Reduction Factor [SRF] :
SRF is a measure of
1) Loosening pressure in case of an excavation through shear zone
and clay bearing rock masses,
2) Rock stress in a competent rock mass and
3) Squeezing or swelling pressure in incompetent rock masses.
Rock Mass Quality [Q] is arrived at on the basis of the following
formula :
[Q] =( RQD/Jn ) x ( Jr/Ja ) x ( Jw/SRF )
The 'Q' value combined with tunnel excavation width is used to anticipate rock mass
behaviour and degree of safety.

Methodology for arriving at the rock mass quality [Q] is set out in Appendix-Ill. An
example for determination of rock mass quality [Q) is given in Appendix-IV.

4.5 Methodologies for Design of Tunnel Supports

Three broad methods are available for design:

i) Empirical Methods
ii) Analytical Methods
iii) Numerical Methods

4.5.1 Empirical methods

Various empirical rules have been developed over the years for characterization of the
rock mass. Terzaghi was the first to formulate a rational empirical method classification
for evaluation of rock loads which are used for design of steel supports. Rock mass
assessed by Method based on Rock Mass Rating [RMR] and by Method based

31
IRC:SP:91-2010

on tunnel quality index 'Q' are considered as more realistic as these methods take
into account various variable parameters related to the conditions of the strata. 'Q'
system is more appropriate for tunnels in rock. Both these methods take into account
very similar geo-mechanical properties of rock mass, self supporting capacity of the
periphery of the opening and the reinforcing effect caused by the supporting system.
Since these methods are empirical, they need to be used very carefully and correlated
with past experience.

A) Terzaghi's empirical method for assessment of rock load for design of steel ribs:

Terzaghi's rational empirical method classification for evaluating rock load was
subsequently modified by Deere et al. [1970] and Rose [1982]. Terzaghi's classification
and evaluation of rock loads with subsequent modifications, which is currently in use,
is given in the table below:

Rock Load Hp [ft] Rock Load Hp [ ft]

Condition of Rock RQD After Terzaghi After Rose
1) Hard &Intact 95-100 0 Same as Terzaghi [1946)
2) Hard Stratifies 90-99 [Oto 0.5) B Same as Terzaghi [1946]
3) Massive, Moderately Jointed 85-95 [Oto 0.25] B Same as Terzaghi [1946]
4) Moderately blocky &seamy 75-85 [O 25 B to 0.35] [B+H] 0.25 B to 0.20 [B+H]
5) Very blocky &seamy 30-75 [0.35 to 1.1O] [B+H] [0.20 to 0.60] [B+H]
6) Completely crushed but chemically 3-30 1.10 [B+H] [0.60to1 .10] [B+H]
intact
Sa) Sand &gravel 0-3 Not given [1.10 to 0 1.40][B+H]
7) Squeezing rock, moderate depth NA [1 .10 to 2 10] [B+H] Same as Terzaghi [1946]
8) Squeezing rock, great depth NA [2.10 to 4.50] [B+H] Same as Terzaghi [1946]
9) Swelling rock NA Upto 250 ft. [80 m) irrespective Same as Terzaghi [1946]
of Value of B & H

Values for type 4, 5 & 6 reduced by Rose by about 50 percent from Tergazhi's values
because water table has little effect on load [Terzaghi 1946, Brekke 1968]

Rock load 'Hp' in feet of rock on roof of support in tunnel with width 'B' [ft] and height
'H' [ft] at depth more than 1.5 [B+H] ; NA- Not Applicable.

Terzaghi's values of rock loads are found to be more conservative today, due to
improvements in Tunnelling technology.

32
 IRC:SP:91-2010

B) Estimated Support Categories based on Rock Mass Rating [RMR]:

Adjusted Original RMR Rating

Ratings 90-100 80-90 70-80 60-70 50-60 40-50 30-40 20-30 10-20 0-10
70-100
50-60 a a a a
40-50 b b b b
30-40 c, d c, d c,d, e d, e
20-30 g f, g f, g, j f, h, j
10-20 i i h, I, j h, j
0-10 k k I I

a) Generally no support, but joint intersections may require local bolting.

b) Patterned, grouted bolts at 1.0 m spacing.
c) Patterned, grouted bolts at 0.75 m spacing.
d) Patterned, grouted bolts at 1.0 m spacing, and shotcrete 100 mm
thick.
e) Patterned, grouted bolts at 1.0 m spacing, and massive concrete 300
mm thick; only used if stress changes are not excessive.
f) Patterned, grouted bolts at 0.75 m spacing, and shotcrete 100 mm
thick.
g) Patterned, grouted bolts at 0. 75 m spacing, and mesh-reinforced
shotcrete 100 mm thick.
h) Patterned, grouted bolts at 1.0 m spacing, and massive concrete
450 mm thick; if stress changes are not excessive.
i) Patterned, grouted bolts at 0.75 m spacing, and mesh-reinforced
shotcrete 100 mm thick, plus yielding steel arches as repair technique
if stress changes are excessive,
j) Stabilize with wire mesh cover support and massive concrete 450 mm
thick; if stress changes are not excessive.
k) Stabilize with wire mesh cover support followed by 100-150 mm
shotcrete (including face if necessary), plus yielding steel arches where
stress changes excessive.
I) Avoid failure development in this ground if possible; otherwise, use
support systems j or k.

33
I RC:SP:91-2010

C) Estimated Support Categories based on Rock Mass Quality 'Q' [After Grimstad
and Barton, 1993 reproduced from Palmstorm and Brooch, 2006]

Barton et al [197 4] have suggested the following Excavation Support Ratio [ESR] for
use in the Estimation of Support [Reinforcement] Categories based on Rock Mass
Quality Q

Excavation Category ESR

A Temporary mine openings 3-5
B Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydro power [excluding high pressure penstocks], 1.6
pilot tunnels, drifts and headings for large excavations
c Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor road and railway tunnels, surge chambers, access 1.3
tunnels
D Power stations, major road & railway tunnels, civil defence chambers, portal intersections 1.0
E Underground nuclear power stations, railway stations, sports and public facilities, factories 0.8

Estimated Support [Reinforcement] Categories based on Rock Mass Quality 'Q' are
indicated in the following nomogram:

ROCK CLASSES
- ----
G F
-- E 0 c B A
E•oopllonaly EX1Ttmtly Very Very Ext Exe
Poor Fair Good
poor poor poor good good good
100 20

so 11 iD
..
g>

~
7 ':J'
5
E 20 5 3
£ ~
m
3 (/'J
lJ

s 24
"
Cl)
' c;,,ii •

2 'i ,. .~~~' •• 1s

. .~ . ' ~111111 ·. · 11111

0001 0004 001 004 01 04 4 10 40 100 400 1000
ROD Jr Jw
Rock mass quality Q • Jn x JI x SRF

REINFORCEMENT CATEGORIES:
1) Uneupported 6) Fibt• ,..,.,lotcect ~.end bolling. g . 12 cm
2) Spot bollng 7) Fibre rHlbced tho4creta and bolling, 12. 15 cm
3) Systemahc bolling 8) Ftbrtrfflbcect~.> 15cm.
4) Systomalc: bclt.ng, (and unreonlotc«I shotcrete. 4 • 10 cm) rlMl'lb-ced 111>1 ol lhotcrete and boll1ng
S) Fibre rtl"lbrced 1hotcfote and bolllng. 5 • g cm II) Cut ooncrete lining

34
 IRC:SP:91-2010
Id An ex,mple of Estimated Support requirements based on the above nomogram is
attached as Appendix-V.

>r An abstract of the recent updating of the Q-charts has been quoted below for the
s bene t of the users, especially considering its utility to replace the conventional cast
concrete tunnel lining even in very poor to exceptionally poor rock masses (Q=1-
0.001 ). The charts are backed by deformation measurements and numerical analysis
bas1 J on static analysis of the support using STAAD software.

A second updating of the Q system for rock mass classification [1st updating by Grimstad
and Barton, 1993] is in progress. In this updating, emphasis has been placed on the
wid• pplication of fibre reinforced sprayed concrete [Sfr], even in the lowest rock mass
quahues and the recent changes in rock support practice and material properties. In
ex ~mely poor rock, where some deformations may be expected, the toughness and the
energy absorption of the sprayed concrete has been taken into considered in the improved
a -support chart. A substantial amount of data from recent projects has been gathered
am.J analyzed. Analytical research has been carried out with respect to the thickness,
spacing and reinforcement of reinforced ribs of sprayed concrete [RRS] as a function
of the load from the rock and the rock mass quality. The basis of the RRS design is the
calculated deformation and bending moment. The analytical calculations are compared
with numerical analysis and deformation measurements in the tunnel. Modem practice

ROCK Cl ASS ES
G F E 0 C B A

....
;~ f
I '

10 100 1000

Rodl•-...llilyQ• &Ql2
Je
ll .l: s JI!
h SRF
RIJNR)RCDIENJ"CATrnORIE'i S)Filn.mfcrood,._rd...,.S.9cm.Slt+8
I) ~ 6)Filnnmtor-l"-n1~~12cm,Sl-+8
i)~~ · 7)Fibre~*-nlbab& 12-ISca,St-tB
l)~ ..... 8 l)n.. .......... . _ > U .. '
4) SJ--.:~ .,.,(""*1 nliacC*-"'lllll ..... Sl-tllJIS+8
(rd.......Ccrood"'-.4-IOan). D(+~ 9)0.--..CCA.

E)lml,Y~nrtln~ilda\'llt•2'-~~P.--.
~ -RR.Swilh61wm r'M•ob.tit•111•~ ............. -...,_(oc>..-.
j--W I 7111 F.m!bm!Clm:lplildslD~lll'lb ldl'-1.tec{tlc ba&(s.ICC b~

35
IRC:SP:91-2010

indicates that RRS may replace traditional cast concrete lining in extremely poor rock.
RRS in shape and support capacity is similar to lattice girders, but are more flexible in
application because RRS is not prefabricated. An improved Q-support chart that gives
derails of RRS in very poor to exceptionally poor rock mass is given below:

D) Estimation of the Length of Rock Bolts:

Barton et al [1980] have suggested the following formula for estimation of the length
of rock bolts:

0.15 B
L=2+
ESR

where,

L = Length of Rock Bolt in m.

B = Width of Excavation in m.
ESR = Excavation Support Ratio as per foregoing para 4.5.1.3

E) Estimated Maximum Unsupported Span:

Barton et al [1980] have suggested the following formula for estimation of the Maximum
Unsupported Span:

Maximum Unsupported Span = 2 ESR Q0·4

where ESR = Excavation Support Ratio as per foregoing para 4.5.1.3

Q = Rock Mass Quality Value

4.5.1.2 Shortcomings in the empirical methods

Though the empirical methods described in the foregoing para A to C give guidelines
in the form of provision and spacing of rock bolts, many of them are silent about
the diameter and length of the bolts, grade of shotcrete and size and spacing of rib
supports etc. and have to be decided based on the experience of the designers.

4.5.1.3 Stand up time

4. 5.1.3.1 The stand-up time is the time duration for which periphery of a tunnel
excavation line is able to stand without 'tunnel supports'. The stand-up time is directly
related to the quality of rock mass. Poorer the rock mass, shorter will be the stand-up

36
 IRC:SP:91-2010

time. Stand-up time is also inversely proportional to 'unsupported span'. It explains the
necessity of resorting to multiple heading in case of wide tunnels.

In the direction of tunnel advance, unsupported span is the distance of tunnel face
from the support line. In the transverse direction, unsupported span is the width of the
tunnel opening. Good rock masses permit larger unsupported span whereas poorer
rock mass permit only smaller unsupported span. In other words, a wider tunnel
opening can be left unsupported in good rock mass. The unsupported span is defined
as the shorter of the two distances between,
i) the tunnel face and the line of support nearest to the face and
ii) the excavation width.

In poor rock mass, the distance of the tunnel face from the line of support would be
the unsupported span. In a good rock mass, however, the excavation width will be the
unsupported span.

4.5.1.4 Relation between rock mass rating, stand-up time and unsupported span

This basic inter-relation between the rock mass rating, the stand-up time and the
unsupported span is given by Bieniawski as shown below.

20
ZONE OF IMMEDIATE '
'' ''
15
COLLAPSE.
'
'
'' ' ' ''
E 10 '
z '''
~
(/) ''
6
0 '' ''
'' ''
~0 ' 80
Q,
Q,
::> 2
(/)
z
::>

STAND-UP TI ME. hr

Stand up Time v/s Unsupported Span as per Rock Mass Rating

4.5.1.5 Inter-relation between 'Q' and 'RMR'

'RMR' is used for estimating 'unsupported span' and 'stand-up time', whereas 'Q' is
used for estimating support pressure and for selecting supporting details as shown in
the nomogram presented at the end of para 4.5.1- C. Thus an inter-relation between

37
IRC:SP:91-2010

'Q' and 'RMR' is used when only 'RMR' and not 'Q' are assessed during geological
investigations. Various inter-relations are shown in the following chart.

Conversion of 'Q' to 'RMR' by Different Correlations

Barton [1995] NGI [1994] NGI [2001] Bieniawsky [1989]
Q RMR = 151ogQ+ 50 RMR =6.281nQ+52.48 RMR = 151ogQ+ 56 RMR =91nQ+ 44
100 80 81 86 85
40 74 76 80 77
20 70 71 76 71
10 65 67 71 65
4 59 61 65 75
1 50 52 56 44
0.1 35 38 41 23
0.01 20 23 26 3

4.5.2 Analytical methods

Analytical solutions assess support stiffness and maximum support pressure for
concrete/shotcrete, steel ribs , and rock bolts etc. The stresses caused on the
supporting system by the rock mass can be calculated from analytical elastic closed
form solutions. Kirsch 's elastic closed form solution is one of the commonly used
analytical solutions. The closed form solution is restricted to simple geometries and
models, and therefore often of limited practical value. However, it serves as a good
check for the results obtained from numerical analysis.

4.5.3 Numerical methods

Various numerical methods are available for stress analysis such as two dimensional
Plane Frame Method, Finite Difference Method, 2D/3D Finite Element Method or other
similar computational/numerical methods for;
Deciding the geometry of excavated periphery of the tunnel
Deciding on the minimum distance between adjacent tunnels
Tunnel support design comprising of shotcrete, lattice girders.steel ribs
and concrete lining based on incremental needs of an advancing face

There are a number of commercial software available in the market.

4.5.4 Observational approach

Apart from methodologies mentioned above, the Observational approach is used when

38
 IRC:SP:91-2010

the tunnel behaviour is not known with confidence. This is also called build-as-you-go
approach. The tunnel deformations and support pressures are monitored to develop
a stable support system to stabilize the tunnel. The NATM and the NTM both depend
on this approach with a purpose of ensuring adequacy of support and identifying time
for providing a rigid final support called lining.

The design of steel rib supports aims at estimating bending moment, shear forces and
axial load, which are compared with safe capacities of support system. The design ignores
a very vital factor called 'rock-support interaction'. Without rock-support interaction, the
support is akin to hang in air. This assumption leads to an over-design. This explains
why this empirical tunnel support design has gained popularity the world over.

The use of steel arch support as primary/immediate support should therefore be

avoided. Its use as a part of ultimate support in very poor ground conditions be made
till lattice girders/shotcrete reinforced ribs get popular.

The use of steel arch support as primary/immediate support should therefore be

avoided. Its use as a part of ultimate support in very poor ground conditions be made
till lattice girders/shotcrete reinforced ribs get popular.

4.6 Loads to be Considered for Design of Ultimate Supports

IS 13365 (Part 2) : 1192 lays down the procedure and methodology for estimation of
Immediate [Short-term] Support Pressures and Ultimate [Long-term] Support Pressures.

Assessment of what pressures to consider for design of the permanent lining of a

tunnel in rock depends on the following aspects:
If initial' supports are installed early and correctly, they may not
deteriorate within the design life of the structure, and if the opening is
stable, then a structural final lining may not be required.
If initial support(s) are installed early and correctly, the opening is
stable but it cannot be guaranteed that the initial supports will remain
completely effective for the design life of the structure, then the loads on
the final lining may be essentially equal to those of the initial support.
If initial supports are providing a seemingly stable opening but it is
considered that additional support is required for long term stability
then that support must be provided by the final lining.

4.7 Concrete Lining

As a structural system tunnel linings differ from other structural systems in that their

39
IRC:SP:91-2010

interaction with the surrounding ground is an integral aspect of their behavior, stability
and overall load carrying capacity. The flexibility of the lining to deform under load also
depends on the surrounding ground. This flexibility allows the lining to deform to match
with the surrounding ground, allowing the surrounding ground to mobilize strength and
stabilize. The tunnel lining deformation allows redistribution of the moments by creation
of "hinges" at points of high moment that relieve the moments in the tunnel lining.

The purpose of cast-in-situ concrete linings is to support the ground, provide base for
installation of furnishings and control seepage of ground water. Cast-in-situ concrete
linings are in plain or reinforced concrete, installed some time after the initial ground
support. Cast-in-place concrete linings can take on any desired geometric shape.

5 TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY

5.1 General

5.1.1 Construction of a tunnel involves various activities which are to be planned

depending upon the type of strata, available technology and construction period.
Methodology of construction of tunnels in hard rock and stable ground is quite different
from that for tunnels in poor rocks and soft ground. In case of very small isolated Tunnelling
job in rocky strata the drilling work may be carried out with pneumatically operated
Jack Hammers mounted on either pusher legs or specially designed multi platform 'Drill
Carriage'. For bigger Tunnelling jobs Mobile Drilling Jumbos comprising of hydraulic
rock drills mounted on hydraulic booms which can cover full face of a tunnel and which
are much faster and capable of drilling bigger diameter holes may be deployed.

5.1.2 Construction activities inside a tunnel are required to be carried out in

restricted space. Due to space restrictions and for working underground, specially
designed plant and equipment are required along with adequate artificial ventilation
and lighting arrangements. The construction operations are therefore required to be
carried out in 'work cycles'. In general a 'work cycle' consist of following activities;
• Surveying and Profile marking
• Advancing the face by appropriate excavation methods
• Defuming (after blasting) and Scaling
• Mucking including disposal
• Plotting of excavated profile and geological mapping
• Support Installation - temporary and/or permanent

While tunnel size and stand up time of the strata dictates the choice between full face

40
 IRC:SP:91-2010

or multiple drift excavation, the standup time of strata dictates support installation
activities. The work cycle time involving various activities of construction shall be
monitored as documented in 'Method Statement'.

5.2 Stages in Tunnel Construction

5.2.1 Surveying and profile marking

5.2.1.1 Proper Surveying is very essential for efficient tunnelling. Skilled and
experienced surveyors, appropriate techniques and instruments shall be used.
Otherwise serious consequences, such as deviations in alignment and levels,
excessive or inadequate excavation of the cross-section, reduction in safety due to
adjacent tunnels straying towards each other, excavations of same tunnel from the
two end faces not meeting properly, etc. may result. Contractual problems may also
arise because of poor surveying.

5.2.1.2 Surveying equipments range from the common Level instruments through
Theodolites and Total Stations to advanced Lasers and Profilers. Proper Bench Marks
duly transferred from existing GTS or Project Bench Marks shall be established outside
the tunnel at either end. All traverses shall always be closed and any resulting closing
error should be negligible and be properly distributed. Construction Bench marks shall
also be established at intermediate locations for long tunnels to speed up the surveying.
Such Bench marks shall always be got cross checked independently to ensure
maximum accuracy. Tunnel grade line shall be drawn on excavated side surfaces
using indelible markings or embedded fixtures to facilitate quick ready checks. Check
surveys shall be carried out at regular time/ progress intervals using an independent
agency and with independent instruments and methods. Generally cross sections shall
be generated immediately after excavation using post-survey data and cross-checked
with required sectional area to monitor over-breaks or undercuts, as both these defects
are expensive and difficult to rectify. Such comparisons also enable corrections to
be applied to excavation techniques to minimize further erroneous excavation and
also to avoid dangerous over-excavations. Such comparisons shall also be made
contractually mandatory. All field observations and plots shall be preserved at least till
the completion of the tunnel excavation and lining work. Any corrections requi red in
the alignment due to wrong excavation shall always be made up gradually and as per
approved plans.

5.2.2 Excavation of open/approach cuts and location of portals

Almost all the tunnels have an Open/Approach Cut at each of its ends. The length of

41
IRC:SP:91-2010

open/approach cut depends upon cost of open excavation vs. cost of underground
excavation and cost of protective work involved which depends upon type of strata
met with. In case the cost of protective work becomes very high the option of cut and
cover shall be studied which may be economical in such circumstances. However
the excavation of these approach cuts in any case shall be carried out to stable side
slope and continued till a near vertical stable ground mass, suitable for forming of
excavated portal of the tunnel gets exposed. The locations of portals shall be decided
with reference to rock cover in rocky strata. The minimum cover above tunnel crest
depends upon the type and structure of rock mass, the size and shape of tunnel. The
portals and approaches shall be designed with great care with regard to safety. If need
be, the ground mass in which the excavated portal is to be formed shall be stabilized
by installation of rock bolts, grouting, shotcreting etc. Thereafter, Tunnelling shall
commence carefully by using techniques for advancement of tunnel face, described in
the subsequent paragraphs. In case of mountainous region having very steep vertical
cliffs with valley on other side, the approach to tunnel or sometimes road alignment
itself may have to be planned along cliffs. In such case the option of half tunnel by
partial excavation on hillside with one side remaining uncovered and exposed to valley
side, can be considered if geological formations are favorable. The details about 'Half
Tunnel' are dealt with at the end of this chapter in para 5.6.

5.2.3 Advancement of tunnel face by excavation

Various types of equipment required to tackle different types of strata envisaged shall
be planned for right from the beginning. The tunnel face shall be advanced by carrying
out excavation using techniques and methods suitable for type of strata, stand up time
of the strata, type of machinery available and with due regards to size and shape of
tunnel. The tunnel face can be advanced by two techniques as follows:
• No-Blast Techniques.
• Conventional Technique of Drilling and Blasting.

Most common technique used for advancement of tunnel face, except in soft strata is by
'Drilling and Blasting' and same is dealt with in detail separately in para 5.3 below.

5.2.3.1 No-blast techniques

In many a situation, where surface subsidence is not desirable or where blasting

vibrations cannot be permitted and where speedy Tunnelling operations are desired,
No-Blast Techniques are employed with advantage. Various machines are available
for such work:

42
 IRC:SP:91-2010

d Tunnelling Shields
~
Tunnelling Shields are used for
1
constructing circular or ovular tunnels
through different types of soft ground.
Shield is a rigid steel cylinder. The front
end is in the form of a cutting edge and
fitted with excavation facilities and the
rear end has facilities for removal of
excavation spoils and for installation of
supports inside the tail of the shield. In
Photo of Tunnelling Shield
shield tunnelling, periphery of excavation
is not visible as it is either supported by the shield itself or by tunnel supports. As
the excavation at the face progresses, the shield is pushed forward with the help of
h} draulic jacks which take thrust from the supports at the rear end of the shield. During
forward movement of the shield, the tail end slides past the supports already erected
nside the tail transferring the load of the excavated periphery from the shield to the
supports. Various types of shields such as Compressed Air Shield, Slurry Shield and
Earth Pressure Balancing Shield etc. are available to deal with different soil conditions.

Roadheaders
Another type of machine that can excavate tunnels of any shape is the Roadheader.
It has a hydraulic boom with a rotary cutting head at its front end, a loading device
usually involving a conveyor and a crawler traveling track to move the entire machine.
The boom can be moved up or down and right or left to cover the whole face. The boom
presses the rotating cutting head into the rock face, cuts the rock into small fragments
which drop down to the invert of the tunnel. Collector arms of the machine pull the muck
onto an apron which transfers the muck onto a trailing conveyor for depositing the muck
into muck disposal vehicles. In case
of soft soil tunnels, the roadheaders
operate under the protection of and
inside the shields. Apart from rotating
cutting head, various types of special
function heads are available. For
tunnels having height more than about

- 5 m excavation using road header may

have to carried out in multiple stages
in view of boom limitations, even in
competent rocks.
Photo of Roadheader
IRC:SP:91-2010

Tunnel Boring Machines

One type of machine which can excavate only circular sections through a variety of
strata from hard rock to soft strata and at a considerable speed is the Tunnel Boring
Machine (TBM), which comprises a rotating circular head with several cutters mounted
oni its face. As the cutter head rotates, it presses the cutters into the tunnel face, cuts
rock into small fragments, picks up the dislodged rock fragments with its muck collectors
and drops the fragments onto the head of a trailing conveyor for depositing them into
muck disposal vehicles. The TBM train is scores of meters long and has arrangements
and equipment for drilling of probe holes and grout holes, erection of precast lining
segments and grouting, as well as service equipment such as dewatering pumps,
transformers, hydraulic power units, containers for materials, rest rooms etc.

TBM can be steered in vertical and horizontal

direction along smooth curves. TBM have
advantage of not disturbing surrounding strata
which makes them suitable for use in built up
area. However main disadvantage is cost as
they are expensive to construct, difficult to
transport and require significant infrastructure.
Various types of TBMs such as Open, Shielded
and Earth Pressure Balancing Machine are
Photo of Tunnel Boring Machine available to deal with different soil conditions
with certain limitations.

Splitting Techniques

Where rock cannot be blasted for various reasons such as avoiding noise, vibrations
and surface subsidence, the rock can be split along planes of weaknesses and fissures.
Then the pieces can be separately picked up and removed. There are various methods
available for splitting the rock. Some of them are listed below:
a) Conventional wedging and splitting:
Wedges and feathers are inserted into natural fissures or predrilled
holes and the rock induced to split along the line of wedges, for
subsequent removal.
b) Hydraulic Splitters:
Hydraulic splitters can be inserted in holes pre-drilled in a pattern and
the rock induced to split along the line of holes quickly and noiselessly,
of subsequent removal.

44
 IRC:SP:91-2010

c) Splitting rock using expansive chemicals:

When such chemicals are poured into holes/fissures, they expand and
f split the rock in predetermined patterns, for subsequent removal.
d) Other splitting agents such as Cardox, Nonex and Penetrating Cone
Fracture (PCF):
The Cardox system is based on liquid Carbon dioxide being converted to
high pressure carbon dioxide gas with ignition. The gas spreads through
fissures and microcracks in the rock and breaks it in tension, rather than
compression as with explosives. It is this tension breaking mechanism
that results in the reduced noise, vibration, flyrock characteristics and
much less energy required to break the rock in this way.
Both the Nonex and PCF products are based on the burning of a
propellant, releasing many gases at high pressures, again breaking
the rock along existing fractures to break in tension.
The Nonex system consists of a cartridge which contains a propellant
which when ignited produces high volumes of harmless gases such as
nitrogen and carbon dioxide are released, providing a pressure increase
when the cartridge is sealed in a drillhole. Nonex is particularly suited
in situations where the rock is not required to be fractured, but rather,
split as it does not cause the rock to shatter.
The PCF tube is a hollow plastic tube, open at one end which can then
be filled with the powdered smokeless propellant and then closed with
a small cap. The other end is machined into a wedge to lock into the
stemming, and to seal the hole when inserted for ignition. In the cap
there is an entry port for insertion of an electric match, which is the
means of detonation. This heat ignites the propellant. As there are not
the crushing effects of compressive breakage as with explosives, dust
and fines are significantly reduced. As the rock requires less energy
to break in tension than compression, a much smaller energy input is
required.

These methods are slow and are preferred where use of other techniques is not
feasible.
Immersed Tube/Sunken Tube Tunnels

An Immersed/Sunken Tube is an underwater tunnel made up of prefabricated elements

in the form of a tube. The elements are cast on the shore, floated to the tunnel site,

45
IRC:SP:91-2010

sunk in to place (often into an excavated trench, connected to the elements already in
place, finished and covered up. Immersed/Sunken Tube normally takes off from and
ends into a cut and cover tunnel or bored tunnel constructed up to the edge of water.

An Immersed/Sunken Tube works out to be a cost effective solution when a cost of a

bridge turns out to be quite high due to high depth of water, difficult ground conditions
for foundations etc. and cost of a bored tunnel turns out to be high due to ground
conditions.

Immersed/Sunken Tubes cause least disturbance to marine traffic and are more
resistant to seismic vibrations.

Cut-and-cover Tunnels
Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels.

Two basic forms of cut-and-cover Tunnelling are available:

In the Bottom-up method, a trench is excavated with the help of ground support in
the form of diaphragm walls, sheet piles or intersecting piles etc. and the tunnel is
constructed within. The tunnel may be of in situ concrete, precast concrete, precast
arches, corrugated steel arches etc. The trench is then backfilled with compacted fill
material and the surface is reinstated.

In the Top-down method, initially, a trench is excavated with the help of ground support
in the form of diaphragm walls, sheet piles or intersecting piles etc A shallow excavation
is then made to allow the tunnel roof to be constructed using precast beams or in situ
concrete. The surface is then reinstated except for access openings. This allows early
reinstatement of roadways, services and other surface features. Excavation machinery
is then lowered into the access openings, and the main excavation is carried out under
the permanent tunnel roof, followed by constructing the base slab.

5. 2. 3. 2 Conventional technique of drilling and blasting

(A) In the conventional technique of drilling and blasting, holes of requisite

diameter, length and direction, as determined from the blast design, are drilled into the
tunnel face at designated locations. The profile of the drilling holes is marked on the
face of the tunnel with the help of surveying. The job of correct profile marking has to
be emphasized to the surveyor and the marker. The direction of holes with respect to
the face cannot be marked at site and therefore that aspect has to be explained to the
operator of the drilling machine. Before profile marking, the study of the last executed
and plotted profile must be made and then required changes, if any, may be made.

46
 IRC:SP:91-2010

The time cycle of the activity may be noted and variation

with the planned time may be studied for modifying the
blasting pattern. The drilling at face according to profile
marking is carried out with the help of drilling jumbos,
which operate electrically/hydraulically. In advanced
machines, the three dimensional drilling pattern can
be fed into the program of the drilling jumbo. In such
cases the activity of profile marking on tunnel face is
not required. The water pressure for flushing the drill
holes must be controlled so as to avoid the weakening
of surrounding rock mass in case of Tunnelling in
Photo of Drilling Jumbo
jointed and weak rock mass. The 'look out' of the drill
holes may be kept as low as possible, depending upon the deployment of the drilling
machine. At the end of drilling activity, the details of the holes including their number,
depth, diameter, and angle with the face along with the time taken for the activity may
be recorded and analyzed vis-a-vis the provision in the Method Statement.

(B) Based on the planning contained in the Method Statement and the experience
gained from the previous cycles the charging of the face shall be carried out with the
explosives. Due consideration shall be paid to the charge per series of detonators
and the location of the holes being charged in the face for minimizing the vibrations
and damage to the surrounding rock mass. Charge comprising of designed quantity
of suitable explosives together with a delay detonator of designated delay shall be
inserted into each drill hole. Leading wires of the detonators shall then be connected
to form a circuit and ends of the circuit connected to an electric exploder through hook
up wires. Due safety precautions at the time of charging the face shall be taken. The
face shall be cleared and service lines, equipments withdrawn from the face and shall
be parked at a safe distance of about 70 m from the tunnel face. The other necessary
precautions as prescribed for blasting shall be observed. The exploder shall then be
charged and the circuit fired to blast the explosives. To overlap the activity of 'charging
the holes' and the 'drilling of holes', the use of non-electrical detonators (NONEL) can
also be resorted to. By doing so, the overall cycle time can be reduced at some extra
cost. NONEL is also suitable for safe working in periods of lightening incidence.

(C) For facilitating drilling, charging of blast holes and scaling etc. mobile access
platforms with intermediate deck can be used. Mobile Drilling Jumbos comprising of
hydraulic rock drills mounted on hydraulic booms which can cover full face of a tunnel
are available. A basket mounted on a telescopic hydraulic boom is also provided with
the jumbos for facilitating scaling, charging of blast holes etc.

47
IRC:SP:91-2010

(D) Where for aesthetic or any other considerations, it becomes necessary to

create a smooth line of breakage at the periphery of excavation, closely spaced holes
are drilled along the periphery. These holes are treated as dummy holes and are
left uncharged during blasting. Outermost ring of the blast holes are drilled about
200 mm inside the tunnel periphery depending upon the properties of the rock. Line
joining these peripheral holes creates a weak line of breakage. The drilling patterns
and blasting technique are dealt in detail at the end of this sub-section.

(E) Ventilation: The tunnel face is a dead end and at the same time it is an area
of maximum activity. It therefore becomes necessary to see that the face is properly
ventilated by means of artificial ventilation. Where the excavation is carried out by the
No-blast Techniques, operation of heavy equipment generates a lot of heat, diesel
equipment fumes and increased humidity. Where excavation is carried out by Drilling
and Blasting technique, heat and fumes caused by the blast need to be exhausted out
from the face.

Artificial ventilation is effected by means of by axial flow type fan(s) operating on a

ventilation duct. In tunnels where reversible type axial flow fans are used, immediately
after the blast, the fans are operated in the exhausting mode so as to suck out blasting
fumes from the face. Thereafter the fans are reversed to operate in supply mode so as
to supply fresh air at the face

5.2.4 Methods of driving the tunnel

Methods of driving the tunnels by attacking the face depends upon the size and shape
of tunnel, equipments available, the condition of formation, the stand up time of the
strata through which tunnel is passing, the extent to which supports are necessary
and overall economics. Tunnels can be driven by the following methods:
• Full Face Method
• Heading and Benching Method
• Multi-drift Method
• Multi section Method

5.2.4.1 Full face bethod

This method is used when the tunnel is being excavated through stable formations .
Limitation of full face method depends upon the size of the tunnel and capacity of
equipment being used for the job.

48
 IRC:SP:91-2010

5.2.4.2 Heading and benching method

Heading and Benching method is used when height is more than about 8 m and area
of the face is large and/or when the tunnel is being excavated through not very stable
formations, to enable installation of supports within the available stand-up time.

5.2.4.3 Multi-drift method

In this method, the heading and the bench are divided into smaller parts. This method
becomes necessary when the tunnel is being excavated through very poor and unstable
formations, to enable installation of supports within the available short stand-up time.

5.2.4.4 Multi section method

For wider tunnels in stable formation pilot heading followed by side slashing has to be
resorted to.

5.2.4.5 Advance probing & treatment

Even in the so called compact and hard rock formations, possibility of meeting
jointed and weak and water charged zones can not be totally ruled out. Though the
geotechnical explorations help to gain adequate knowledge of the strata, knowledge
about the condition of the strata immediately ahead becomes absolutely necessary for
safe and efficient Tunnelling through heterogeneous strata. Assessment of the strata
immediately ahead is carried out by drilling probe holes of suitable diameter through
the tunnel face itself. If water starts gushing out through a probe hole, it indicates
presence of ground water ahead and sufficient care shall be exercised. Sudden
increase or decrease in the rate of drilling would give indication of the thickness and
condition of joints and weak zones. This information enables to carry out advance
grouting to seal passages of water and loose joints and be prepared to deal with the
difficulties before actually entering the ground ahead.

It is therefore preferable that assessment of the strata immediately ahead is carried out
by drilling probe holes, on regular basis. In locations where the geological investigations
indicate likely presence of highly jointed and fissured formations such assessment
with advance probing and treatment shall be made mandatory.

5.2.5 Scaling

Immediately after blasting , defuming activity at the face shall be taken up using the
ventilation fans and the ducting system provided. The defuming time will depend upon

49
IRC:SP:91-2010

the type of explosive, quantity of explosive and the ventilation system, etc. Thereafter
the face shall be approached and inspection shall be carried out to see the efficacy
of the blast. The service lines shall then be extended/reinstalled. If found necessary,
water shall be sprinkled on the muck pile created at the face to contain the blasting
fumes. The scaling, which is an operation for knocking down all loose rock fragments
hanging on to the periphery of the Tunnel, shall then be started mechanically or
manually immediately after the blasting fumes are exhausted from the face.

Routine inspection of the periphery of already excavated tunnel shall also be carried
out and loose scales that may have developed because of spalling shall be knocked
down.

5.2.6 Disposal of excavated muck

The blasting crushes the rock of the tunnel face into small fragments and forms a muck
pile in front of the face. After scaling of the sides and face, the activity of removing
the muck shall be undertaken provided the excavated sides and the face retain
themselves till the muck from the face is removed. Otherwise, the muck pile shall be
spread near the face and temporary support measures be adopted to increase the
stand up time. The muck coming out of excavation at the face shall be removed from
the face with the help of loaders and muck haulage units and led to and disposed off
into the areas designated for muck disposal. In case of long tunnels, deployment of
diesel operated excavators/loaders and dumpers for muck removal be avoided and in
their place electrically/pneumatically operated loaders and battery operated haulage
cars or belt conveyers shall be preferred. For long tunnels rail mounted equipment as
against tyre mounted equipments and conveyers are preferred.

A suitable area in one or more locations, of adequate size to hold the total quantity
of muck expected to be removed from the tunnel with a reasonable height of the pile,
shall be identified and earmarked as Muck Disposal Area. This Area shall be well
accessible from the Tunnel portal(s), connected by a road of appropriate quality. The
muck haulage units carrying the disposal muck from the tunnel shall dump the muck
only within this Area and dozers shali be deployed for spreading the muck uniformly
in layers to permit muck to be stacked safely up to the design height of the pile. In the
process of building up the pile up to the maximum specified height, temporary roads
shall be formed by the dozer(s) to enable the dumpers to reach various locations of
the Muck Disposal Area to spread the muck uniformly. In all the temporary stages
the pile shall be carefully heaped and leveled to avoid unintended and unsafe slides
or collapses of the slopes. Once a particular stack reaches its deigned height, muck
dumping shall be immediately diverted to the next designated pile. The stable slopes

50
 IRC:SP:91-2010

of the stack shall be pitched with excavated stones to prevent mud from oozing out
and the slopes shall be finally turfed to make them more stable and prevent erosion
due to run-off water.

5.2.7 Installation of temporary and permanent support

Provision of Tunnel Supports becomes necessary when exposed periphery of a tunnel

is not capable of standing on its own as time passes. The temporary and permanent
rock support may consist of one or the combination of following measures;
• Providing plain shotcrete on the excavated surface with or without wire
mesh.
Providing steel fibre reinforced shotcrete on the rock surface.
• Providing tor steel/high tensile steel rock anchors.
• Providing tor steel/high tensile steel pretensioned rock bolts.
Providing structural steel/lattice girder ribs with backfill concrete/
shotcrete.
• Providing plain/reinforced concrete lining.
Providing forepoling

It shall be realised that for efficient and safe tunnelling, supports shall be installed as
soon as possible after exposing the face and well within the stand up time.
Plain or Steel Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete, as the name suggests, is
concrete shot over exposed periphery of a tunnel. In case of Tunnelling
through highly weathered and very highly jointed rocks , immediately
after completion of defuming, a layer of Steel Fiber Reinforced
Shotcrete [SFRS] shall be placed on the exposed periphery, to give it
an immediate support and to prevent dilation of the exposed surface
and to extend it's stand up time. This will also make the area safe
for further operations. Even in very stable rock formations, a layer of
shotcrete is provided over exposed periphery to prevent weathering
and dilation of joints.
Rockbolts are provided to stitch together layers of jointed and blocky
formations. Different types of rockbolts such as split-wedge type,
expansion shell type and those grouted with resin or mortar capsules
etc. are available. The choice depends on the type of strata in which
the rockbolts are to be placed. For facilitating installation of rockbolts,
Mobile Access Platforms can be used. Rockbolters comprising of a

51
IRC:SP:91 -2010

hydraulic rock drill mounted on hydraulic boom for drilling and a basket
mounted on a telescopic hydraulic boom for installation are also
available for rockbolting.
• Provision of ribs made of joists or lattice girders is made where exposed
periphery of a tunnel is not capable of standing on its own and needs
active external support. To form a continuous roof, lagging in the form
of steel plates or concrete planks shall be placed over the extrados
of the rib supports and the annular gap between the tunnel periphery
and the lagging shall be tightly packed with backfill concrete. In case
of Lattice Girder Supports, girders shall be embedded in plain concrete
lining or SFR Shotcrete.
Where excavation of the heading is carried out by multi-drift method
i.e. by initially advancing the central drift & followed by widening to
full section of the heading. Arch of the Central Drift shall be supported
using segments of the arch rib and held in place by rock bolts or by
installation of temporary verticals and bottom struts. After completion
of excavation & supporting of the central drift, widening of the central
drift shall be carried on in stages. At this stage, the segments of the
arch ribs already erected in the central drift shall be extended in the
widened section. These extension segments can be held in place by
rock bolts or the other end of these extension pieces shall be made to
rest and fixed onto a wall beam laid on each side of the heading. In
case of Supports fabricated out of steel joists, concrete lagging planks
shall be placed over the extrados of the supports and the annular gap
between the tunnel periphery and the lagging shall be packed with
backfill concrete. In case of Lattice Girder Supports, the girders shall
be embedded in SFR Shotcrete/concrete lining .
Plain or Reinforced Concrete Lining of appropriate thickness shall be
used where exposed periphery of a tunnel is not capable of standing on
its own and needs active external support. The Concrete Lining can be
built from pre-cast segments or can be cast-in-situ. Cast-in-situ lining in
sides and overt of tunnels can be cast together using mobile telescopic
shutters or in separate operations. Invert concrete can be placed
thereafter. Mixed Concrete shall be brought to the placement point in
transit mixers and placed in position with Concrete Pumps. Depending
upon the development of the stresses in the tunnel, suitable time gap
shall be allowed between excavation and lining so as to gain stability of
the excavated section of rock and thus avoid transfer of load to lining.

52
 IRC:SP:91-2010

• Where excavated tunnels require concrete lining, cast in-situ concrete

lining is commonly adopted. However, lining using precast concrete
segments and installed soon after excavation is adopted where speed
is critical. Typically, the assembly of precast segments is always in
the shape of a circle and the elements form segments of the circle,
typically with 4 to 8 segments per cross-section . These interlocking
segments are connected in the transverse and longitudinal directions
using bolts and compressible seals or only with interlocking of special
keying shapes formed while casting. As such, great care is necessary
to ensure the correct geometry while precasting these segments. Rigid
steel moulds are normally used to ensure correct geometry and to
minimise progressive damage/warp111g after many repetitions of the
mould. Such moulds shall be properly designed and fabricated using
specialized expert agencies. Good care shall be exercised while using
and handling these moulds to avoid damages. Concrete for precasting
shall be with approved appropriate mix design and shall be of sufficient
high strength to be able to safely bear the handling and stacking
stresses apart from the permanent stresses. Curing shall be carried
out for adequate time period before the segments are sent inside the
tunnel so that adequate strength is developed. Often steam curing is
used in conjunction with precasting to ensure early development of
strength to permit handling and stacking. The precast segments shall
always be identified with engraved/permanent-painted markings to
ensure that they fit into the right place during assembly at site. The
segments shall be stacked as per designed methods to ensure that
no damage is caused, particularly to the edges and corners so that
the permanent joints are not impaired. The ground in the stacking yard
shall have adequate strength to bear the stacked segments without
any undesirable deformations. Any segments having warping of the
sections or chipping of the edges and corners shall not be sent inside
the tunnel unless proper rectifications are carried out (wherever such
rectifications are feasible only), using approved techniques. Usually
vacuum grips using rubber pads are used for lifting the segments.
Such equipment shall be regularly checked to ensure proper and safe
working to ensure that there is no damage to the segments and also to
ensure good safety during construction. Wherever precast segmental
lining is used, it is preferable to have a mock-up done prior to use in
the regular Tunnelling operations to ensure that the correct geometry
is attained and to check up on the interlocking of the joints and efficient

53
IRC:SP:91-2010

functioning of the assembly. The space behind the lining and excavated
periphery of rock is generally filled up with pea gravel, injected with
cement grout and adequate contact for stress transfer from the rock
strata to the lining is ensured.
• In poor rock with limited standup time, forepoling technique is used
to improve/strengthen the strata ahead above the tunnel roof before
advancing the face. Basically an arch-like shell is created ahead of
the tunnel face prior to its excavation, enabling tunnel excavation to be
carried out safely and speedily under a protective arch. Forepoles are
also installed to treat cavity formation and extremely weak geological
material like highly sheared rock mass and even overburden material
like colluvium and river deposits. Forepoling is also useful in situations
where tunnels have to be excavated at shallow depths, or where minimum
disturbance is to be caused to the surface structures, i.e. ground surface
settlements have to be restricted, as for instance in urban areas. Three
different methods of forepoling are commonly used:
i) Roofing Method: Forepoling is carried out by installing steel bars
of required diameter (generally 25 mm, 32 mm and 36 mm). Steel
sections, plates or pipes can also be used instead of rods in poorer
strata. Length of fore poles may vary from 5 m to 12 rn . Spacing is
generally 300 to 500 mm depending upon the geological material to be
treated. Forepoles can be used with or without grouting. Forepoles are
installed outside the tunnel periphery at an angle (with the longitudinal
horizontal centerline of the tunnel) ranging from 5 to 7 degrees up. For
Pipe roofing heavy duty seamless steel pipes are used with or without
perforations to allow grouting to be done through the perforations. Pipe
diameter varies from 89 mm to 100 mm and length may vary from
10 m to 20 m depending upon the site conditions. Pipe jacking or micro
Tunnelling methods can also be used for installing the pipes.
ii) Spiling Method: The Spiling method is a ground improvement technique
where the support structure of a tunnel top sector is installed ahead
of the excavation of the face. Such support mechanism provided by
forepoling technique stabilizes the tunnel face area in both longitudinal
and transverse directions by means of an arch-like reinforced zone
formed primarily by injection. This method can also be used in
conjunction with standard drill-and-blast Tunnelling when severe
fault zones are encountered or wherever extra support structures are
required.
 IRC:SP:91-2010

iii) Horizontal Jet Grouting Method: Horizontal Jet Grouting is a technique

used for Tunnelling through soft ground especially with difficult conditions
where both weak soils and thin overburden occur and in sandy or gravel
formations. The technique is used for creating a protective fan-shaped
canopy ahead of the face , as a temporary support for advancing the
face under its protection comprising of near horizontal columns, of
a diameter of 0.5 to 0.9 m usually at an angle of about 15° with the
centerline/axis of the tunnel. The process of jet grouting uses a high
speed jet with nozzle pressure of up to 50 MPa. The jet fractures the
soil around and mixes the soil with the cemenUchemical grout and
forms a near horizontal column upon setting. As the face is advanced,
the canopy is also progressively advanced .
----,
11 Ill \1 "' _ L--·-----,-,..--1
~------~--
r_ I
J
:::=-
·-·-·§ ·- -- ~-
-· - - -·-§ -+-·~~
· ·~- ~-
- --~-·-· - -~-·-~ -- -- - -·- - -·--
·--·- --- - l- -·----·-
--- - - --·-- i.---
- .... - -·- -·-·- - -·- ,. .- -
- --- ~--- -
-~--·--· - ·-·-

9 Ill

Driving of pipes for Horizontal Jet Grouting in Tunnels

Biggest advantage of the technique is that it can be used in varying ground conditions
and for tunnels of all shapes and reduces surface settlement and is therefore most
suitable for urban Tunnelling through soft ground. However, as the process of jet-
grouting is a high energy process, in shallow tunnels the jet-grouting process may
induce surface settlements that exceed the design requirements.

Ground Freezing technique is used for Tunnelling through water-bearing soft

ground . Ground freezing is achieved by circulation of a freezing mixture such as
brine or liquid nitrogen etc. through a suitable pipe system, so as to cool the soil and
convert the soil water to ice. On freezing the wet soil gets converted into a hard mass
resembling concrete which is watertight and has load carrying capability. Ground
freezing can be applied in all types of soil and groundwater conditions, such as running
sand, clay and gravel.

55
IRC:SP:91-2010

5.2.8 New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM)

For tunnelling in soft grounds, an approach called 'The New Austrian Tunnelling
Method' (NATM) can be adopted. It was developed between 1957 and 1965 in Austria
and was given its name to distinguish it from the old Austrian tunnelling approach. The
main idea is to use the geological properties of the surrounding rock mass to stabilize
the tunnel itself.

The main idea is to use the geological properties of the surrounding rock mass to
stabilize the tunnel itself. The NATM integrates the principles of the behaviour of rock
masses under the influence of the excavation method and the support system and
monitoring the performance of underground construction during construction . The
NATM is not a set of specific excavation and support techniques. The NATM is a
philosophy where properties of the surrounding rock or soil formations of a tunnel and
the support systems are integrated into an overall ring-like support structure. Thus the
supports and the formations will themselves be part of this supporting structure.

The NATM has since been adopted the world over for a large variety of ground
conditions including rock tunnelling . Based on experience, the philosophy has been
renamed as Norwegian Method of Tunnelling [NMT].

NATM/NMT are based on following features:

Mobilization of the strength of ground mass - The method relies on the
inherent strength of the surrounding ground mass being conserved as
the main component of tunnel support. Primary support is provided to
enable the ground to support itself.
• Shotcrete protection - Loosening and excessive ground deformation
must be minimised. This is achieved by applying a thin layer of shotcrete
immediately after face advance.
• Measurements-Every deformation of the excavation must be measured.
NATM/NMT requires installation of sophisticated measurement
instrumentation. It is embedded in lining, ground , and boreholes.
• Flexible support - The primary lining is thin and reflects recent strata
conditions. Active rather than passive support is used and the tunnel
is strengthened not by a thicker concrete lining but by a flexible
combination of rock bolts, wire mesh and steel ribs.
• Closing of invert- Quickly closing the invert and creating a load-bearing
ring is important. It is crucial in soft ground tunnels where no section of
the tunnel should be left open even temporarily.

56
 IRC:SP:91-2010

• Contractual arrangements - Since the NATM/NMT is based on

monitoring measurements, changes in support and construction
method are possible. This is possible only if the contractual system
enables those changes.
• Rock mass classification determines support measures - There are
several main rock classes for tunnels and corresponding support
systems for each. These serve as the guidelines for tunnel
reinforcement.

Based on the computation of the optimal cross-section, just a thin shotcrete protection
could be adequate. It is applied immediately behind the face, to create a natural load-
bearing ring and therefore to minimize the ground deformation. Additionally, geo-
technical instruments are installed to measure the later deformation of excavation.
Therefore a monitoring of the stress distribution within the ground mass is possible.
This monitoring makes the method very flexible, even at surprising changes of the
geo-mechanical ground mass consistency during the Tunnelling work. Such problems
are not solved only by thick shotcrete, but by using mesh reinforcement/SFRS which
can be combined with steel supports or rock bolts.

The measured rock properties lead to the appropriate tools for tunnel strengthening.
Therefore NATM/NMT is also applied to soft ground excavations and to tunnels in
porous sediments. The flexible NATM/NMT technique enables immediate adjustments
in the construction details, but this requires a flexible contractual system too.

The key features of the design philosophy refer to:

• The strength of the ground around a tunnel is preserved and deliberately
mobilised to the maximum extent possible.
• Mobilisation of ground strength is achieved by allowing controlled
deformation of the ground.
• Initial primary support is installed having load-deformation charac-
teristics appropriate to the ground conditions, and installation is timed
with respect to ground deformations.
• Instrumentation is installed to monitor deformations in the initial support
system, as well as to form the basis of varying the initial support design
and the sequence of excavation.
• If necessary, additional layers of shotcrete are sprayed which, in
combination with the earlier support, function as the final support/
lining.

57
IRC:SP:91-2010

For the construction method, the key features are:

The tunnel is sequentially excavated and supported, and the excavation
sequences can be varied.
The initial ground support is provided by shotcrete in combination with
fibre or welded-wire fabric reinforcement, steel arches (usually lattice
girders), and sometimes ground reinforcement (e.g. soil nails).
The permanent support is usually (but not always) a cast-in-place
concrete lining.
Additional layers of shotcrete are sprayed which, in combination with
the earlier support, provide the final support I lining.

5.2.9 Grouting

5.2.9. 1 Where tunnel excavation is to be carried out in poor ground conditions

arising from various reasons such as poor quality rock (low strength rock, sheared
rock), excessive ground water, poor behavior due to very high stresses (high cover
and residual stresses), very low cover area, etc, pre-grouting is a useful technique.
Different types of grouting techniques used in Tunnelling are;
• Consolidation grouting - carried out to consolidate poor rock mass,
• Water control grouting - carried out mainly to reduce excessive ground
water flows . Curtain grouting is one example of the Water control
grouting,
• Contact grouting - carried out after the installation of a lining (either
cast in-situ or precast concrete lining) to fill up the gaps between the
outer surface of the lining and the excavated periphery.

5.2.9.2 Consolidation grouting is carried out to consolidate poor ground mass.

The grout pumped into weak mass gets filled inside the fissures and other openings
and consolidates the ground mass or overburden resulting in a cohesive mass with
increased strength due to mixing of grout and geological material. It also controls
any seepage to some extent. Consolidation grouting is done generally through holes
drilled from the working face longitudinally (with an outward slope) to cover zones
yet to be excavated and also through transverse holes to stabilize the ground mass
around the already excavated tunnel.

5.2.9.3 Water control grouting (pregrouting) is done through holes drilled to cover
the zones ahead of the excavated area to arrest seepage of water into the excavated
tunnel. Holes are drilled at an angle to the longitudinal centerline of the tunnel, from all

58
 IRC:SP:91-2010

round the periphery of the cross-section. The number of holes and spacing depend on
the circumstances involved. In areas of low seepage, Tunnelling can proceed ahead
of the seepage zone and arresting the seepage can be carried out with suitable lag
behind the excavation face. Length of holes varies from 3 m to 15 m. For arresting
large seepages, careful planning is necessary. It is preferable to carry out such grouting
ahead of excavation i.e. before tunnel face enters such zone. The locations and extent
of grout holes as well as the type of grout and its composition have to be designed
duly considering the various parameters such as exact location of seepage, presence
of porous seams, origin of seepage water, amount of seepage and its pressure, etc.
such grouting is best done using specialized agencies.

5.2.9.4 Contact grouting is done using transverse drilled holes for cast in-situ lining
to fill up the voids caused by shrinkage of concrete or where lining concrete has
not penetrated all excavated areas. Contact grouting is essential where cast in-situ
concrete plugs are required for a tunnel. In the case of precast and installed concrete
lining the cavity behind is normally filled up with pea gravel and grout is injected inside
to consolidate the gravel into concrete. Grouting is also done in conjunction with pipe
roofing to treat cavity formations and as part of forepoling operations.

5.2.9.5 Grout used for these applications is generally neat cement grout. The water-
cement ratio varies from case to case but generally ranges from 1:5 to 0.6. Similarly,
grout pressure will range from less than 1 bar to 15 bars depending on the material
to be grouted and the ground conditions. Care shall be taken to limit the pressures in
areas where possible fracturing of existing strata is dangerous. Pressures are higher
where fracture grouting is required/permissible or for jet grouting. Fine sand is added
to the grout where large cavities have to be filled up. Special grouts are used for
treating seepages, using admixtures such as sodium silicate. Polyurethane Foam
(PUF) is also used often to arrest large seepages. Reference to relevant provisions of
standards covering River Valley Grouting may also be made.

5. 2.10 Plotting of excavated profiles and geological mapping

At the end of each excavation cycle, the gee-logging and profile plotting of the
excavated tunnel is very important along with evaluation of the efficiency parameters.
After analyzing this activity, next cycle may be modified to the required extent.

5.2.11 Monitoring

Depending upon the geology of the rock mass during tunnelling, convergence
measurements at the excavated crown and sides may be taken up with the help of

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IRC:SP:91-2010

multi-point bore hole extensometers or studs and tape extensometers. The cycle of
taking readings will depend upon the convergence observed.

5.3 Drilling and Blasting

5.3.1 The blasting operation shall be so designed to get desired fragmentation

with requisite advance per cycle of operations and the blast induced ground vibration
level within permissible limits in accordance with IS 5676.

5.3. 1. 1 The drills used for tunnelling are either pneumatically or hydraulically
powered and having either air pusher legs and/or mounted on drilling jumbos. With air
pusher legs it is always advisable to use templates for guiding the direction of drilling.
The drilling jumbos have varying specifications. They can have a simple mounting
arrangement on truck or rail. In most sophisticated type of computerized jumbos
drilling programme is fed in for the total drilling cycle. The choice of drilling system will
depend upon the size, shape and length of tunnelling work at hand as these are the
main factors deciding t0tal economy of the project.

5.3.1.2 For a successful blast, it is most important to initially create a free face that
is required to accommodate the requisite advance of subsequent serial blasts. For
creating a free face (barring the burn cut pattern) it is absolutely necessary to drill the
blast holes in the following manners.
Cut Holes:
These holes are located around the middle of the cut and are drilled at
an inclination of about 60° and are to be blasted first to create free face
for next set of blast holes termed as Cut Spreaders.
• Cut Spreaders:
These are the next set of blast holes having lesser inclination and are
in two or more rings. They are meant to widen the free face created by
blasting of Cut Holes. They are usually 15 to 30 cm deeper than other
holes.
• Cut Easers:
They are drilled almost parallel to the tunnel alignment and are mainly
responsible for the scheduled advance of the face. Number of rings of
these holes depends upon the size of the tunnel.
• Trimmers:
These blast holes are drilled near the periphery to shape up the tunnel
periphery to the requisite section as per the designs and with lighter
charge to avoid excessive over breaking.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

Where drilling is carried out by hand-held rock drills the diameter of hole is minimum
about 28 mm. In case of drilling carried out by mechanical Jumbo the diameter of
holes are large to suit the rock drills. The diameter of holes at deepest point shall be
about 3 mm more than the diameter of cartridge being used.

5.3.1.3 The drilling pattern to be adopted shall ensure minimum over breaks and
shall consume least quantity of explosive per unit volume of excavation. The drilling
pattern depends upon texture and formation of rock, size and shape of tunnel, strength
of explosives and fragmentation required suitable for handling. The following are the
drilling patterns most commonly used for tunnel drivage.
1) Wedge Cut or "V" cut Drilling Pattern: In this pattern horizontal cut
holes are driven around the middle of the face, in an inclined angle of
around 60° to the face towards the centre. Maximum explosive charge
concentration is required at the apex end of the blast holes as they are
to be blasted at the first instant for creation of the free face.
2) Cone/Pyramid/Diamond Cut: This kind of cut is suitable for laminated
rock type which is of sedimentary in nature. It also helps in drivage of
smaller cross-sectional area tunnels so as to break the rock along the
cleavage planes.
3) Burn (Parallel) Cut Holes: The burn cut holes are drilled parallel to the
tunnel advance and perpendicular to the face of the tunnel. Some of
the drilled holes (mostly in the middle section of the face) are holes
of large diameter [say 100 m,m.] or a set of closely spaced holes of
conventional diameter [46 to 56 mm] and are left as dummy holes
without any explosive charge, so that they act as free face for the
heavily charged blast holes around. Specific Geometrical relationship
in between the diameter of dummy holes and spacing in between
dummy holes and charged blast holes is required to be maintained for
the given rock in order to create the free face.

With Burn or Parallel holes cut possible advance per round is longer as compared to
than that with angular cut holes. Success of Burn or Parallel Hole Cut depends upon
accuracy in keeping the holes parallel. This requirement and requirement of holes of
large diameter or a set of closely spaced holes of conventional diameter calls for use
of drilling Jumbos.

5.3.2 Blasting

5. 3. 2. 1 Charging of blast holes

The explosive cartridges shall be inserted in to the blast holes with great care so that

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the detonator leads are not rubbed or damaged in the process. The wooden tamping
rod of sufficient and requisite length shall be used for the purpose. The stemming
material ideally could be of mud cakes or preferably pneumatic charge locks.

5. 3. 2. 2 Choice of explosives

The best choices for the blasting operations are the emulsion explosives produced by
intimate and homogeneous mixer of oxidizer and fuel. Basically emulsion explosives
consist of micro droplets of super saturated oxidizer solution in oil matrix. They are
in the form of water-in-oil emulsion. The various advantages associated with use of
emulsion explosives are as below;
Emulsion explosives are much better water resistant than water gel
slurry or ANFO. This is because the oil-phase envelops the water
phase.
• They are safer to handle, store and use because of their relative
insensitivity to detonation by friction, impact or fire.
• Due to the oxidizer drop-let size (0.2 to 10 micron) they have higher
value of Velocity of Detonation (VOD) which can tackle the toughest
rock conditions very effectively and that too with out compromising on
safety standards.
• Since emulsion explosives are more oxygen balanced they generate
minimum noxious fumes and very less smoke. This in turn can reduce
the ventilation time after the blasts and further can shorten the cycle
time of operations. Liquid emulsion explosives are pumpable and
charging time can be cut down.

5.3.2.3 Requirement of explosive

Normally, the consumption of explosives in tunnel blasting is much more than that
required for open cut, basically because in case of open cut blasting, existing free
face is available whereas in tunnel blasting it has to be created. For road tunnels, the
Specific Charge or the Powder Factor is normally around 1.2 kg/cum of in-situ rock
on an average. However, this requirement of explosives may vary from site to site
depending on the geological strata involved and the cross section of the opening.

5.3.2.4 Choice of initiation system and selection of delay sequence

Selection of delays in initiation system and timings shall be such as to create a free
face effectively by moving out the broken rock mass so much that the rock volume
after swell from subsequent blasts must be accommodated. For this the fracturing and

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breaking time of the rock and time required for spreading out cracks in the rocks is
to be studied . It, basically, all depends on condition of rock. In hard and brittle rocks
the speed of developing cracks is faster than that in softer rocks . This rock breaking
speed can vary from 1-3 millisecond time per meter. But the ejection speed of rock
after the blast may vary from 20-30 m per second i.e.20-30 mm per milli-seconds. So
it can be understood that for a 4 m long blast holes the broken rock takes about 300-
400 milli-seconds for complete removal from the face . Precisely, for this reason long
delays (half-second, 300 to 500 milli-seconds) are preferred for tunnel blasting. The
short (ab out 50 milli-second) delays can be used in baby-cut and cut holes as they can
provide the requisite initial shattering effect for rock breaking and forming a free face
tor easer and trimmers. The advantages of delay detonators are;
• Better fragmentation ,
• Reduced secondary blasting,
• More uniformity in size of fragmentation,
• Important advantage is more holes can be fired in a single blast with
less vibrations, concussion and noise.

5 3.2. 5 Type of initiation systems

The available initiation systems are either Shock Tube system or Combination of
Millisecond and Half second electric delays. In shock tube system precise calculation
of the requisite delay intervals is possible whereas, in case of electric delays there are
always short comings in respect to the delay timings because of permitted tolerance.
These days, Electronic Detonators ("E"Dets) are available for precision timings.

5. 3.2.6 Misfires

Misfire can be defined as a blast hole that has not fired during designated blasting
operation owing to following causes.
• Due to manufacturing defects.
• Due to desensitization of explosives.
• Due to faulty connections or faulty blast designs.
Due to negligence in following laid down rules & regulations.
• Due to prevailing Geological conditions.
• Due to circumstantial conditions like water bearing strata

For dealing with misfires relevant IS codes and explosive rules shall be followed.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

5. 3. 2. 7 Controlled blasting

The concept of controlled blasting as applied to tunnel blasting is for minimizing over
breaks and has many advantages like:
1) Less damage to peripheral rock,
2) Reduced requirement of support system,
3) Safer tunnel operation in general ,
4) Reduced requirement of scaling,
5) Reduction in over breaks.

Controlled blasting generally involves a closer spacing of contour (perimeter) blast

holes which are also called as trimmers. They are charged with less explosive than
that of the production blast holes. The spacing thumb rule is about 10-12 times of blast
hole diameter in hard rocks and about 5-6 times of blast hole diameter in soft rocks .

5.3.2.8 Air column method to reduce blast induced ground vibrations

In order to reduce the cracking or damage to the strata at the periphery it is advisable
to use "Air-Column Method" which can minimize the redia l vector component of blast
induced ground vibrations. This method consists of inserting in to the blast hole an
inert spacing device of a length about four times of the diameter of the blast hole prior
to charging of first explosive cartridge. This leaves requisite air gap in between the
explosive cartridge and the end of the blast hole. With this method a plain straight
tunnel face can be secured for next drilling cycle with out any cracks.

5. 3.2. 9 Efficiency of blasting

Efficiency of blasting shall be routinely assessed by tabu lating Pull, Specific Charge,
Specific Drilling, Detonator or Hole Factor, Blast-induced damage and Overbreak/
Underbreak against the values assumed during planning.

5.4 Non-Structural Works in the Tunnel

Non-structural works inside road tunnels involve construction of Side Drains, Walkways,
Crash Barriers, Kerbs and Road Carriageway, which can be taken up simultaneously
with the other works.

5.5 Tunnel Furnishings

Tunnel Furnishings generally comprise of Installation of Fire Fighting Water Lines,

Walkway, Cable Racks, Cable Boxes, Tunnel Lighting, Tunnel Venti~ation System,

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Telephone Stations, Signage and Centralised Monitoring System such as CCTV etc.
Furnishings can be conveniently installed after completion of the Road Carriageway
work.
5.6 Half Tunnels

5.6.1 Feasibility

For construction of roads in precipitous mountains, half tunnels can be built-in the
difficult terrains, like vertical hills/cliffs to minimize the excavation quantity as well as
time and cost. Half tunnels shall be constructed in selected patches of roads if rock
formation is suitable. A comparative techno-economic study between half tunnel and
a full face road tunnel shall be made.

There is not much similarity between half tunnels and tunnels. While tunnels are
possible to be constructed in any kind of strata, half tunnels may be possible only with

the following geologic~! conditions.

i) Fresh and less weathering prone and competent hard rock.
ii) Massive or blocky formation.
iii) Joint planes i.e. bedding shall be horizontal to sub-horizontal and shall
be favorable for half tunnelling.
iv) Fresh and less weathering prone and competent hard rock.
v) Massive or blocky formation.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

vi) Joint planes i.e. bedding shall be horizontal to sub-horizontal and shall
be favorable for half tunnelling.
vii) Joint spacing shall be more than 3 m.
viii) Joint planes should be undulating rough and tight.
ix) Joints should be free from clay filling , shearing or fault.

Half Tunnelling is feasible even in sedimentary strata such as sandstone; limestone

etc. provided joints are widely spaced and free from filling/sheared material.

5.6.2 Design of half tunnels

There seems to be no standard procedure for construction of half tunnels. It appears

that benefits of available geology and terrain have been derived by construction
engineers to build such half tunnels in very critical locations with the help of experienced
blasting expert. For better appreciation, geological mapping shall be done and joint
sets properly recorded and data made available for the design of the half-tunnel.

5.6.3 Construction methodology for half tunnels

Having decided about the location of a half tunnel, the sequence of construction shall
be as under:
1) The formation level between the two points of the road shall be marked
to asses required height of cut.

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

2) Then a tracer path shall be constructed by deploying labour with manual

light tools, rock breakers etc. as seen in Photographs below. The size
of tracer path can be about 1 m wide and 1.5 m high.
3) After construction of tracer path, 2nd operation shall be of lowering
the first bench which also has to be done manually because of space
constraints
4) During the excavation sides of the trace cut and first bench shall be
shotcreted or stitched by rock bolts depending upon the geology of the
rock mass. Repeat operation of lowering to the next bench shall be
continued till required formation level is achieved.
5) Machinery shall be used for drilling and blasting, mucking and rock
supports as and when sufficient working space is created. The blast shall
be properly designed to keep the shattering of the rock to minimum.
6) The process shall be continued till full width of Half Tunnel at the
formation level is achieved.

~CER PAlH 0 S~ St.OPES

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

The whole process of construction stages is depicted in the sketch below:

NATVRALHILLSLOPE 1----------....,...-----''----------

TRACER PATH
(THE FIRST ACTIVITY OF
EXCAVATION)

1.S

111BENCH

2.0

2nd BENCH

3rd BENCH

·.,

5lh BENCH

TCRETE ·1SFRS

NATURAL HILL SLOPE_.,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

M All DIMENSIONS ARE IN METERS

X.sECTION OF HALF TUNNEL

5.7 Quality Assurance and Quality Control

5. 7 .1 To ensure that the Tunnel is so constructed as to serve the intended purpose

satisfactorily, adoption of appropriate Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control
(QC) measures is essential. The Design and Construction works shall be taken up

68
 IRC:SP:91-2010
only after an approved Quality Assurance programme and an approved Quality
Control Programme are in place for each activity. While the QA system ensures the
establishment of appropriate procedures and systems for ensuring the necessary
q ality, the QC system ensures that the establish Systems are duly adhered to.

5 7.2 In the Design stage the QA/QC systems shall cover, at minimum, proper
e tablishment of the required objectives, laying down of proper procedures for the
design, following established methods, deployment of competent and capable people,
the setting up of a suitable monitoring and supervision system, etc for the design
activities.

5.7.3 In the Construction stage, the QA/QC systems shall cover, at minimum,
the laying down of appropriate construction procedures, checks on the qualities of
the personnel, machines and the materials deployed in the works and suitable tests
on the completed structure. All processes involved in the construction on and off the
site shall be duly covered. Preparation of detailed Construction Method Statement
n advance and strict adherence to the same are essential to ensure good Quality
Practice.

5. 7.4 The Project Quality Plan covering the above at various stages shall be
prepared by the concerned agencies and got approved by competent authority. Such
systems shall be duly followed by all concern during the Design and the Construction
stages.

5. 7.5 Wherever relevant, existing National Standards and where they are
deficient, the relevant international Standards or Good Engineering Practices shall
be adopted while drafting the QA/ QC systems. The Reference Numbers of such
standards referred shall be duly listed in the relevant Manuals for ready reference.

6 SAFETY DURING CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

6.1 General
6.1.1 Background

Working in underground structures such as tunnels is an inherently risk-prone activity

and the risk element increases with longer lengths of the tunnels, poor rock conditions,
etc. In view of this there is a responsibility on all stakeholders --owner, consultant and
constructor - in tunnel projects to ensure absolute safety during construction. There is
increasing awareness nowadays of the importance of Safety, as well as the broader
Safety, Health & Environment (SHE), aspects of construction. Respect for human lives
is the fundamental criterion and there are many side benefits of ensuring absolute
safety such as increased morale, improved productivity, enhanced prestige, etc.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

6.1.2 Applicable regulations

The various activities involved in tunnel construction are generally covered by a

number of codes, acts and regulations. Some of them are:
• Indian Explosive Act -1884
• Mines act - 1952
• The Explosive Rules - 1983
• Mines Rules - 1955
• IS 4081 - 1986 Safety Code for Blasting & Related Drilling
Operations
• IS 4756-1978 Safety Code for Tunnelling Works

All the agencies involved in the construction of tunnels shall ensure that all applicable
rules and regulations are duly complied with in strict conformity with the spirit and
body of such regulations.

6.1.3 Project safety plan (PSP)

Since each underground project has its own peculiarities and special features in view
of topography, rock features, etc, it is very essential for each tunnel project to carry out
a comprehensive Risk Analysis of the particular project and evolve a Project Safety
Plan (PSP). While the agencies concerned may adopt the standard provisions of their
respective organisations, it is essential to have a project-specific safety plan, which
is fully relevant to the particular site. The PSP shall be prepared by the concerned
construction agency and got approved from the competent authority. The PSP shall
address all site-specific issues and tackle all the risk elements identified .

6.2 Basic Aspects

6.2.1 Basic philosophy

For Underground construction in rock a fundamental safety measure would be to

assess the type and category of rock and establish its stand-up characteristics. It is
common practice to divide the classes of rock from Class I to Class VI with the higher
numbers denoting weaker rocks. It is essential to provide adequate rock supporting
measures before the expiry of the permissible stand-up time for the class of rock
involved. Supports should be installed speedily and effectively. The commonly adopted
supporting measures in increasing order of complexity are rock bolts, shotcrete (with
or without wire mesh, with or without steel fibre inclusions), steel ribs with concrete

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

lagging and back-packing I grouting and permanent concrete lining. The most complex
su ports are the provision of umbrella tubes used along with forepoling and grouting
3
te hniques. The size and shape of the underground installations shall be conducive to
srife and smooth operations.

Apart from this all operations connected with the construction of tunnels shall be
analysed and appropriate safety precautions taken through the implementation of the
PSP.

6.2.2 Personal protective equipment

All personnel entering the tunnel during construction shall wear all applicable Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE). The PPE shall comprise, at minimum, Safety Helmet,
safety (hard) shoes, tight clothing with no loose ends and jackets/clothing with reflective
stripes. Additional PPE such as goggles, gloves, dust masks, helmet lamps, etc shall
also be adopted wherever conditions so warrant.

6.2.3 Access control systems

A proper access control system should be in place to have a clear idea at all times
on the identity of all personnel who are inside the underground installations in case
any accident take place and rescue operations are to be launched. It is also essential
to keep track of all equipment inside the tunnel. It is common to issue token to all
concerned personnel and make them deposit the tokens while entering the tunnel and
retrieving the same on exiting.

6.2.4 Signage

Well-illuminated sign boards shall be placed at required locations to inform people

of safety hazards inside the tunnel and the precautions to be taken. Some of them
would include warning regarding blasting, rock falls, requirement for wearing helmets,
prohibition of unauthorised entry, etc.

6.2.5 Safety systems

The contractor's personnel shall practise all standard safety systems. These wou ld
include at minimum, safety induction (initial training in basics of Safety) and training
(routine training) exercises, medical screening of personnel for working inside tunnels,
system of permits for simultaneous operations in various locations, pep talks (regular
talks to workmen before they commence work on importance of safety and how
necessary it is for them to observe safety regulations for their own welfare) and tool box

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IRC:SP:91-2010

talks (specific safety instructions at the site in the specific area of work for the workmen),
talks on specific operations to be carried out on the day, safety walkabouts(general
safety observance checks carried out by safety stewards by going around the site
and checking observance of the various safety regulations.etc), safety audits, safety
reviews and mock drills.

6.3 Drilling and Blasting

6.3.1 Drilling operations

Only wet drilling shall be permitted. Drilling shall not be resumed after blasts have
been fired until a thorough examination has been made by blasting foreman (head
blaster) to make sure that there are no misfired charges, which the drill may strike. All
holes shall be of slightly greater diameter than the diameter of cartridges of explosives
used. A drill, pick or bore shall not be inserted in butts of old holes even if examination
fails to disclose explosives. Separate holes shall be so drilled as to be nowhere less
than 30 cm clear distance away from the previous hole. Charging of drilled holes and
drilling shall not be carried out simultaneously in the same area, unless Nonel type of
detonators are used and adequate precautions have been taken.

6.3.2 Blasting operations

Where blasting operations are to be conducted, sufficient warning shall be given to

all staff and workmen prior to blasting. Cell phones are usually prohibited in areas
where blasting operations are conducted. Sufficient protective bulkheads, etc. shall be
provided to enable personnel to take shelter behind during blasting.

All explosives shall be handled and used with care either by or under the direction of
competent persons and following the Indian Explosive Act, 1884, Explosive Rules,
1983, and IS 4081 - 1967 Safety code for blasting and related drilling operations.
Explosives and detonators shall be placed in separate insulated carriers whether
carried by persons or conveyed mechanically and an attendant shall ride with the
explosives being conveyed mechanically on slopes in shafts or in underground work
areas. For carrying explosives mechanically, prior permission of Chief Inspector of
Explosives shall be obtained. Insulated containers, used for carrying explosives or
detonators shall be of approved manufacturer and shall be provided with suitable
non-conductive carrying device, such as rubber, leather or canvas handle or a strap.
Explosives and detonators shall be brought to the working places in separate, tight,
well insulated containers , and kept in the containers until removed for placement in
drill holes. If drill holes are not ready, they shall be stored in locked box type magazines

72
 IRC:SP:91-2010

located at a safe distance of at least 170 m from the working space. No person other
than a shot firer shall carry any priming cartridges into a shaft, in which the sinking is
in progress. No such cartridge shall be so carried except in a thick felt bag or other
container sufficient to protect it from shock.

Electric firing shall be done by an approved method . All drilling equipment and
personnel not engaged on loading shall be removed from the site before loading of
holes starts. Loading of a round shall be completed by the crew starting the work of
loading. Firing of round shall be the responsibility of the blasting foreman . Only clay
sticks or pneumatic air locks shall be used for separation of charge/stemming of the
holes.

Before use each and every electric detonator shall be tested for a positive test with the
help of an ohmmeter. Before shot firing , the circuit shall be tested for insulation and for
continuity. Before a shot is fired in an underground working place due warning shall be
given to persons within 330 m in all directions and every entrance to the place where
a shot is about to be fired shall be guarded so as to prevent any person, not having
received warning from placing himself in dangerous proximity to the shot.

In case an exploder is used the revolving handle of the exploder shall be in the custody
of the blasting foreman to prevent anybody else firing the shot when the blasting
foreman and other persons are inside. Stray currents may cause accidents while
loading and utmost care shall he taken in removing all faults from electrical circuits.
Electric power, light and other circuits in the vicinity within 70 m of the loading points
shall be switched off after charging the explosive and before the blasting operation
starts. Power supply is to be switched on only after the blasted area has been properly
inspected by the blasting foreman for misfires. All tracks, airlines and vent pipes shall
be kept properly grounded. The heading shall be properly lighted with the electric
floodlights before and after blasting.

6.3.3 Inspection after blasting

Immediately after a blast has been fired , the firing line shall be disconnected from
the blasting machine or other source of power. When at least 5 minutes have passed
after the blast was fired , a careful inspection of the face shall be made by the blaster
to determine if all charges have been exploded, Electric blasting misfires shall not
be examined for at least 15 minutes after failure to explode. Other persons shall not
be allowed to return to the area of blast until an ALL CLEAR' signal is given by the
blasting foreman .

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IRC:SP:91-2010

All wires shall be carefully traced and search made for any exploded cartridge by the
man-in-charge of the blasting operation. Sufficient time shall be given for the fumes to
clear before permitting the labour to work for mucking operations.

6.3.4 Misfires

Misfired holes shall be dealt with by the blaster preferably by the same person who
had done the charging operations. If broken wires, faulty connections, or short-circuits
are determined as the cause of a misfire, the proper re pairs shall be made, the firing
line reconnected and the charge fired. This shall be done, however, only after a careful
inspection has been made of burdens remaining in such holes and no hole shall be
fired when the burden has been dangerously weakened by other shots. The charge
of explosives from a misfired hole shall not be drilled, bored or picked out. Misfired
charges, tamped with solid material, shall be detonated by a safe approved method.

The stemming shall be floated out by the use of water or air jet from hose until the
hole has been opened to within 60 cm off the charge , and the water shall be pumped
out or siphoned off and the new charge placed and detonated. Whenever this method
is not practicable, a new hole shall be drilled 30 cm deep and spaced not nearer than
60 cm, shall be loaded and detonated. A careful search shall be made of the unexploded
material in the debris of the second charge.

6.3.5 Scaling and mucking

It is essential to carry out proper scaling operations after each blast to remove all the
loose rock pieces and guard against rock falls . Many accidents in tunnelling result
from rock falls than any other cause. Careful and frequent inspection of walls and
roofs as well as of tunnel supports shall be carried out. Thorough scaling of loose
rocks at all weak spots is the best preventive against rock falls . Periodic inspection of
unsupported sections of the tunnel from a travelling scaling platform shall be carried
out for locating weak spots. Supported sections shall also be inspected regularly to
make sure that the weakness of the formation has not spread beyond the supports.
Loosened rock shall be supported/ removed forthwith. All supports shall be checked
occasionally to make sure that there is no member under distress. All scaling platforms
shall be equipped with safe ladders.

6.3.6 Installation of supports

Following the basic philosophy elucidated in the earlier section, design and installation
of appropriate supports within the stand-up time for the particular type of rock is the
most important steps to ensure proper safety for all personnel inside the tunnels.
 •

IRC:SP:91-2010

Special watch shall be maintained for uncontrolled collapse of the face or adjacent
areas, sliding in of muck and water, etc.

6.4 Ventilation and Noise Protection

Ventilation shall be carried out in tunnels to make the working space safe for workers
by keeping the air fresh and by eliminating harmful and obnoxious dust, explosive
fumes, exhaust from operating equipment, particularly diesel-operated equipment,
and other gases. Mechanical ventilation shall be adopted where necessary to force
the 'air in or exhaust the air out from the working face to the portal through ducts.
Externally located fans operate in forced ventilation and induced ventilation modes
to supply air through rigid or more commonly, flexible ducts. Intermediate booster
fans ensure better supply for longer ducts. Venti lation is also necessary to ensure
temperatures of not more than 4°C dry and 29°C wet at the working place. Ventilation
shall be properly designed considering the tunnel topography and emission levels
inside. The volume of air required generally depends on length of heading, size of
tunnel, type and amount of explosives used , frequency of blasting, and temperature
and humidity. Where the temperature is high or heavy blasting is resorted to suitably
augmented volume of air shall be provided.

It is important to be alert all the time for the presence of toxic gases in underground works
and appropriate instrumentation should be provided to keep track of the ambient air
quality at all times. Proper records should be maintained of specific measurements of air
quality at regular intervals throughout the day after blasts or major rockfalls. Particularly
after each blasting for underground rock excavation, the ventilation measures should
be set in place quickly and effectively for de-fuming and personnel should be allowed
to enter only after establishing that the air quality is sufficiently acceptable. In certain
regions geothermal conditions prevail and cooled air should be supplied to enable safe
and comfortable working conditions. In any case appropriate well designed ventilation
systems shou Id be put in place to ensure proper ambient conditions.

Air Quality Testing - The tests shall be carried out once every 24 hours but in any
case after every blast or a major rock-fall. In case any of the gases are detected to
have crossed the threshold value indicated therein, the workmen shall be withdrawn
immediately till the percentage is brought down well below the threshold value by
improving the ventilation or by other effective measures.

Apart from ventilation, Noise is another factor which is problematic in underground work.
Sufficient steps should be taken to reduce the noise levels to acceptable limits and
Workmen and visitors should be asked to wear ear plugs/muffs, etc where required .

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6.5 Lighting

Adequate lighting shall be provided at the face and at any other point where work is
in progress and at equipment installations such as pumps, fans and transformers.
A minimum of 50 lux shall be provided at tunnel and shaft headings during drilling,
mucking and scaling. When mucking is done by tipping wagons running on trolley
tracks a minimum of 30 lux shall be provided for efficient and safe working . The lighting
in general in any area inside the tunnel or outside an approach road . etc. shall not be
less than 10 lux.

Emergency lights (battery operated) shall be installed at the working faces and at
intervals along the tunnel to help escape of workmen in case of accidents. All
supervisors and gang-mates shall be provided with cap lamps or hand torches. It shall
be ensured that at least one cap lamp or hand torch is provided for every batch of
10 people. Any obstruction, such as drill carriages, other jumbos and drilling and
mucking zones in the tunnel shall be well lighted. Hand lamps shall be equipped with
strong cover of glass or other transparent material, dust and waterproof, and equipped
with a strong guard over the cover. The exterior of all hand lamp sockets shall be non-
metallic.

6.6 Communication System

6.6.1 Warning signs and notice boards

Irrespective of length and bends in the tunnel, arrangements shall be made for
transmitting of warning signals by any one of the following means: (a) By electrically
operated bells, operated by battery/dry cells with the bell placed outside the tunnel and
the position of the switch shifting with the progress of the tunnelling work. The position
of the operating switch although temporary shall be so chosen as to ensure proper
accessibility and easy identification. (b) By the use of field (magnet type) telephone.
For tunnel lengths up to 100 m, only one of the systems mentioned above may be
adequate whereas in tunnels of length more than 100 m at least two systems shall be
installed with the wires running along opposite sides of the tunnel, if practicable.

6.6.2 Telephone system

A telephone system shall be provided to ensure positive and quick method of

comm unication between all control location s inside tunnel and portal of the tunnels
when longer than 500 m and for shafts when longer than 50 m.

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6.6.3 CCTV systems

Closed Circuit TVs are often deployed to keep a continuous watch on underground
installations from the Control Room on top.

6.7 Protection Against Fire

6. 7.1 General

All combustible materials like rubbish shall be continuously removed from such areas
where flammable liquids are stored, handled and processed. All spills of flammable
liquids shall be cleared up immediately. Containers of flammable liquid shall be tightly
capped. All waste and combustible rubbish shall be removed at least daily from the
tunnel.

6. 7.2 Fire system

Fire Incidence Detection Systems should be able to detect the fire very early in
its development and also accurately locate the position of the fire. The degree of
accuracy depends on the type of active fire safety systems that may be installed in the
tunnel. It is recommended that fire-fighting equipment such as hydrants, hose reels
and extinguishers are strategically located within the tunnel. Fire extinguishers and
fire-bu ckets appropriate to the hazard shall be conveniently located and identified.

6. 7.3 Electrical installations

The electrical installations should be carefully designed and executed and regular tests
should be carried out to ensure safe conditions and emergency cut-off procedures.
Electricity leakage monitoring systems should be in place.

All parts of the electrical installation shall have all conductors and contact areas of
adequate current carrying capacity and characteristics for the work they may be called
upon to do and all joints in conductors shall be properly soldered or otherwise efficiently
made. They shall be so constructed, installed and maintained as to prevent danger
of fire, external exposition and electric shock, be of adequate mechanical strength to
withstand working conditions underground, be not liable to be damaged by water, dust
or electrical, thermal or chemica l action, to which they may be subjected, be efficiently
insulated or have all bare live parts enclosed or otherwise protected, and be installed
at such a location that dumpers or wagons do not come in contact with the same.

On the occurrence of a fire caused by any electrical apparatus or a fire liable to affect

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any electrical installation: the supply of electricity should be cut off from such apparatus
or installation as soon as practicable, and the fire shall be attacked and reported to
the nearest available supervisor. As far as practicable, combustible material shall not
be used in the construction of any room or recess containing electrical apparatus. No
flammable material shall be stored in rooms, recesses or compartments containing
electrical apparatus.

Adequate fire extinguishing equipment suitable for use on live parts shall be kept
ready for immediate use in or near any room , recess or compartment containing such
parts as will be readily accessible safely for use in case of emergency. This equipment
shall be inspected at least once in a month.

6.8 Housekeeping

6.8.1 General

Only the materials required for work in progress shall be kept inside the tunnel. All other
materials shall be removed from inside the tunnel. Sufficient width of the formation as
even as possible and without any obstacles shall be created to enable the workers to
get out of the tunnel quickly in case there is any collapse or any other mishap inside
the tunnel.

6.8.2 Traffic control

Transport of Material: Vehicles carrying pipe, rail and timber shall be properly loaded
for safe passage through the tunnel. The load shall be kept within the side limits for the
vehicle as loads projecting over the sides are dangerous to men working in the tunnel.
For transportation of wide loads special care shall be ensured in the operation of the
vehicles with prior warning to the workmen along the tunnel to ensure a safe journey.

Transport of Employees: A safe and smooth walkway system shall be provided for
employees, suitable separated from vehicular roads by guard railing. For transportation
of employees by vehicles proper safety precautions shall be taken.

6.8.3 Pipes and cables

All water and air pipes as well as electrical cable shall be arranged along the sides of
the tunnel, duly supported at regular intervals and in a systematic and neat fashion.

6.8.4 Water control

Sudden water ingress can be a catastrophic situation in certain underground areas

and emergency dewatering systems should be in place to tackle such situations.

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Many times water seepage is encountered in underground excavations. Prima facie

this is not a dangerous indication by itself. It is an indication of fissures in the rock and
presence of water streams nearby, which have to be kept in watch. Excessive ingress
of water can give rise to unstable conditions and has to be carefully monitored. Also,
for good working conditions inside underground enclosures, continuous dewatering to
remove the excessive inflow is essential.

A study of boring data and geological formations shall be made to have an indication
of locations, where water can be expected. Water inflow may be reduced or even
entirely stopped by grouting of the wet seams. A wet area covering more than a single
seam shall be sealed off by installing a suitable section of concrete lining. In case of a
steady flow of water from the roof or side of the tunnel the flow shall be deflected down
the sides to sumps by metal shields. The number of pumps provided at site shall be
50 percent more than the requirements calculated on the basis of the estimated
pumping needs, or at least one number, whichever is more. In case of steeply inclined
tunnels steps shall be provided for quick exit in case of failure of haulage. Gutters
and sumps shall be kept clean. Suitable arrangement shall be made to indicate the
position of sumps in case tunnel invert is flooded.

6.9 Emergency Management System

An Emergency management Plan shall be part of the approved Project Safety Plan
and shall be well communicated to all working personnel and well displayed at the
site. Emergency Rescue Measures should be drawn up to take care of various
possible contingencies. It would also be advisable to provide safe rooms in deep
installations where people can take shelter for a few hours in case of an emergency.
Buried large diameter pipe lines leading to outside can be provided to offer a medium
for communication and feeding in air supply in case of any collapses and blockages of
the entrance to underground installations.

7 VENTILATION AND LIGHTING

7 .1 Ventilation

7 .1.1 Need for ventilation

Ventilation is the process of expelling stagnant air and introducing fresh air in an
enclosed space. In road tunnels almost all the vehicles using the tunnel are internal
combustion engines. During their travel, these vehicles go on releasing a continuous
stream of obnoxious exhaust fumes and smoke. These fumes and smoke escape into
the atmosphere in case of an open road. However, inside a tunnel, these exhaust

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fumes and smoke collect and keep on hanging near the roof. If a tunnel is not properly
ventilated, increase in concentration of the exhaust fumes and smoke results in
reduced visibility and slowing down of traffic and discomfort to the vehicle users. The
main intention of ventilation is to create user-friendly healthy environment inside a
tunnel.

7.1.2 Vehicle emission

Internal combustion engines used for powering most of the vehicles plying on roads
are either of spark-ignition type or of compression ignition type. Each of these types
generates obnoxious exhaust fumes and smoke with different characteristics. Major
constituents of these obnoxious exhaust fumes and smoke are carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide. In addition to these components,
spark-ignition type engines also emit un-burnt hydrocarbons to a very small extent.
Carbon monoxide [CO] is an odorless toxic gas which when inhaled
combines readily with blood hemoglobin in preference to oxygen,
reduces oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and shows toxic effects
which could be fatal after long exposure. The process gets reversed
upon timely exposure to fresh air.
Carbon Dioxide [C0 2] is toxic only at very high levels of concentration
which are well above those found in vehicular traffic tunnels.
Oxides of Nitrogen are of two types viz. Nitric Oxide [NO] and Nitrogen
Dioxide [N0 2]. These oxides unite with water and form nitrous and nitric
acid in the lungs and destroy the functioning of lungs.
Sulphur Dioxide [S02] forms sulphuric acid and causes toxic effects.
However, S02 is a very small component of vehicular emissions.
Hydrocarbons are also a very small component of vehicular
emissions.

7.1.3 Effect of gradient and speed

When a vehicle travels on an up-gradient, it needs extra power causing increased

fuel consumption and resulting in increased quantum of pollutants, as compared
to a vehicle moving on level road. A vehicle may have to slow down and move in
low gears causing slightly increased emission of pollutants while traveling upgrade.
When traffic comes to a halt and the vehicles are required to idle, production of CO
increases. However, during idling, the rate of consumption of fuel is very low and the
total emission of CO is generally not more than that for normal traffic.

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7.1.4 Effect of traffic volume, traffic density and traffic composition

Characteristics of Traffic are of paramount consideration for the designers of ventilation

system. Traffic Volume, Traffic Density and Traffic Composition have a direct bearing
on the vehicular exhaust emissions.
Traffic Volume is the number of vehicles that pass in a given time
period. Urban tunnels could develop traffic congestion during peak
hours leading to stagnant but low traffic Volume.
Traffic Density, expressed in vehicles/kilometer is number of vehicles
occupying a given section. Traffic density would be highest during peak
hours.
Traffic Composition is the number of different types of vehicles in a
given traffic Volume. In case of urban tunnels the composition would
comprise mainly of passenger vehicles and buses. For a highway tunnel
the composition could be mainly of commercial and goods transport
vehicles.
Capacity of a tunnel to carry traffic would depend on a number of
factors . Traffic In a tunnel with unidirectional traffic moves faster than
that with bi-directional traffic. Traffic on up-grade is slower that that on
level road.

7.1.5 Effect of elevation

In vehicles with spark-ignition engines, at higher elevations, air fuel
mixture becomes richer due to lack of oxygen in the atmosphere. This
results in higher concentration of CO in the exhaust.
In case of compression-ignition engines, lack of oxygen in the
atmosphere causes increase in smoke production .

7 .1 .6 Quantum of introduction of fresh air

Quantum of fresh air required to be introduced into a tunnel will depend on all the
factors mentioned under 7.1.2 to 7 .1.5 above and the permitted levels of the pollutants.
For the purpose of design, the 'Traffic Model' should therefore be carefully developed
on these considerations

7.1. 7 Vehicular tunnel ventilation systems

All vehicular tunnels need ventilation. It is created by natural means or by mechanical

means.

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7. 1. 7. 1 Natural ventilation

Natural Ventilation is caused by movement of air due to chimney stack effect created
by the difference in level between two portals of a tunnel. Difference between the
ambient temperature at the two portals and wind also plays a part in creating natural
draft. Piston effect created by the vehicular traffic creates additional draft.

Normally for tunnels shorter than 500 m. in length, natural ventilation is enough.
Exception would be urban tunnels with heavy traffic volume having possibility of
congestion during peak hours where provision of mechanical ventilation becomes
necessary. Another exception is tunnels longer than 500 m. having very low traffic
volume.

Where technically feasible , provision of a vertical shaft near about the centre of a
tunnel would effectively improve natural ventilation because of additional chimney
stack effect created by it. If such a shaft is fitted with an exhaust fan , the chimney
stack effect will not be affected by change in atmospheric conditions.

7. 1. 7. 2 Mechanical system of ventilation

In case of all tunnels more that 500 m. in length, Mechanical System of Ventilation
should be provided unless the traffic volume is very low.

A few types of ventilation Systems used separately or in combination are as follows:

• Linear System: As the name suggests, the draft of air is linear for most
of its length. Fresh air introduced at one end mixes with the air inside
the tunnel and travels to the other end on account of its own pressure
duly aided by the piston effect created by vehicular traffic. Where a
central shaft is provided, fresh air introduced at both the ends travels
upto the shaft and is exhausted through the shaft. This system is most
effective for tunnels with unidirectional traffic. In case of long tunnels,
the linear flow is aided by booster fans at intermittent locations located
near and hanging from the arch of the tunnel. These fans boost the
flow and hence are termed as Booster Fans.
• Transverse system: In Transverse system two types of systems are
used,
1) Semi Transverse
2) Fully Transverse

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In Transverse system inlet and exhaust ducts are provided along the whole length of
a tunnel either at ground level or around crown of the tunnel. Fresh air flowing through
the inlet duct is uniformly released at various points along the length of the tunnel and
foul air is uniformly sucked into the exhaust duct at various points along the length of
the tunnel. Thus the system is linear only to the extent of travel of air from an inlet port
to the nearest exhaust port. This system is most useful for tunnels with bi-directional
traffic. In Semi transverse system only fresh air is supplied through the ducts but in
Fully transverse system fresh air is supplied as well as foul air is sucked through
independent ducts as shown in sketches given below:

Jet Fans & Carneaux at every 100 m Intermediate ceiling & Extracters

Intermediate ceiling in the central part and Jet fans at the entrances

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IRC:SP:91-2010

TIJNNEL

""\iII II
I\__
D
VENTILATION DUCTS

New shelter and connection with Fresh-Air Ducts Smoke-extraction duct

("carnean")

S~filllGING LEVEL
WALKWAY

........-+-·-- .. ' }1 1
SUPPLY OF
COllCIElt l't.YDIENT ~ ~· FRESH AIR
~::-=...... .., ~

SUCTION BY EXHAUST/FANS

Semi/Fully Transverse System of Ventilation

PRECAST SLAB WITH

APPROPRIATE
MAN HOLE/FLAP GATES ETC ..

Longitudinal/Semi Transverse/Fully Transverse System of Ventilation

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7.1 .9 Types of ventilation fans

Three types offans are used mainly for tunnel ventilation. They are axial flow, centrifugal
flow and propeller fans. The choice depends on flow and pressure characteristics to
match the ventilation needs.

1.2 Tunnel Lighting

7.2.1 Need for lighting

A tunnel is a linear enclosed space, covered by ground all around. Thus even in broad
daylight or in a moonlit night, space inside a tunnel is always dark.

Purpose of a Road Tunnel is to create a user-friendly facility for smooth, efficient and
speedy movement of road traffic. None of these purposes would be met if a tunnel is
dark. Though vehicles would move with their own lights on , speed of traffic would get
red uced . It would create congestion and movement could be in fits and starts.

It is, therefore, necessary to create a well lit environment in side a road tunnel. The
environment should be comfortable to human eyes and should make driving easy.
Such environment is created by provision of various forms of Tunnel Lighting. The
choice wou Id depend on the shape, size and length of the tunnel . Provision of adequate
lighting helps the motorists avoid using bright head lights which could blind the motorists
coming from opposite direction in bidirectional tunnels. Also, some people experience
claustrophobia (fear of enclosed spaces) and good lighting helps alleviate this fear to
some extent.

7 .2.2 Peculiar factors needing consideration

During daytime when a vehicle approaches and enters a tunnel,
a motorist has to travel from a brightly lit area into a lightly lit area.
Thereafter when the motorist leaves the tunnel, he has to travel from a
lightly lit area to a brightly lit area.
At night the situation gets totally reversed . When a motorist approaches
and enters a tunnel, he has to travel from a dark area to a brighter lit
area. Thereafter when the motorist leaves the tunnel, he has to travel
from a brighter lit area to a dark area.
Thus when a motorist travels through a tunnel, his vision has to
get adopted to changing lighting conditions. This adaptation is not
instantaneous but takes a short time. Such adaptation has to be a
smooth transition. Such smooth transition can be produced only by

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suitably designed lighting conditions at the entry and exit areas of the
tunnel and the portion of the tunnel in between these areas.

7.2.3 Zoning of a long tunnel

Properly designed tunnel lighting ensures smooth transition of lighting environment

between approaches to the tunnel and the tunnel itself. This helps the vision of a
motorist to get smoothly adapter to changing lighting environment. This time for
such smooth adjustment is generally considered as about 4 seconds. At a speed of
60 kmph, the length traveled in 4 seconds would be about 70 m.

To enable the vision of a motorist to get smoothly adjusted to changing lighting

environment, the approaches to a tunnel and the tunnel itself are divided into various
zones as given below. For design speed of 60 kmph, length of these zones would be
about 70 m.

Access Zone

It is the portion of the open/approach cut of the tunnel immediately adjacent

to Tunnel Portal.

Threshold Zone

It is the first zone next to the entrance to a tunnel. In the Threshold Zone,
the intensity of lighting is gradually adjusted from that outside the entrance
to that in the beginning of the transition zone.

Transition Zone

It is the zone next to the Threshold Zone. In the Transition Zone, the intensity
of lighting is gradually adjusted to that in the Interior Zone.

Interior Zone

It is the zone beyond the transition Zone. It is sometimes also termed as

Normal Lighting Day Zone. In the Interior Zone, the vision of a motorist
needs no further adaptation. This is the longest zone in case of very long
tunnels. The Luminance Level in this zone is generally kept at around 15 to
20 candelas/sq.m. of road surface.
It would be good practice in the case of very long tunnels to provide some
variations in lighting at regular intervals, through variation in intensity or
colour of lighting, etc, so as to break the monotony of traveling under

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the same conditions for a long distance. Extra lighting is required in

lay-bys, emergency parking locations and at locations of escape paths and
emergency services access locations.
Exit Zone

It is the zone beyond the Interior Zone and between/before the exit portal of
the tunnel. In the Exit zone, the intensity of lighting is gradually adjusted to
that in the portion just beyond the Exit Portal.

7.2.4 Lighting installations

The purpose of properly designed tunnel lighting is to ensure smooth transition of

lighting environment so as to enable smooth adjustment in the vision of a motorist.

Since requirement of intensity in the Threshold, Transit and Exit Zones during day time
is different than that during night time, required intensity can be achieved by putting
the luminaries in two different circuits. Alternatively, luminaries that can give variable
output by use of dimmers can also be used.

Gradual increase or decrease in the intensity of lighting within different zones, as

described above, can be achieved by installing different types of luminaries or by using
one or two types of luminaries at a closer or wider spacing as required. For easier
adjustment in spacing , the luminaries can be mounted on sets of ladders arranged in
longitudinal direction and hung from the crown of the tunnel.

Tunnel lighting has to be highly reliable. Tunnel lighting is required round the clock. It
is therefore necessary to install and maintain a 100 percent back-up system.

7.2.5 Maintenance

The amount of maintenance required would depend on where the tunnel is located,
the type and volume of traffic it is required to handle, quality of ventilation and the size
and grade of the tunnel itself.

The luminary units should be sealed so as to prevent entry of water from water sprays,
dust and smoke. The luminaries have to be cleaned frequently to clear dust and soot
that may collect on their outer surface. Proper routine maintenance programme should
be conceived and implemented.

Instead of waiting for the luminaries to fail before replacement, systematic replacement
and renewal programme should be conceived and implemented.

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8 OPERATION AND MAITNTENANCE

8.1 Introduction

The over all aim of operation and maintenance of a road tunnel shall be to maintain
a specified level of safety for the road users, with an optimal level of expenditure and
without adverse environmental effect. Decisions at the design stage as regards the
tunnel geometry, tunnel shape, maintenance access, type and extent of the plant and
equipment installed, and their configuration in operation, have a significant bearing
on the overall Operation and Maintenance aspects. Therefore, the maintenance shall
be planned and performed in such a way that the operational assumptions made at
the design stage remain validated throughout the long operational life of the road
tunnel. The Operation and Maintenance activities of the road tunnel shall be planned
to achieve the following objectives:
a) Safety of the road users
b) Ensuring free flow of traffic
c) Operational economy
d) Dealing with abnormal situations

Normal tunnel operation shall provide for maintenance of the structure, equipments
and installations, manning of control rooms , inspection and examination of vehicles .
The operating manuals for various activities, plants and equipment, overall
maintenance schedules shall be prepared in detail and shall be made available
to the operating staff. The overall scheme shall make provision for the periodical
replacement and improvement of equipment and installations, maintaining
appropriate stock of spare parts and special tools. Actions for imparting training
to operating staff, updating of techniques and updating of O&M manuals shall be
taken from time to time.

Preparation for dealing with accidents and abnormalities which have a greater impact
for tunnel due to the confined space and restricted access as compared to road in
open area shall be given special importance. Abnormal operational situations call for
a command structure to deal with the situation and deployment of rescue vehicles,
ambulances, signal system, communication facilities and fire fighting equipments.

8.2 Operation and Maintenance Functions/Activities

Operation and maintenance of tunnels involve following functions/activities:

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a) Traffic related functions:

These include control and supervision of traffic and operation of system
for ventilation and lighting, signal systems, access control systems,
which are generally having automatic controls and are controlled from
control room (see picture below). Even though the operations might
be automatically controlled, the control room shall be manned by
trained personnel. Maintenance of smooth traffic flow and taking quick
remedial actions in case of any accident shall be the responsibility of
operations staff so as to prevent potential panics as space inside the
tunnel is confined.

Control Room with Automatic Controls

b) Maintenance of tunnel:
Maintenance of tunnel covers preventive maintenance as well as
corrective maintenance as enumerated below;
• Preventive maintenance is the one which keeps the systems in a
good and safe condition preventing an operational breakdown. Pre-
ventive maintenance is safer, more effective and more economic
than maintenance based on repairing faults or damage. Without
preventive maintenance, the systems could become unsafe and/
or could only be brought back to a safe condition at high cost. The
preventive maintenance of tunnel covers routine periodic-based
maintenance as well as condition-based maintenance.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

The periodic-based maintenance is normally calendar based or

operation time based maintenance which can be easily planned and
ensures safe and optimum performance of the facility without surprise
failures. The routine periodic-based maintenance includes maintenance
of perman ent fixtures, lining, portals, washing and cleaning of tunnel
interiors, drains and drainage system, painting, cleaning and replacement
of consumable parts such as lamps, filters and batteries, etc.
The cond ition-based maintenance, arising from the results of routine
inspections, covers major/minor repairs. Routine inspections by trained
personnel shall be carried out to identify these items and actions shall
be taken to carry out repairs with all due safety precautions. The
condition-based maintenance includes renewal and repair of structural
components, road surfacing, road signs and other fixtu res.
• Even w ith preventive maintenance components will be subject to
malfunction or damage may be due to accident. In such situation
Corrective maintenance needs to be resort which involves carrying
out maintenance measures after an operational breakdown or an
accident has occurred. Although preventive maintenance is gen-
erally preferable, in some cases parts of the installation may be
maintained on the basis of corrective maintenance. i.e. the parts
in question are not maintained, but replaced after expiry of service
life or w hen a defect arises. Pl·anning is difficult in corrective main-
tenance since the same is taken up after systems have become
critical or failed.
The figure below illustrates the different types of planned maintenance:
M a intenance

Preventive
Maintenanc Correc tive
Mainte n a nce

Periodic Condition E rrorsearch e t

Based Baaed compone n t
Maintenance Maintenance le vel

Inspection
C alend ar O peratio n Postpo~ment Imm ediate
based Time besed possible repair
Maintenanc Maint enance
Meas uremenV
Ass e s sment

Ad1ustment I
Overhauling
E valuation o f
entire s ystem
Evaluetlon
of system Repair I condition
condition replaceme nt

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

c) Maintenance of plant and equipment:

This includes keeping all operational devices in proper condition by
carrying out time to time repairs by scheduled maintenance and tests,
replacing faulty parts, electric fittings etc. Periodic maintenance schedule
shall be prepared for lighting, signaling, communication, emergency
and monitoring equipments. Complex equipments need proper and
special maintenance. Care shall be taken right from the design stage
to ensure that the equipments shall be so selected that the necessity
for specialist agencies is minimised and it shall be possible to change
the maintenance agencies as and when required .
d) Incidence and Emergencies Management:
Necessity for Incidence and Emergencies Management arises due
to various types of incidences likely to be met with in road tunnel. A
common event is a vehicle accident or breakdown which causes a
degree of lane blockage. Prompt remedial actions shall be taken to
restore free flow of traffic there by minimizing congestion conditions
that in themselves can aggravate the risk of further breakdowns.
Another situation involving collision is possible fire or explosion which
is potentially more dangerous for tunnel users, and which requires rapid
response from emergency services. The various types of incidences
likely to be met in road tunnels are listed below:
i) Vehicle related incidence
Fire in tunnel
Vehicle accident
Vehicle breakdown
Debris on the road
Over dimensioned vehicle getting stuck
Overloaded slow moving vehicles
Chemical spillage
ii) Non-Vehicle related incidence:
Light failure
Ventilation failure
Power failure
Leakages inside Tunnel
Telephone out of order

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IRC:SP:91-2010

Pedestrians on carriageway
Animals in tunnel
iii) Weather hazards:
Fog
High winds
Dazzle from the Sun particularly for East - West alignment
Flood
Snow
iv) Human hazards: (vehicle occupants, operator and emergency ser-
vice staff)
Panic under stress,
Lack of knowledge (procedures, equipment, location, etc.),
Disregard towards instructions and advice,
Jamming communication channels,
Injury during rescue ,
Vandalism,
Terrorist activity.
The strategies for dealing with the various incidences shall be decided
taking into consideration available resources, procedures laid down in
the manuals and communications requirements of the various parties
involved and the needs of the road user. Response strategies shall
deal with the initial occurrence of a situation and also with any resulting
developments, as for example, a breakdown in a tunnel may lead to
initial local queuing which may further lead to traffic jam on the road for
long duration.

8.3 Organization for Operation and Maintenance

8.3.1 The authority responsible for operation and maintenance of the road on
which tunnel/s is constructed shall establish a separate organizational structure for
operation and maintenance of the tunnel/s. The operational organization shall be
responsible for the operation and maintenance, fire fighting and rescue procedures, as
well as traffic control operation. The operational organization shall also be responsible
for preparing and updating procedures, manuals, specifications, etc.

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s.3.2 The structure of the operational organization depends on several factors , of

which the most important are:
Type and extent of technical equipment in the tunnel,
• Extent of automatic surveillance and alarms deployed ,
• Traffic flow details,
• Geographical location,
• Magnitude of the tasks to be carried out.

8.3.3 The tasks required to be handled by the operational organization are:

• Surveillance tasks
These involve surveillance for events that normally result in the alerting
of police, fire or rescue services. Tunnel personnel along with others
agencies like police, fire brigade etc. deals with these tasks.
• Operational tasks
The tunnel personnel or an agency carries out t~ese tasks, which can
be planned in advance such as cleaning, washing, sweeping etc.
Preventive maintenance tasks
These tasks are carried out by the tunnel personnel or an agency, and
can be planned, in detail, in advance.
• Corrective maintenance tasks
These tasks cannot be planned in advance. However, the procedures
to be followed in the event of failure or damage must be planned
for.

8.4 Documentation

In order to achieve the appropriate standards for the operation and maintenance of
tunnels it is essential that the operating manuals for equipment, maintenance schedules
etc. shall be prepared and shall be readily available for reference of the concern staff
of the operational organization. The manuals shall contain procedures to address a
whole range of scenarios. Each procedure shall contain a number of instructions to
be undertaken, each of which initiates an action in one of the manuals. The individual
manuals might cover the following aspects:

i) Administration manual
The administration manual contains personnel registers including the
competence, skills and training records for individuals. It shall clearly

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define staff responsibilities. It shall also describe the whole financial

system and the budget
ii) Inventory manual
It is essential that the operator is fully familiar with the equipment
and systems installed in the tunnel, their location and performance
characteristics within the tunnel engineering framework. For that
purpose an Inventory Manual shall be prepared which shall include a
complete list of equipment (type, quantity, etc.) with all the necessary
information, including relevant drawings and geographical information.
It shall also contain information on spare parts (e.g. supplier/producer
with contact details, equipment/spare part descriptions and identifying
codes, etc.), the location where these spares are stored if already
procured, etc. It shall also have details of how these spare parts are to
be changed, their life period , etc.
iii) Technical operation manual
This manual shall describe how different tunnel equipment and systems
are used in normal operation, the capabilities of equipment and the
actions to be undertaken in specific situations. The instructions for the
operation of all the equipment shall be available and shall be entered
in the technical operation manual. If these instructions do not exist they
shall be prepared by experienced personnel. Threshold levels shall be
set for each of equipments according to local regulation and experience
for operating the system.
iv) Traffic manual
This manual shall include all the procedures and instructions that are
applicable to traffic situations occurring during normal, congested,
incident and emergency operations including schemes and procedure
for traffic diversion. For instance, if a collision is detected in the tunnel,
the operator must close the tunnel or divert the traffic to other tube in
case of twin tube tunnel. Police, fire fighting and ambulance services
shall be informed according to the emergency plan. Detailed emergency
instructions for the operator shall be included in the traffic manual which
shall be got approved from the appropriate authorities.
v) Maintenance and inspection manual
This manual shall give instructions forthe maintenance of the whole tunnel
structure and all the equipment, including the individual components
of the different systems. The instructions for the maintenance and
inspection of tunnel structure and all the equipment shall be available

94
 IRC:SP:91-2010

in the maintenance and inspection manual. The manual shall also list
the regulations that apply to maintenance work, like for instance:
• During hours with heavy traffic;
• If nuisance is caused to others (e.g. acceptable noise levels during the
night hours, smoke and dust regulations , etc);
• Night time work;
• Traffic regulations; etc.
vi) Safety Manual
This manual shall include all the procedures and instructions that are
to be followed in operation and maintenance of tunnel.

8.5 Safety Requirements

8.5.1 Tunnel maintenance activities both planned and unplanned shall be carried
out by proper traffic management. The tunnel shall be equipped in such a way that
as many maintenance operations as possible can be carried out off-site in work shop
or other places where it is not necessary to interference with traffic flow in any way.
To plan maintenance and operation that affect vehicle traffic, as these may be cause
of accidents involving user of the tunnel or the workers operating the maintenance
equipments, certain precautions as enumerated below shall be taken for safety of
traffic as well as maintenance staff.
• Maintenance staff working in the tunnel shall be protected from errant
vehicles entering into the tunnel. For that purpose warning signs shall
be posted at appropriate location and one driving lane shall be closed
completely by barriers and providing proper warning signage/signals
well in advance for safety of coming traffic.
• The closer of lane shall be indicated before the road enters tunnel.
Variable messages, traffic signs, barriers shall be used for the
purpose.
• In twin tube tunnel one tube can be closed for maintenance while
temporarily bi-directional traffic flow allowed in other tube.

8.5.2 Safety equipments that shall be readi ly available in Tunnel are listed
below:
Supervision and alarm equipments:
• CCTV
• IDS (incident detection system)

95
IRC:SP:91-2010

• emergency telephones
• fire alarms
• automatic fire detectors
• instruments for measuring visibility
• instruments for measuring gas concentrations
• sensors for doors, alarm boxes
• devices for detecting vehicle height
• Emergency power UPS
Escape routes and communication:
• emergency doors
• radio transmission
• com munication equipment
public address system
• escape route signs
smoke-free escape routes
• emergency lighting
• variable message signs
Traffic regulation equipments:
Lane signals
• Blinking red light
Variable text signs
Barriers
• Emergency Road Sign
Fire fighting equipments:
• hand-operated fire extinguishers
• fire hydrants
• water reservoir
• fire-hose coil with supply
sprinkler (if used)
• closed drainage system
• fire engines (if owned)

96
 1RC:SP:91-2010

8.5.3 Additional safety considerations

Depending upon the importance of the tunnel, length of the tunnel some restrictions
and additional facilities as enumerated below shall be considered.

8. 5.3. 1 Restrictions on tunnel use

Restrictions may be imposed from safety considerations on type of traffic permitted

to use a road tunnel. In long tunnel pedestrian, cycles, two wheelers, animal drawn
vehicles shall not be permitted, provided alternative routes are made available for
such slow moving traffic. Similarly transportation of high levels of dangerous goods
may be prohibited entirely or for certain period of time or can be permitted only with
escort. Such escort operations shall be thoroughly planned in close co-operation with
other organizations like fire , traffic police departments.

8.5.3.2 Speed limits

For safety reasons speed limit within road tunnel may be imposed taking into
consideration geometric design of the tunnel. Generally speed within tunnel is
marginally lower as compared to speed on open road.

8. 5.3.3 Separate service tunnel

A separate service tunnel, adjacent to the traffic tunnels could be considered at

design stage only, provided land is available and additional cost can be incurred. This
additional tunnel provides access for maintenance without requiring tunnel closure.
This service tunnel can be used as escape passage during an emergency. Also during
construction stage this tunnel is used as pilot tunnel and for ground treatment. During
operation stage this tunnel can be used for dewatering , ventilation and for placing
service cabling and other operating equipments.

97
IRC:SP:91-2010

Annux-A
(Clause 1.4)

TERMINOLOGY

Advance: Length by which 'Working Face' of a tunnel under construction is advanced

in one 'work cycle' also termed as 'Pull' for 'Drill and Blast' method.

Adit: A tunnel driven from the surface to create additional working faces for the main
tunnel or for access, ventilation, or emergency evacuation.

Controlled Blasting: Blasting operation carried out to keep vibrations within specified
limits and to prevent uncontrolled flying away of rock fragments .

Cover: The perpendicular distance to nearest ground surface from periphery of the
tunnel.

Cut & Cover: A method of construction wherein a duct is constructed in 'Open/

Approach Cut' and then covered with selected backfill.

Defuming: The operation of exhausting obnoxious fumes due to blasting from

the tunnel face to enable safe approach to the face for commencement of further
activities.

Detonator: A device initiated by safety fuse, by electricity or by shock tube, to ignite/

detonate an explosive charge.

Drift: A near horizontal tunnel of a small cross-section and short length driven either
from surface or from underground face for exploration or any purpose.

Drill Jumbo: A rail or tyre mounted equipment on which one or more drill booms are
mounted to facilitate faster deployment of the drills.

Drilling Pattern: An arrangement showing location, direction and depth of the blast
holes to be drilled into the face of tunnel.

Egress: A small parallel tunnel/passage or adit leading to outside open space for
emergency escape of people.

Explosive: A mixture or chemical compound capable of producing an explosion by

its own energy. This includes black powder, dynamite, nitroglycerine compounds,
emulsion based explosive,ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil mixture), fulminate or

98
 IRC:SP:91-2010

explosive substance having explosive power equal to or greater than black powder.

Explosive Charge: Pre-determined and planned quantity of explosive placed in the

blast holes for getting planned 'advance' in a 'work cycle'.

Forepole : Steel rods/sections, pointed boards or pipes driven in the roof ahead of the
face prior to excavation. Grouted pipe forepoles are used as Spiles.

Full face excavation: Excavation of the face of tunnel carried out in one operation
instead of by 'Heading and Benching' or 'Multi-drifting'.

Half Tunnel : Tunnel section on steep hill slope with one side remaining uncovered
and exposed on the valley side.

Heading and Benching : A Tunnelling method in which 'Heading' i.e. the top section
(generally up to around springing level) is excavated first, followed by 'Benching' i.e.
removal of lower portion.

Lagging: Planks/Precast slabs made of reinforced cement concrete or steel plates

spanning between steel rib supports to cover excavated periphery of tunnel and to
serve as formwork for backfill material.

Look-out: The angle with respect to the centerline of a tunnel at which the
peripheral holes are required to be drilled so as to provide adequate space for drilling
equipment.

Minimum Excavation Line: The line within which no unexcavated material of any kind
is permitted to remain . This line could vary along the length of the tunnel depending
upon strata.

Mucking: The operation of removal of excavated material and haulage for disposal.

NATM : New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) is a philosophy, which takes into
account inherent properties of the rock mass and suggests methods and supporting
measures for the newly exposed rock mass in conjunction with continuous
monitoring.

Niche: Local widening of tunnel over a short length.

Open/Approach Cut: Excavation open to sky to gain access to 'Tunnel Portal'.

99
IRC:SP:91 -2010

Overbreak: The portion excavated/dislodged beyond the desired excavation line i.e.
'Payline'. This could be due to natural/geological reasons or faulty workmanship.

Pay Line: An assumed line (beyond minimum excavation line) as specified in the
contract which governs payment of items of work.

Probe Holes: Holes of suitable diameter and length drilled into the face or around the
tunnel for assessment of the strata.

Q: Rock Mass Quality Index based on geomechanical properties of the rock mass
used in the empirical "NGI - Q" system for rock mass classification for design of ground
supports in under ground works.

Rock bolt: An untensioned or tensioned linear reinforcement element installed in

holes drilled into the rock mass.

RMR: Rock Mass Rating based on geomechanical properties of the rock mass used
in the empirical "CSIR - RMR" system for rock mass classification for design of ground
supports in under ground works.

Scaling: An operation to remove all loose/potentially unstable fragments of rock from

the blasted surface.

Shaft: A linear well like excavation/structure, usually vertical but may be at angles up
to 60° from vertical.

Shotcrete: Plain or Fiber Reinforced Concrete (with small size aggregates) shot i.e.
sprayed on any surface.

Specific Charge/Powder Factor: Quantity of explosives consumption expressed in

kilograms per cubic meter of rock excavated in an excavation cycle.

Specific Detonators: Quantity of detonators expressed in numbers per cubic meter

of rock excavated in an excavation cycle.

Specific Drilling : Quantum of drilling expressed in meters per cubic meter of rock
excavated in an excavation cycle.

Squeezing Rock: A type of rock mass condition in which the rock mass has time
dependent plastic deformation when exposed.

Stand-up-Time: Time duration for which newly exposed periphery of a tunnel is able
to stand on its own without exhibiting significant deformation/distress .

100
 IRC:SP:91-2010

stemming: Inert material packed near the open end of a blast hole to lock the explosive
charge in place.

Tunnel Lining: Concrete, Shotcrete or any other material installed over exposed
surface.

Tunnel Portals
Excavated Portal: Entrance location where the 'open/approach cut' ends
and full tunnel section starts.
Tunnel Portal: A facade structure surrounding tunnel opening and extending
upto adjacent sides of 'Open/Approach Cut', constructed in front of the
excavated portal. Where constructed at the end of 'Cut and Cover' portion,
it is termed as 'False Portal'.

Tunnel Support: Shotcrete, Steel ribs, Rock bolts/anchors or Tunnel lining placed to
support the excavated periphery of a tunnel.

Work Cycle: Sequence of operations to be ca rried out for each 'advance'.

Working Face: Blind end inside a tunnel from where next 'working cycle' starts.

101
 :;o
Annex-B ()

(Clause 2.6) en-u

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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR ROAD TUNNELS -"'
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Sr. Environmental Mitigation Measure Location Responsibility Supervision Performance

No. Issue Frequency Indicator

Implementation Supervision

1) Transport of Heavy equipments (above Source to Contractor Engineer's Random checks Visual inspection
construction machinery 15-20 tonnes), crawler-mounted construction Representative record
-Damage to road machinery and steel wheel sites
surface mounted rollers shall be mobilized
to construction site without causing
any hazardous condition and any
~ damage to network roads enroute
0
N to site. Such heavy equipments
shall be preferably mobilized on
multi-axial heavy trucks.

2) Construction traffic - Movement of tunnel construction Network Contractor Engineer's Routine Visual Inspection
A • Damage to network machinery shall not cause damage roads used Representative inspection record
roads to network roads and shall always for the
be maintained in good condition. construction

B • Compliance to road The driver shall be trained At all Contractor Engineer's Monthly/ No incident or
safety rules regarding traffic rules, safer driving construction Representative Random checks accident record with
practice, road courtesies etc. sites traffic police and in the
Copies of valid driving license shall driving license
be furnished.
 1
Sr. Environmental Mitigation Measure Location Responsibility Supervision Performance
No. Issue Frequency Indicator

Implementation Supervision

c- Large Volume of Mass movement of vehicle in and At all the Contractor Engineer's Fortnightly/ Visual inspection,
Construction Traffic out of construction site such as roads Representative Random checks plan of vehicular
debris removal vehicles, machinery used for movement, record
and material transportation construction of the transport
vehicles, RMC Trucks, etc. shall vehicles and the
be preferably planned during non- transport network
peak hours. Movement of vehicles roads.
through congested roads, narrow
lanes having sharp turning radius
~
shall be avoided and instead
0
(..V alternate road networks available
shall be preferred. All Over-
Dimensioned cargo/ elements
projecting out and beyond the
truck outline shall be flagged
with red flags in the day time and
with red lamps in the night time.
Assistance from traffic Police shall
be sought wherever required

D - Damage to road Vehicles exiting from construction At all the Contractor Engineer's Weekly/Random Visual inspection of
surface site on to public roads shall have roads Representative checks the public roads
their tyres washed to remove all used for
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No. Issue
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Location
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I Supervision
Frequency
Performance
Indicator
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Implementation Supervision
3) I Parking I
construction Parking shall be in such a way
that traffic flow along the road is
At all the
roads
Contractor Engineer's Weekly/Random Visual inspection
Representative checks
vehicles record of the transport
not hampered. Heavy machinery used for roads and Parking
equipment or parts thereof which construction places
are suspended or held aloft by the and parking
use of slings, hoists or jacks shall be areas
blocked or cribbed to prevent falling
or shifting. Bulldozers, scraper
blades, Loaded buckets, dump
__...
0
~ I I I
bodies and similar equipments of
construction machinery parked
outside the project site or in areas
of considerable public movement
and near children playing area,
shall be fully lowered or blocked.
All controls shall be in neutral
position and motors/Engines
stopped and parking brakes set.

4) I Air Pollutants Construction site should be At all Contractor Engineer's Weekly Visual inspection
Emissions adequately watered periodically to construction Representative record of dust cloud
Air pollutant emissions minimize fugitive dust generation. sites at the site, sprinkling
are regulated under frequency
Rule 115 of CMV Rules,
2000.
 1
Sr . Environmental Mitigation Measure Location Responsibility Supervision Performance
No. Issue Frequency Indicator
Implementation Supervision
All trucks/dumpers carrying Source to Contractor Engineer's Weekly Visual inspection
construction material prone to construction Representative record of dust cloud
create dust pollution should be sites at the site, sprinkling
covered during transportation. frequency.
All equipmenUvehicles should be At project Contractor Engineer's Quarterly Equipment
kept in good state of repairs. sites Representative maintenance records
to be maintained
~

0 All vehicles registered under At project Contractor Engineer Quarterly A copy of Pollution
01
Central Motor Vehicle Rules, 2000 sites Under Control (PUC)
shall have valid certificate issue certificate.
by authorized agency throughout
their deployment period at
construction site. A Separate or
master register of vehicle's shall
be maintained at construction site
office containing details of vehicles
under deployment and a copy of
PUC certificates

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5) Noise Emissions All in-built noise-silencing device At construction I Contractor Engineer's Monthly Noise monitoring
such as silencers and mufflers sites Representative report generated
shall be maintained and any from any equipment,
Under Environment defective device shall be promptly Vehicle or machinery
(Protection) Rules, 1986 replaced. Equipment's shall be
maintained as per manufacturers
(Schedule VI, Part E)
guidelines to reduce tonal
the noise generation components, frequency
standards applicable for modulations or impulses, which
will increase the annoying effect
construction equipment,
of any noise, generated.
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machinery and vehicles.
CJ)

Noise generation due to At construction Contractor Engineer's Monthly Noise monitoring

vibration of loose parts during sites Representative record due to
operation, unstable foundation at vibration
temporary installations etc shall
be immediately attended and
rectified.
Stationary DG sets, if provided at At construction Contractor Engineer's Monthly Stationery DG sets
the construction site shall adhere sites Representative adhering to EP
to noise emission guidelines and Rules, 1986. Noise
regulations in Schedule I of EP monitoring record
Rules 1986.
 Sr . Environmental Mitigation Measure Location Responsibility Supervision Performance
No. Issue Frequency Indicator

Implementation Supervision

Ground vibrations dunng At construction Contractor Engineer's Continuous Ground vibrations

6) Ground Vibrations
construction shall be controlled sites Representative monitoring within permissible
by properly designed charges during blasting limits particularly for
and use of controlled blasting cycles Urban tunnels
techniques.
Engineer's Monthly Approval papers from
7) Muck disposal Muck disposal shall be carried At construction Contractor
out at pre determined authorized sites Representative authorised person
Locations
locations only. In case disposal
is carried out on other than
authorized Sites, landowner
_.. approval shall be obtained before
0 starting the activity. Approval shall
--.I
be obtained even if the land 1s
owned by government.

Muck disposal area as well as

the roads leading up to the area
shall be kept watered regularly by
sprinkling to prevent unwanted
generation of dust. However
it shall be ensured that large
quantities of water are not dumped
in this process, as it would lead to
forming slush. The route from the ;a
tunnel portal to the Muck Dumping ()
(J)
Area shall be regularly cleaned up
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to remove all muck which might (6
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have fallen off from the dumpers 0
during transit.
Before commencing the muck
stacking operations, a retaining
wall of suitable design shall be
constructed for a suitable height
to retain the muck and prevent 11
from spreading out to undesirable
locations, particularly in slopes
to prevent the muck from sliding
down to the river or valley or to
~
any undesirable locations The
0 retaining wall shall have sufficient
co
weep holes to drain out water
retained in the muck arising from
atmospheric precipitations, etc
so as to preserve the safety of
the stack as well as to collect
the muck-contaminated water in
collection pits. Ring drains shall be
constructed all-round the retaining
walls to collect the drain water and
conduct the same to collection
pits from where it shall be led off
to holding ponds. Contaminated
water shall not be allowed to
drain out of the Muck Disposal
Area without treatment. . Suitable
landscaping shall be done
 1
Sr. Environmental Mitigation Measure Location Responsibility Supervision Performance
No. Issue Frequency Indicator

Implementation Supervision
over the muck piles for better
aesthetics and for proper
preservation of the slopes/pile.

8) Labour Camps, Health Construction of labour camps shall At construction Contractor Engineer's At start of work Visual inspection,
and hygiene be located away from the nearest sites Representative & Monthly Records
habitation to avoid conflicts and thereafter
stress over infrastructures facility
The contractor shall provide, erect
& maintain necessary temporary
...... living accommodation, ancillary
0
<.O facilities such as toilet blocks,
potable water supply, canteen etc.
as per standards set by various
acts (Labour Act 1951) Contract
Labour Act 1970, Construction
Worker Act 1996. Construction
Workers Rules 1998.

The contractor shall supply all

necessary safety appliances
such as safety goggles, helmets,
safety belts. earplugs (wherever
applicable), masks etc. to the ;:u
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worker and staff. (f)
The contractor shall make -0
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No. Issue
Frequency Indicator
Implementation Supervision
arrangements for providing water
for drinking and other ancillary
purposes and proper disposal
of wastewater from the labor
camps.
_..
_.. A readily available first aid unit
0 including an adequate supply of
sterilized dressing material and
appliances shall be provided as
per the requirements under the
vanous acts (such as Factor Act
1948, Labour Act 1951.

All anti-malarial measures be

complied with, including filling up
of borrow pits.
 IRC:SP:91-2010

Annex-C
(Clause 3.3.3.3)
CORE LOG-I
Client: Drill Hole No. 1 Date:
Site:
Operator Name: TopR.L- __m _ _ Diameter of bore (mm):- 100 & Nx.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0.00 OVER
to BURDEN
2.00
2.00 1 to4 21 1 2 J H • 42 NIL All joints are Total drill water
to 2 5 J H stained with loss throughout
3.50 3 5 J H iron oxide the length of
4 9 J H and calcium the bore drilled.
carbonate
3.50 5 to 99 5 29 J v 66 49 From P.No. • R.L. to be
to 15 6 13 J H 1to96 calculated &
5.00 7 11 J 45' porphyritic Filled
8 2 J v basalt with
9 2 J v green infillings
10 6
11 10
12 6
13 10
14 6
15 4 J v
5.00 16 to 10 16 10 J H 68 23
to 30 2 17 6 J H
6.50 18 5 J 80'
19 3 J H
20 7 J 45'
21 3 J v

Note: The information filled above is typical for guidence J - Joint, V - Vertical joint, H -
Horizontal joint.

111
IRC:SP:91-2010

Annex-D
(Clause 3.4.3)

TUNNEL INSTRUMENTATION

Though underground excavations are designed based on different numerical and

empirical methods, there is a need to evaluate the stability of the openings and
optimize the design through instrumentation. Instrumentation provides vital information
on ground movement and stress build-up in the surrounding ground mass, and thus
enables one to check the validity of the design. Based on the analysis of the data, the
strata behavior and support performance are evaluated, and recommendations made
for proper further action.

In Tunnel construction instrumentation is used for evaluation of the performance of

the support systems, monitoring the stability around underground excavations and
ensuring overall safety of operations. In poorer strata it would also be advisable to
maintain permanent instrumentation and keep the same under periodic observation
and monitoring .

In general, ground mass deformation characteristics measurements are done using

Convergence meters and Multi-point borehole extensometers. Load measurements are
carried out using Load cells. In-situ stress is monitored using Stress cells. Regarding
the supports, capacity of rock bolts is monitored using instrumented bolts, testing the
anchorages of the bolts and using torque meters. Efficacy of shotcrete is measured
using shotcrete bond tester and shotcrete stress cells. Electrical Load cells of strain
gauge type are used to monitor the behavior of rock bolts installed.

Convergence Measurement

Convergence measurement shall be performed in underground excavation works to

determine the relative displacement of opposite measuring points placed around the
excavation perimeter.

The measuring points shall consist of the convergence bolts made of stainless steel
pins mounted on a short reinforcing bar grouted into predrilled hole.

The tape extensometer with steel tape of a low thermal coefficient shall be set between
the opposite convergence bolts. The convergence shall be read on a digital gauge
with a resolution of 0.01 mm.

The convergence bolts shall be installed within the heading zone after the installation

112
 IRC:SP:91-2010

of supports. At the beginning, the measurement shall be carried out daily. Later, weekly
readings shall be taken for several months up to the cessation of any movement but
latest when the placing of the concrete lining commences.

The convergence measuring tape and the digital gauge shall be calibrated on their
corresponding calibration devices before and after each measurement. Digital readout
shall be in metric units.

Bore hole (Rod) Extensometers - Single and Multipoint

Single point or multipoint borehole extensometers are used in underground excavations

to measure displacements in the rock mass surrounding the excavation .

Borehole (Rod) extensometers shall be installed at location as indicated on the

Drawings. Borehole diameter shall be 76 mm. However at mouth, the size of recess
shall be 125 mm for a length of 500 mm.

For underground excavations single-point extensometers will have a length upto

10 m, while three-point extensometers will have a typical rod length of 4, 7 and 10 m.
On surface excavation single point extensometers shall be up to 15 m long while for
three-point extensometers, rod lengths shall be 10, 15 and 25 m long.

Borehole extensometers required could either be of mechanical or electrical type.

For mechanical extensometers the system consists of groutable anchors, fiber glass
continuous length extensometer rods, and protective sleeves; Head of MPBX/SPBX
shall be sealed with a protective cover. For mechanical type Borehole Extensometers
readings shall be taken with a micrometer depth gauge of 0.01 mm scale division.

For electrical type Borehole extensometers an electronic potentiometer type transducer

with the following specifications shall be used:
Sensor Type Potentiometric
Range 50mm
Resolution 0.1 percent ts with readout unit
Overall accuracy 0.2 percent ts.
Temperature Range 0 - 55°C
Casing Stainless steel

Monitoring of micro-seismic networks is useful for evaluating ground stability in

underground excavations and to locate areas of potential ground failure. The various

11 3
IRC:SP:91-2010

methods used are:

• Characterizing fracture propagation, 30 stress-deformation and failure
mechanism using real time micro-seismic monitoring system.
• Developing short-term precursor model to warn occurrence of rock
failure
• Application of Geophysical Techniques for assessing stability of
excavations in rock mass
• Use of Geophysical tool in designing excavation.

Some of the commonly used instruments are:

1) Convergence Indicators
2) Tape Extensometers
3) Multi-point Bore Hole Extensometers
4) Rock Stress Gauges
5) Shotcrete Stress Gauges
6) Pillar Strain Meters
7) Crack Extensometers
8) Load Cells
9) Instrumented Bolts
10) Piezometers
11) Total Stations
Some of the commonly used instruments are shown below:

Vibrating Wire Transducers for Load, Pressure and Strain

114
 IRC:SP:91-2010

Vibrating Wire Piezometer Inclinometer

MPBX Unit Crack Monitoring

Tape Convergence Electric Centre Load Cell

115
IRC:SP:91-2010

Appendix-I
(Clause 4.4.2)

CLASSIFICATION & CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKS

1. Characteristics of Rock

Parent strength of rock stratum is materially affected by characteristics like weathering,

hardness, joint spacing and bedding and rock quality designation (RQD). Broad
recommended descriptions of these characteristics are given in tables below. The
extent to which these characteristics will affect the parent strength of the rock will vary
from case to case and will have to be decided upon based on engineering judgment
to access the factors of safety to be allowed for arriving at the allowable bearing
pressures. These decisions should be taken as per the advice of the engineering
geologist

Table 1 Weathering
Fresh Rock fresh, crystals bright, few joints may show slight staining. Rock rings under hammer if
crystalline.
Very slight Rock generally fresh, joints stained, some joints may show clay if open crystals in broken face
show bright. Rock rings under hammer if crystalline.
Slight Rock generally fresh-joints stained and discolouration extends into rock up to 25 mm. Open joints
contain clay. In granitoid rocks some occasionally feldspar crystals are dull and discoloured.
Crystaline rocks ring under hammer.
Moderate Significant portions of rock show discolouration and weathering effects. In granitoid rocks must
feldspar are dull and discoloured; same show clayey. Rock has dull sound under hammer and
shows significant loss of strength as compared with fresh rock.
Moderately All rock except quartz discoloured or stained. In granitoid rocks all feldspars dull and discoloured
Severe and majority show Kaolinization. Rock shows severe loss of strength and can be excavated with
geologist's pick. Rock goes "clink" when struck (Saprolite).
Severe All rock except quartz discoloured or stained. Rock "Fabric" clear and evident but reduce in
strength to strong soil. In granitoid rocks all feldspars Kaolinized to some extent. Some fragments
of strong rock usually left (Saprolite).
Very Severe All rock except quartz discoloured or stained. Rock "Fabric" discernible but mass effectively
reduced to "soil" with only fragments of strong rock remaining.
Complete Rock reduced to "soil". Rock "fabric" not discernible or discernible only in small scattered locations.
Quartz may be present as dyke or stringers.

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Table 2 Hardness (for Engineering Description of Rocks - Not to be Confused

with Mohr's Scale for Minerals)
Very Hard Cannot be scratched with knife or sharp pick. Breaking of hand specimens requires several hard
blows of qeoloqist's pick.
Hard Can be scratched with knife or pick only with difficulty. Hard blow of hammer required to detach
hand specimen.
Moderately Can be scratched with knife or pick. Gouges or grooves to 6mm deep can be excavated by hard
blow of point of qeoloqist's pick. Hand specimens can be detached by moderate blow.
Medium Can be grooved or gouged 1.5 mm deep by firm pressure on knife or pick point. Can be excavated
in small chips to places about 25 mm maximum size by hard blows of the point of a geologist's
pick.
Soft Can be gouged or grooved readily with knife or pick point. Can be excavated in chips to pieces
several ems. in size by moderate blows of a pick point. Small thin pieces can be broken by finger
pressure.
Very soft Can be carved with knife. Can be excavated readily with point of pick. Pieces 2.5 cm or more in
thickness can be broken by finger pressure. Can be scratched readily by finqer nail.
Note: For specific projects involving only a limited number of rock types, subdivision of major groupings may be
desirable. Numerical or alphabetical subscripts may be used to identify such subdivisions.

Table 3 Joints and Bedding in Rock

Spacing Joints Bedding Remarks
Less than 50 cm Very close Very thin
50 mm to 300 mm Close Thin
300 mm to 1 m Moderately Close Medium
1mto3 m Wide Thick Massively bedded
More than 3 m Very wide Very thick Massively bedded
Note: joint spacing refers to the distance normal to the plane of the joints of a single system
"set" of joints which are parallel to each other or nearly so. The spacing of each "set"
should be described, if possible to establish.

Table 4 Rock Quality Designator (RQD)

RQD Diagnostic Description
Exceeding 90% Excellent
90-75 Good
75-50 Fair
50-25 Poor
Less than 25 Very poor
Note: 1. RQD should always be given in percentage. Diagnostic description is intended
primarily for evaluating problems with tunnels or excavations in rock.
2. If RQD is t o be determined, double tube N size core barrel with non-rotating inner barrels
must be used.

117
IRC:SP:91-2010

PROCEDURE FOR PREDICTING ROCK MASS RATING (RMR)

To apply the gee-mechanical classification system, a given site should be divided

into number of geological structural units in such a way that each type of rock mass
present in the area is covered. The following geological parameters are determined
for each structural unit:
a) Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock material(IS 8764),
b) Rock quality designation[IS 11315(Part 11 )],
c) Spacing of discontinuities[IS 11315(Part 2)],
d) Condition of discontinuities[IS 11315(Part 4 )],
e) Ground water condition[IS 11315(Part 8)] and
f) Orientation of discontinuities[IS 11315(Part 1)].
• Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Intact Rock Material (qc)
The strength of the intact rock material should be obtained from rock
cores in accordance with IS 9143 or IS 8764 or IS 10785 as applicable
based on site conditions. The rating based on uniaxial compressive
strength and point load strength are given in Appe ndix-II (Item I).
However the use of uniaxial compressive strength is preferred over the
point load index strength.
Rock Quality Designation(RQD)
Rock quality designation (ROD) should be determined as specified in
IS 11315 (Part 11 ). The detail of rating are given in Appendix - II (Item II).
• Spacing of Discontinuities
The term discontinuity covers joints, beddings or foliations, shear
zones, minor fault, or other surfaces of weakness. The linear distance
between two adjacent discontinuities should be measured for all sets of
discontinuities. The details of ratings are given in Appendix - II (Item Ill).
• Condition of Discontinuities
This parameter includes roughness of discontinuity surfaces, their
separation, length or continuity, weathering of the wall rock or the
planes of weakness, and infilling (gauge) material. The details of rating
are given in Appendix-II (Item IV). The description of the term used in
the classification is given in the IS 11315 (Part 4) and IS 11315 (Part 5).

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Appendix-II
(Clause 4.4.2)
DATA SHEET FOR GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK MASSES
AND ASSESSMENT OF ROCK MASS RATING (RMR) (AFTER BIENIAWSKI 1989)

I. STRENGTH OF INTACT ROCK MATERIAL lMPa)

Uniaxial Point Load
Compressive Strength Strength Rating
MPa MPa
Exceotionallv Strona > 250 .> 8 15
Verv Strona 100 - 250 4-8 12
Strona 50 -100 2-4 7
Averaae 25-50 1- 2 4
Weak 10- 25 } Use of Uniaxial 2
VervWeak 2 -10 } Compressive Strength 1
Extremely Weak <2 l Preferred 0

II. ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION (RQD)

RQD % Rating
Excellent 90 -100 20
Good 75- 90 17
Fair 50- 75 13
Poor 25- 50 8
Verv ooor < 25 3

Ill. SPACING OF DISCONTINUITIES

Soacina m. Rating
VervWide >2 20
Wide 0.6- 2 15
Moderate 0.2 0 - 0.6 10
Close 0.06 - 0.2 8
Verv Close < 0.06 5
NOTE- If more than one set of discontinuity is present and the spacing of discontinuities of
each set varies, consider the set with lowest rating.

IV. CONDITION OF DISCONTINUITIES

Condition of Very rough Slightly rough Slightly rough Slickensided > 5 mm thick
Joints surface, Not surfaces, surfaces, wall surface soft gouge,
continuous, Separation Separation or 1 - 5 mm > 5 mm wide
No separation, < 1 mm, Slightly < 1 mm, Highly thick guage or separation,
Unweathered weathered walls weathered 1-5 mm wide Continuous
wall rock walls, separation,
Continuous,
Rating 30 25 20 10 0

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IRC:SP:91-2010

V. GROUND WATER CONDITION

Inflow per 10 m. tunnel length (lit./ none < 10 10- 25 25-125 > 125
min.)
Groundwater
Joint water presure/major principal 0 0 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.2-0.5 > 0.5
Condition
stress 0.2
General condition completely dry damp wet dripping flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0

VI. ORIENTATION OF DISCONTINUITIES

ADJUSTMENT FOR JOINT ORIENTATION

Average Orientation of dip Very Favourable Fair Un-favourable Very ui·

and strike of joints favourable favourable
for tunnels 0 -2 -5 -10 -12
Rating for foundations 0 -2 -7 - 15 -25
for slopes Use Slope Mass Rating (SMR) as per IS 13365 (Part 3)

VII. ROCK MASS RATING (RMR)

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) Va lue is total of the following ratings
1) Rating for Intact Rock Material as per I above
2) Rating for Rock Quality Designation (RQD) as per II above
3) Rating for Spacing of Discontinuities as per Ill above
4) Rating for Condition of Discontinuities as per IV above
5) Rating for Ground Water Condition as per V above
Total Original RMR (Total of I to V)
6) Adjustment for Orientation of Discontinuities as per V I above
Adjusted RMR (Total of I to VI)

VIII. NET SAFE BEARING PRESSURES BASED ON ROCK MASS RATING

(RMR)

Description of Rock Very Good Good Fair Poor Very Poor

RMR 100 - 81 80 - 61 60-41 40- 21 20-0
Bearing Capacity Vsq.m. 400 300-200 150- 100 80- 50 40 or< 40
 IRC:SP:91 -2010

Appendix-Ill
(Clause 4.4.3)
DATA SHEET FOR GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF ROCK MASSES FOR
ASSESSMENT OF TUNNELLING QUALITY INDEX " "
(AFTER BARTON ET AL 1974)
Q-system for rock mass classification (Barton)
Q = ROD 0 Jr 0 Jw (EQ 1)
Jn Ja SRF
1) Rock Quality DesiQnation RQO
A Verv Poor 0-25
B Poor 25-50
c Fair 50- 75
D Good 75-90
E Excellent 90-100
Note: i) Where RQD is reported or measured ass 10 (including 0), a nominal value of 10 is used to evaluate Q.
ii) RQD interval of 5, i.e., 100,95,90,etc., are sufficiently accurate.
21 Joint Set Number Jn
A Massive, no or few joints 0.5 -1
B One joint set 2
c One ioint set plus random ioints 3
D Two ioint set 4
E Two ioint set plus random ioints 6
F Three joint set 9
G Three joint set plus random 101nts 12
H Four or more ioint sets heavilv jointed 15
J Crushed rock earthlike 20
Note: i) For intersections, use ( 3.0 x J0 ). (ii) For portals, use ( 2.0 x J0 ).

3) Joint RouQhness Number Jr

a) Rock-wall contact and b) Rock wall contact before 10 cm shear
A Discontinuous joints 4
B Rouoh or irreoular, undulatino 3
c Smooth, undulatino 2
D Slickensided, undulatino 1.5
E Rough or irreoular, planar 1.5
F Smooth, planar 1.0
G Slickensided, planar 0.5
Note: i) Descriptions refer to small and intermediate scale features, in that order.
c) No rock-wall contact when sheared
H Zone containing clay minerals thick enough to 1.0
prevent rock-wall contact
J Sandy, gravelly or crushed zone thick enough 1.0
to prevent rock-wall contact
Note: ii) Add 1.0 if the mean spacing of the relevant joint set :o?: 3 m.
iii) Jr = 0.5 can be used for planar slickensided joints having lineations, provided the lineations are oriented
for minimum strength.

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IRC:SP:91-2010

4) Joint Alteration Number <I>, approx JI

a) Rock-wall contact (no mineral fillings, only coatings)
A Tight healed, hard, non-softening, impermeable filling, i.e.. quartz or epidote - 0.75
B Unaltered joint walls, surface staining only 25-35° 1.0
c Slightly altered joint walls. Non-softening mineral coating, sandy particles, 25-30° 2.0
clay- free disintegrated rock, etc.
D Silty-or sandy-clay coatings, small clay fraction ( non-softening ) 20-25° 3.0
E Softening or low friction mineral coatings, i.e.,Kaolinite or mica. Also chlorite, 8-16° 4.0
talc, gypsum.graphite, etc., and small

b) Rock wall contact before 10 cm shear {thin mineral fillings)

F Sandy particles, clay-free disintegrated rock, etc. 25 - 30° 4.0
G Strongly over-consolidated non-softening clay mineral fillings (con~nuous, but <5 mm 16 - 24° 6.0
thickness)
H Medium or low over-consolidated softening clay mineral fillings (continuous, but < 5 mm 12 - 16° 8.0
thickness)
J Swelling-clay fillings, i.e.montmorillonite (continuous, but <5 mm thickness). Value of Ja 6 - 12° 8 -12
depends on percent of swelling clay size particles, and access to water, etc.
c) No rock-wall contact when sheared (thick mineral fillings)
K,L, Zones or bands of disintegrated or crushed rock and clay 6-24° 6,8,or
M (see G,H,J for description if clay condition) 8-12, 5
N Zones or bands of silty-or sandy-clay fraction (non- softening) 6-24°- 10,13,or
O,P, Thick, continuous zones or bands of clay (see G,H,J for) 13-20
R clay condition description

5) Joint Water Reduction Factor Water pressure Jw

A Dry excavation or minor inflow, I.e .. <51/min locally <1(kg/cm2) 1.0
B Medium inflow or pressure, occasional outwash of joint fillings 1-2.5 0.66
c Large inflow or high pressure in competent rock with unfilled Joints 2.5-10 0.5
D Large inflow or high pressure. considerable outwash of joint fillings 2.5-10 0.33
E Exceptionally high inflow or water pressure at blasting, decaying with time >1 0 0.2-0.1
F Exceptionally high inflow or water pressure continuing without noticeable decay >10 (kg/cm 2) 0.1-0.05
Note: i) Factors C to F are crude estimates. Increase Jw if drainage measures are installed.
ii) Special problems caused by ice formation are not considered.
 1
IRC:SP:91-2010

6 Stress Reduction Factor SRF

a) Weakness cones intersecting excavation, which may cause loosening of rock mass when tunnel is
excavated
A Multiple occurrences of weakness zones containing clay chemically disintegrated rock, very loose 10
surroundin rock an de th
B 5
c 2.5
D 7.. 5
E 5
F 2.5
G 5
Note: i) Reduce SRF value by 25-50% if the relevant shear zones only influence but not intersect the excavation.

b) Competent rock, rock stress problems crja1 a/ac SRF

H Low stress, near surface, open joints >200 < 0.01 2.5
J Medium stress, favorable stress condition 200 -10 0.01 - 0.03 1
K High stress, very tight structure. Usually 10- 5 0.3- 0.4 05- 2
favorable to stabilitv, mav be unfavorable to wall stability
L Moderate slabbing after >1 hour in massive rock massive rock 5-3 0.5 - 0.65 5- 50
M Slabbing and rock burst after a few minutes in massive rock 3-2 0.65 -1 50- 200
N Heavy rock burst (strain-durst ) and immediate dynamic deformation in <2 >1 200 - 400
massive rock
Note : ii) For strongly anisotropic virgin stress fields (if measured): when 5 s cr1 I a~ s 10, reduce to crc to 0.75 CYc; when cr1 I
cr3 > 10, reduce crcto 0.5 crc; where crc is unconfined compressive strengtn, 0 1 and cr3 are major and minor principal
stresses, and cre is maximum tangential stress (estimated from elastic theory).
iii) Few cases records available where depth of crown below surface is less than span width. Suggest SRF increase
from 2.5 to 5 for such cases (see H.)
c) Squeezing rock : plastic flow in incompetent rock under the influence cr/crc SRF
of high rock pressure
0 Mild squeezinq rock pressure 1-5 5 - 10
p Heavy squeezinq rock pressure 5 10- 20
Note: iv) Cases of squeezing rock may occur for depth H > 350 Q113• Rock mass ompressive strength can
be estimated from Q =7 y Q1'3 ( MPa), where y =rock density in g/cm3 •
d) Swelling rock: chemical swelling activity depending on presence of SRF
water
R Mile swellinq rock pressure 5 -10
s Heavv swell rock pressure 10 -15
Note: v) and Ja classification is applied to the joint set or discontinuity that is least favourable for stability both from the point
of view of orientation and shear resistance
Q-value Class Rock mass aualitv
400 - 1000 A Exceotionallv Good
100- 400 A Extremely Good
40-100 A Verv Good
' 10- 40
4-10
B
c
Good
Fair
1-4 D Poor
0.1 -1 E Verv Poor
0.01 - 0.1 F Extrernelv Poor
0.001 - 0.01 G Exceotionallv Poor

123
IRC:SP:91-2010

APPENDIX-IV
(Clause 4.4.2)
EXAMPLE OF DETERMINATION OF 'RMR' & 'Q' VALUES & SUPPORT
REQUIREMENTS
(Refer IS 13365: Part 1 & 2, 1992)
A proposed Irrigation Project involves construction of two 'D' shaped parallel tunnels,
each about 690 m. long connecting two reservoirs. The alignment of the tunnels is
almost in N S Direction. Width of each Tunnel is 11 m. wide with semi-circular roof.
Clear gap between the two tunnels is 33 m. The tunnels are to be excavated by
Conventional method of Drilling and Blasting.

Following Geological and Geotechnical Data was collected.

Regional Geology:
The area is predominantly occupied by Charnockite and Garnetiferous Gneiss.
Regiona l trend of rock formations is tending in NE-SW direction with steep dips of 600
to 80° towards south east.

Local Geology:
Geological Mapping along the proposed alignment indicated that the alignment is
covered thin layer of soil and scree material underlain y moderately weathered to
fresh Charnockite and Gneiss.
Sub-surface Exploration:
Lithological Longitudinal Section along the alignment indicated that Entry Channel will
have to be constructed from Ch. 30 m to Ch. 60 m and Exit Channel from Ch. 750 m to
Ch. 790 m Thus the tunnel is expected to stretch between Ch. 60 m. and Ch. 750 m.
Engineering Properties of the Rock Mass at the Tunnel were expected to be generally
as follows:
Particulars Value
Unit Weight of Rock Mass 2400 kg./cum.
Specific Gravity 3.1515
Uniaxial Compressive Strength 108.9 MPa
Tensile Strength [Brazilian Test] 13.71 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity 21 .27 GPa
Poisson's Ratio 0.1963
Angle of Friction 43°
Porosity 0.79%
Average Vertical Stress at Tunnel Grade 3.6 MPa

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 IRC:SP:91-2010

Rock Mass Classification:

In order to arrive at preliminary characterization of the rock mass, the tunnel length
was divided in three reaches as follows:
From Ch. m. To Ch. m. Lenath m. Particulars
60.00 90.00 30.00 Inside Entrv Portal
90.00 720.00 630.00 Inner Tunnel
720.00 750.00 30.00 Inside Exit Portal
Rock Mass Characterization of the tunnel medium has been carried out as per ' RMR '
- Rock Mass Rating [Bieniawski] and' Q "-Rock Mass Quality [Barton]. The mechanics
of arriving at the 'RMR' and 'Q' is indicated in the following Tables

Zone from Ch. 90 m to Ch. 720 m:

'RMR "- Rock Mass Rating (Bieniawski]

Sr. No. Parameter Condition of Rock Mass Ratina
1) Strength of Intact Rock Material Uniaxial Compressive Strength 100 to 200 12
MPa
2) RQD ' - Rock Qualitv Desionation 75-90 17
3) Soacina of Discontinuities 0.6 m. to 2.0 m. 15
4) Condition of Discontinuities Very rough unweathered wall, Rock tight 30
and discontinuous. No separation
5) Ground water condition Completely drv 15
6) Adjustment for orientation of discontinuities Verv favourable 0
7) RMR ' - Rock Mass Rating 89
8) Classification of rock mass Verv Good Rock 1
9) Stand up time of roof span of 11 m. wide tunnel 13 years
10) Suaaested Method of Excavation Full Face with 3.0 m advance
11) Likely Requirement of Supports Generally no support required except for occassional
soot boltino
Zone from Ch. 90 m to Ch. 720 m

'Q' - RockM ass Q ua rt

1:y:
Sr. Parameter Condition of Rock Mass Rating
No.
1) RQD " - Rock Qualitv Desionation 75 to 90 80.00
2) Joint Number fJnl 1 Joint Set + random 3.00
3) Joint Rouohness fJrl Discontinuous joints 4.00
4) Joint Alteration fJa] Tiohtly healed 0.75
5) Joint Water Reduction Factor [Jw] Dry excavation or minor inflow < 5 lit.I 1.00
min. locally
6) Stress Reduction Factor fSRFl Medium stress 1.00
7) Q =RQD/Jn x Jr/Ja x Jw/SRF =80/3 x 4/0.75 x 1.00/1.00 142.00
8) Classification of Rock Mass Extremely Good 1.00
9) ESR: 1.6 Soan 11 m. Soan/ESR =11 /1.6 6.88
10) Suooort Requirement Suooort Cateaorv 1 Unsuooorted

125
 ;a
Appendix-V ()
(Clause 4.5.1 (c) (f)
-u
(6
SUPPORTS IN THE TUNNEL -"
I
N
Immediate Immediate Immediate Roof Immediate Support for Ultimate Roof & Side Support for 0
-"
Roof Support for Roof Support for Support for 18 m. Benching 18 m. [Full] Section 0
Average Category of 6 m. Wide HeadinQ 12 m. I 2/3 rd l Width !Full] Width
RMR&Q Support Rock Bolt Shotcrete Rock Bolt Shotcrete Rock Bolt Shotcrete Rock Bolt Shotcrete MB 200 Rib Support
Pattern Thickness Pattern Thickness Pattern Thickness Pattern Thickness
m mm m mm m mm m mm mm
20 [ 0.07] Immediate 1.5 x 1.5 100
20 r 0.011 Immediate 1.5x1 .5 150
20 f 0.01 J Immediate 1.S x 1.S 1SO 1.S x 1.S 1SO
20 [ 0.071 Ultimate Placed at 500 mm Spacing &
Embedded in 350 mm. thick M 20
Concrete CoverinQ full Overt & Invert
....... 30 I 0.211 Immediate 1.S x 1.S 100
N 30 [ 0.21] Immediate 1.5 x 1.5 150
(j')
30 [ 0.21] Immediate 1.5 x 1.5 150 1.5 x 1.5 150
30 [ 0.21 ] Ultimate
40 I 0.64 J Immediate 2.0 x 2.0 100
40 r0.64 I Immediate 2.0 x 2.0 150
40 r o.64 J Immediate 2.0 x 2.0 150 2.0 x 2.0 1SO
40 [ 0.64 J Ultimate
so I 2.00 I Immediate 2.0 x 2.0 50
so I 2.001 Immediate 2.0 x 2.0 100
so r 2.001 Immediate 2.0 x 2.0 100 2.0 x 2.0 100
so I 2.00 I Ultimate
60 [ 6.00 l Immediate Spot Nil
60 r6.oo 1 Immediate Spot 100
60 l 6.oo I Immediate 2.5 x 2.5 100 2.S x 2.S 100
60 r 6.00 I Ultimate
 IRC:SP:91-2010

CODES OF PRACTICE/ACTS/RULES

FOR TUNNELLING WORK

The following Codes/Acts/Rules and their revised/updated versions, if any, will be

applicable to the Tunnelling work. This list is not exhaustive and all other relevant
Codes/Acts/Rules and their revised/updated versions, if any, will be deemed to be
applicable to the Tunnelling work.

IS 5878 1971 [Part I] Precision Survey and Setting out.

IS 5878 1971 [Part II , Section 1] Underground Excavation in Rock, Section I

Drilling and Blasting.

IS 5878 1971 [Part II , Section 2] Underground Excavation in Rock, Section 2,

Ventilation, Lighting, Mucking and Dewatering.

IS 5878 1971 [Part 11 , Section 3] Underground Excavation in Rock, Section

3, Tunnelling Methods for Steeply Inclined Tunnels, Shafts and
Underground Power Houses.

IS 5878 1971 [Part Ill] Underground Excavation in Soft Strata.

IS 5878 1971 [Part IV] Tunnel Supports.

IS 5878 1971 [Part V] Concrete Lining.

IS 5878 1971 [Part VI] Grouting.

IS 4081 1986 Safety Code for Blasting and other related Blasting Operations.

IS 4756 1978 Safety Code for Tunnelling Work.

IS 9103 1979 Admixtures for Concrete

IS 9012 1978 Recommended Practice for Shotcreting

IS 3764 1966 Safety Code for Excavation Work.

IS 4138 1977 Safety Code for Working in Compressed Air

IS 7293 1974 Safety Code for Working with Construction Machinery.

IS 823 1964 Code of Practice for Manual Metal Arc Welding of Mild Steel.

IS 816 1969 Code of Practice for Manual Metal Arc Welding for General
Construction in Mild Steel.

127
 IRC:SP:91-2010

IS 1566 1967 Hard-drawn Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete reinforcement.

IS 817 1966 Code of Practice for Training and Testing of Metal Arc Welder
[Revised] .

IS 226 1975 Structural Steel [Standard Quality].

IS 456 2000 Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete.

IS 4086 1967 Methods of Tests for Distributors.

IS 1893 1975 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures.

IS 1200 1971 [Part XXV] Method of Measurement of Building and Civil

Engineering Works.

IS 1200 1971 [Part XXV] Method of Measurement of Building and Civil

Engineering Works - Tunnelling.

IS 1905 1980 Code of Practice for Structural Safety of Buildings.

IS 1256 1967 Code of Practice for Building Bye-laws.

IS 800 2007 Code of Practice for Use of Structural Steel in General Building
Construction.

IS 13365 1992 Quantitative Classification Systems for Rock Mass (Part 1 & 2)

IS 13372 1992 Seismic testing of Rock mass (Part 1 & 2)

IS 14436 1997 Resistivity of Rock

Indian Explosives Act - 1884.

Indian Explosive Rules - 1983.

Indian Mines act - 1952

Indian Mines Rules - 1955

PIARC Guidelines

Report of PIRAC Committee on Good Practice for the Operation and Maintenance of
Road Tunnels (CS) -2005

128

. ··:.""'
1:
J