Sheet Metal MFG

FUNDAMENTALS
OF
METAL
FORMING
Proprietary and confidential. © 2009 Perot Systems Corporation. All rights reserved. All registered trademarks are the property of their respective owners. 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING
• Overview of Metal Forming

• Material Behavior in Metal Forming
• Temperature in Metal Forming
• Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic

deformation is used to change the shape of metal work
pieces the tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed yield strength of metal The metal takes a shape
determined by the geometry of the die
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• For large quantities, economical mass production operations
are available
Stresses in Metal Forming
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
- Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
- Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
- Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
- Still others apply shear stresses
Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:

- Low yield strength and high ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
- Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when
work temperature is raised
• Other factors:
- Strain rate and friction
Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending
Basic sheet metalworking operations: (b) drawing
Basic sheet metalworking operations: (c) shearing
Material Behavior in Metal Forming
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest

because material is plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the
flow curve:
  K n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain

hardening exponent
• Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and
true strain
Flow Stress
• For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required
to continue deforming the material
Yf  K n
where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a
function of strain
Average Flow Stress
Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between

zero and the final strain value defining the range of interest
_
K n
Yf 
1 n
_
where Yf = average flow stress; and  = maximum strain
during deformation process
Temperature in Metal Forming
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
- Both strength and strain hardening are reduced at higher
temperatures
- In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures
Temperature in Metal Forming
• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower

forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
- Cold working
- Warm working
- Hot working
Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly above

• Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
- These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances

• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional
properties in product
• No heating of work required
Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required

• Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that
can be done
- In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation
- In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be
cold worked
Cold-working Processes
Major Cold-Working Operations…
 Squeezing
 Bending
 Shearing
 Drawing
 Presses
Squeezing Processes
Classifications of Squeezing Processes…
Cold Forging Staking

Rolling Sizing
Swaging Burnishing
Coining
Extrusion Hubbing
Peening
Riveting
Thread Rolling
Squeezing Processes
ROLLING
process used in sheets, strips, bars, and rods to
obtain products that have smooth surfaces and
accurate dimensions; most cold-rolling is performed
on four-high or cluster-type rolling mills
Squeezing Processes
SWAGING
process that reduces/increases the diameter, tapers, rods or

points round bars or tubes by external hammering
Squeezing Processes
COLD FORGING
process in which slugs of material are

squeezed into shaped die cavities to
produce finished parts of precise shape and
size.
Squeezing Processes
EXTRUSION
process which is commonly

used to make collapsible
tubes such as toothpaste
tubes, cans usually using
soft materials such as
aluminum, lead, tin. Usually
a small shot of solid
material is placed in the die
and is impacted by a ram,
which causes cold flow in
the material.
Squeezing Processes
SIZING
process of squeezing all or selected areas of

forgings, ductile castings, or powder metallurgy
products to achieve a desired thickness or
precision
Squeezing Processes
RIVETING
process where a head is formed on the shrank end of

a fastener to permanently join sheets or plates of
material;
Squeezing Processes
STAKING
process of permanently
joining parts together when
one part protrudes through
a hole in the other; a
shaped punch is driven
into the end of the
protruding piece where a
deformation is formed
causing a radial
expansion, mechanically
locking the two pieces
together
Squeezing Processes
COINING
process where metal while it is confined in a

closed set of dies; used to produce coins, medals,
and other products where exact size and fine
details are required, and thickness varies about a
well-defined average
Squeezing Processes
PEENING
process where the surface of the metal is

blasted by shot pellets; the mechanical working
of surfaces by repeated blows of impelled shot
or a round-nose tool
Squeezing Processes
BURNISHING
process by which a
smooth hard tools is
rubbed on the metal
surface and flattens the
high spots by applying
compressive force and
plastically flowing the
material
Squeezing Processes
HUBBING
Process used to form recessed cavities in various types of

female tooling dies. This is often used to make plastic
extrusion dies in an economical manner
Squeezing Processes
THREAD ROLLING
process is used for making

external threads; in this process, a die, which is
a hardened tool with the thread profile, is
pressed on to a rotating workpiece
Bending
Bending is defined as the straining of metal around a

straight axis. During this process, the metal on the inside
of the neutral axis is compressed, while the metal on the
outside of the neutral axis is stretched.
α = bend angle
w = width of sheet
R = bend radius
t = sheet thickness
α′ = 180° - α, “included” angle
Types of Bending
Two common bending methods are:

- V-bending
- Edge or wipe bending.
In V-bending the sheet metal blank is bent between a V-
shaped punch and die. The figure below shows a front
view and isometric view of a V-bending setup with the
arrows indicating the direction of the applied force:
Introduction/ Types of Bending
Edge or wipe bending involves cantilever loading of the

material. A pressure pad is used to apply a Force to hold
the blank against the die, while the punch forces the work
piece to yield and bend over the edge of the die. The figure
below clearly illustrates the edge (wipe)-bending setup with
the arrows indicating the direction of the applied force (on
the punch):
Springback in bending
When the bending stress is removed at the end of the

deformation process, elastic energy remains in the bent part
causing it to partially recover to its original shape. In
bending, this elastic recovery is called springback. It
increases with decreasing the modulus of elasticity, E, and
increasing the yield strength, Y, of a material.
Springback is defined as the increase in included angle of

the bent part relative to the included angle of the forming
tool after the tool is removed.
After springback:
• The bend angle will decrease (the included angle will
increase)
• The bend radius will increase
Following is a schematic illustration of springback in bending:
αi: bend angle before springback

αf: bend angle after springback
Ri: bend radius before springback
Rf: bend radius after springback
Note: Ri and Rf are internal radii

In order to estimate springback, the following formula

can be used:
where:
Ri, Rf: initial and final bend radii respectively
Y: Yield strength
E: Young’s modulus
t: Sheet thickness
Compensation for Springback
Many ways can be used to compensate for springback.

Two common ways are:
• Overbending
• Bottoming (coining)
When overbending is used in V-bending (for example), the

punch angle and radius are fabricated slightly smaller than
the specified angle and raduis of the final part. This way
the material can “springback” to the desired value.
Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the

stroke, thus plastically deforming it in the bend region.
Bending
- the plastic deformation of metals about a linear axis

with little or no change in the surface area
- the purpose of bending is to form sheet metal along a
straight line
parts manufactured by
bending
outside: stretched
inside: compressed
center of the sheet -metal is thinned somewhat at the bend

- where the material cannot compensate by the sideways
contraction of the free edges
Bending
The bending operation can be considered as a system

with six components:
Product/Workpiece
Equipment/Tool
Deformation zone
Interface
Environment
Die
Bending
Springback - the elastic recovery of the

material after unloading of the tools
To compensate with the

unbending action of the
springback, the metal should
be slightly overbent.
Bending
Wiping Die Bending

Rotary Bending
Double Die Bending
Bending
Classifications of Bending Processes…
Angle
Straightening
Roll Forming
Draw and Compression
Seaming
Flanging
Roll
Bending
Angle Bending
Bar folder
Bending
Press Brake Bending rubber
Bending
Roll Bending
• bending where plates, sheets and rolled shapes can
be bent to a desired curvature
Roll bending toll can bend plate up to 6 inches thick
Bending
Drawing and Compression
Drawing Bending Compression Bending

- workpiece is clamped - the bending form
against a bending form and remains stationary and
the entire assemble rotates the pressure tool moves
to draw the workpiece along the workpiece
across a stationary tool
Bending
Roll Forming
- involves the progressive bending of metal strip as it
passes through a series of forming rolls
• Any material that can be bent can be roll- formed
Bending
Seaming
- bending operation that can be used to join the ends of
sheet metal to form containers such as cans, pails and
drums
Bending
Flanging
-the process of rolling on sheet metal in essentially the
same manner as seaming
Variations of Flanging
Other bending operations include:

•Flanging is a bending operation in which the edge of a
sheet metal is bent at a 90° angle to form a rim or flange. It
is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal. The
flange can be straight, or it can involve stretching or
shrinking as shown in the figure below:
(a) Straight flanging

(b) Stretch flanging
(c) Shrink flanging
Variations of Flanging
In stretch flanging the curvature

of the bending line is concave
and the metal is
circumferentially stretched, i.e.,
A > B. The flange undergoes
thinning in stretch flanging.
In shrink flanging the curvature

of the bending line is convex
and the material is
circumferentially compressed,
i.e., A < B. The material
undergoes thickening in shrink
flanging.
Variations of Bending
Other bending operations include:

•Hemming involves bending the edge of the sheet over
onto itself in more than one bending step. This process is
used to eliminate sharp edges, increase stiffness, and
improve appearance, such as the edges in car doors.
•Seaming is a bending operation in which two sheet metal
edges are joined together.
•Curling (or beading) forms the edges of the part into a roll.
Curling is also used for safety, strength, and aesthetics.
(a) Hemming
(b) Seaming
(c) Curling
Bending
Bending
Dies used in bending Locking lever
Wiping table
54
Bending
Straightening
• also known as flattening
• opposite of bending
Bending
Roll- straightening/ Roll Leveling

-subjects the material to a series of reverse bends
-metal is bent back and forth
Stretcher Leveling
-sheets are gripped mechanically
Shearing
Aluminum - the mechanical cutting of materials
Brass without the information of chips or the
Bronze use of burning or melting
Mild steel
Stainless for straight cutting blades: shearing
steel for curved blades: blanking, piercing,
notching, trimming
Shearing
The Shearing process involves cutting sheet metal into

individual pieces by subjecting it to shear stresses in the
thickness direction, typically using a punch and die,
similar to the action of a paper punch.
Unlike cup drawing where the clearance between the

punch and the die is about 10% larger than the sheet
thickness, the clearance in conventional shearing is from
4 to 8% of the sheet thickness.
Shearing
Shearing between two sharp cutting edges
Shearing
Characteristic sheared edges
Roll over – depression made by punch in work prior to cuttinginitial

plastic deformation
Burnishing – penetration of punch before fracture began
Fractured zone – Rough surface – caused by fracture of metal
Burr – caused by elongation of metal during final separation of
two pieces
Shearing
Effect of clearance
Shearing
Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges. Typically used to cut large sheets into smaller
sections for subsequent operations.
Shearing
Punch and Die Sizes for Blanking and

Punching
For a round blank of diameter Db:
Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance
For a round hole of diameter Dh:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance
Shearing
Important variables of shearing are shown below
Shearing
The force required for shearing is:

F = S*t*L; where
S: shear strength of the sheet metal
t: sheet thickness
L: length of the cut edge
The shear strength S can be estimated by:
S = 0.7 * UTS; where
UTS: the Ultimate Tensile Strength
The above formula does not consider other factors such

as friction
Shearing
Examples of shearing operations:
In punching, the slug is considered scrap, while in

blanking it is the product
Shearing
Classifications of Shearing Processes…
Slitting Piercing
Blanking
Notching
Trimming
Shaving
Cutoff Dinking
Shearing
Slitting
- shearing process used to cut rolls of sheet

metal into several rolls of narrower width
used to cut a wide coil of metal into

a number of narrower coils as the
main coil is moved through the
slitter.
Shearing
Blanking
during which a
metal workpiece is
removed from the
primary metal strip
or sheet when it is
punched.
punch-out: workpiece
remaining strip: scrap
Shearing
Piercing
punch-out: scrap
remaining strip: workpiece
Shearing
Perforating- piercing a large Lancing- forms either a

number of closely spaced line cut (slit) or an actual
holes hole
Shearing
Notching
-same as piercing
- edge of the strip or black forms part of the punch-out
perimeter
Nibbling- produces a series of
overlapping slits/notches
Shearing
Shaving
- finishing operation in
which a small amount of
metal is sheared away from
the edge of an already
blanked part
- can be used to produce

a smoother edge
Shearing
Trimming
Shearing
Cutoff
- punch and die

operation used to
separate a stamping or
other product from a
strip or stock
Shearing
Dinking
-used to blank shapes from low-

strength materials such as rubber,
fiber and cloth
Introduction Basic Principles of Drawing
Drawing is a sheet metal forming operation used to make

cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other complex-curved, hollow-
shaped parts. It is performed by placing a piece of sheet
metal over a die cavity and then pushing the sheet into the
opening with a punch. The blank is held down flat against
the die by a blankholder.
Mechanics of Drawing
A blank of diameter Db is drawn into the die by means of a

punch of diameter Dp. The punch and die have corner radii
Rp and Rd, respectively. The sides of the die and punch are
separated by a clearance, c, which is about 10% greater
than the sheet thickness. The punch applies a downward
force, F, to deform the metal while the downward holding
force, Fh, is applied by the blankholder.
78
As the punch proceeds towards its final position, the

workpiece experiences a complex sequence of
stresses and strains as it is formed into its final
shape.
In step 1, the blankholder force, Fh, is applied and

the punch begins to move towards the sheet
material.
In step 2, the sheet material is subjected to a

bending operation. The sheet is bent over the
corner of the punch and the corner of the die.
In step 3, as the punch continues moving down, a

straightening action occurs in the metal that was
previously bent over the die radius. Metal from the
flange is drawn into the die opening to form the
cylinder wall. 79
In step 4, As the metal in the flange moves toward

the center, it is subjected to the following state of
stress:
1- Compression in the circumferential direction (the
outer perimeter becomes smaller)
2- Tension in the radial direction
3- A relatively small compression in the thickness
direction
Since the volume of metal remains constant, and
because the circumferential stress is relatively large,
the sheet will thicken as it moves in the flange area.
(this is why the clearance between the punch and
die is higher than the sheet thickness by about 10%)
In order for the material to be drawn:

1- Friction between the sheet material and surfaces
of the blankholder and die must be overcome.
2- Deformation energy should be provided.
80
The downward motion of the punch

results in a continuation of the metal
flow caused by drawing and
compression. Some thinning at the
cylinder walls occurs as well. Step 5
shows the completed drawing
process.
Deep Drawing Tooling
The next slide illustrates the deep drawing tooling.The

blank is placed between the die and the blank holder. To
center the blank and should make sure that it is touching
the two pins. The blank holder is attached to three
pneumatic cylinders which move it up and down and also
provide the required holding force (by controlling the air
pressure inside the cylinders). The punch is directly
attached to the ram of the mechanical press. Three guides
are used to make sure the tools remain concentric during
the process.
Deep Drawing Tooling
Blank holder Pneumatic cylinder (3) Guide (3)
Pins (2) Die Blank holder

Punch
Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The drawing ratio, DR, gives an indication of the severity

of the drawing operation: the higher the ratio, the greater
the severity. The drawing ratio is defined as:
Db
DR 
Dp
Where, Db = blank diameter and Dp = punch diameter. This

value is dependant upon punch and die corner radii, friction
conditions, draw depth, and material properties of the sheet
metal.
Engineering Analysis of Drawing
The drawing force required to perform a drawing operation can be

roughly estimated by the following formula:
 Db 
F  D p t TS   0;.7  where
D 
 p 
F = Drawing force
t = Original blank thickness
TS = Tensile strength
Db = Blank diameter
Dp = Punch diameter
Increasing the DR will increase the punch force, and this will result in excessive
thinning or even fracture in the cup wall.
DR < LDR ; where

LDR = the Limiting Drawing Ratio
Defects in Drawing
A number of defects in drawing can occur, which include:
(a) Wrinkling in the flange occurs due to compressive buckling in the circumferential direction (blank
holding force should be sufficient to prevent buckling from occurring).
(b) Wrinkling in the wall takes place when a wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup or if the clearance
is very large, resulting in a large suspended (unsupported) region.
(c) Tearing occurs because of high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the metal in the
cup wall. Tearing can also occur in a drawing process if the die has a sharp corner radius.
(d) Earring occurs when the material is anisotropic, i.e. has varying properties in different directions.
(e) Surface scratches can be seen on the drawn part if the punch and die are not smooth or if the
lubrication of the process is poor.
86
Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming
COLD DRAWING
• for sheet metal, it refers to the forming of parts
where plastic form occurs over a curved axis
• for wire, rod, or tubing, it refers to the process of
reducing the cross section of the material by pulling it
through a die
 A. Rod, Bar and Tube Drawing If the product
Rod or bar drawing cannot be bent or
coiled
conveniently,
Rod straight-pull draw
benches are
employed on finite-
Die length stock
Tube Drawing
• can be used to produce high quality tubing where the

product requires the smooth surfaces, thin walls,
accurate dimension and added strength.
Die
Die
Mandrel Tube Floating

plug
Die
B. Wire Drawing
• involves smaller diameter material
Carbide die
Starting stock in
coil form
Steel casing
Lubrication box Draw
Die block Back relief
Land
Direction
of travel
Back radius
Approach angle
Entrance angle
C. Spinning
• a cold-forming operation in which a rotating disk of
sheet metal is shaped over a male form or mandrel
Form attached to the
Headstock spindle
Follower held in
tailstock
Original blank of
Final shape sheet metal
Steps in
spinning
D. Shear Forming
Shear Forming or Flow Turning
• modification of the spinning process in which each
element of the blank maintains its distance from the
axis of rotation
• forms cones, hemisphere and similar shapes
tc will var with th e angle of the particular region according to to
the relationship:
tc = tb sinα Feed Roller
Feed
Finished part
tc
Blank Blank
Mandrel tb
Direct Process Reverse Process
E. Stretch Forming (Stretch-wrap forming)

• a sheet of metal is gripped by two or more sets of
jaws that stretch it and wrap it up around a single form
block
F. Sheet Metal Drawing
Shell Drawing
• earliest use was the manufacture of artillery shells and cartridge cases
Shallow Drawing
• the process considered when the depth of the product is less than its diameter
Deep Drawing
• the process considered when the depth is greater than its diameter
Shrink Forming Stretch Forming

•The circumference decreases as • the diameter and the
d1 the blank diameter is reduced from circumference increases,
d1 to the cup wall diameter d’1 with a correspoonding
since the volume of material must decrease in thickness
d’1 remain constant, the decrease in that can be the cause of
d2 subsequent service
circumferential dimension must be
compensated by an increase in failures such as
premature failure in
another dimension, such as
corrosive environment
thickness
d’2
F. Forming with rubber Tooling or Fluid Pressure

Guerin Process
• based on the phenomenon that rubber of the proper consistency, when totally
confined, acts as a fluid and transmits pressure uniformly in all directions
Rubber Ram
Forming Block Blank
High-pressure Flexible-die Process (Hydroforming or Flexiforming)
• the rubber pad is replaced by a flexible rubber diaphram backed by controlled

hydraulic pressures
G. Drawing on a Drop Hammer

• when small quantities of shallow-drawn parts are required, they can often be made
most economically through the use of Low-melting point metal dies and a drop
hammer
• dies can be directly cast eliminating the expense of machining operations, and when
no longer needed, can be cast into other shapes
Wood
shims
(a) Work (b) (c)

Die
H. High-Energy-Rate Forming
• process of forming metals through the application of large
amounts of energy in a very short time interval
1. Ironing> process of 2. Embossing> presswork
thinning the walls of a process in which raised
drawn cylinderby passing it lettering or other designs are
between a punch and die impressed in sheet materials
whose separation is less than
the original wall thickness
Tube Embossing
Punch Die
Die
work
3. Supeplastic Sheet Foerming> makes possible the economical

production of large, complex-shaped products with compound curves
>major limitation is low forming rate that is required to
maintain superplastic behavior
I. Designs and aid for shet Metal Forming

Strain analysis, Forming limit diagram
•Quick and economical way of evaluating the severity of deformation in a formed
part
•Major and minor strain=positive
140
>deformation is stretching
120 >sheet metal decrease in thickness
100
Major •Major strain=positive;
strain 80
(percent)
minor strain=negative
60 >deformation is drawing
40 >thickness may increase, decrease
20 or stay depending on the magnitudes
0 of the 2 strain
60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
Minor strain (percent)
Warm Working
• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but

below recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working often
expressed in terms of melting point:
- 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature)
for metal
Advantages of Warm Working
• Lower forces and power than in cold working

• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization

temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting
point on absolute scale
- In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5Tm
- Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above
0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this
level
Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far

more than possible with cold working or warm working
• Why?
- Strength coefficient is substantially less than at room
temperature
- Strain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically)
- Ductility is significantly increased
Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered

• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
- Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently
processed by cold forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to
heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
• Shorter tool life
Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly

plastic material, with strain hardening exponent n = 0
- The metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress,
once that stress is reached
- However, an additional phenomenon occurs during
deformation, especially at elevated temperatures: Strain
rate sensitivity
What is Strain Rate?
• Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of

deformation v
• Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other
movement of the equipment
Strain rate is defined:
.v

h
.
where  = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height
of workpiece being deformed
Evaluation of Strain Rate
• In most practical operations, valuation of strain rate is

complicated by
- Workpart geometry
- Variations in strain rate in different regions of the part
• Strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more for some metal
forming operations
Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress
• Flow stress is a function of temperature

• At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on
strain rate
- As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation
increases
- This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity
(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated
work temperature. (b) Same relationship plotted on
log-log coordinates
Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation
Yf  C m
where C = strength constant (similar but not equal to

strength coefficient in flow curve equation), and m =
strain-rate sensitivity exponent
Figure 18.6 - Effect of
temperature on flow stress
for a typical metal. The
constant C in Eq. (18.4),
indicated by the intersection
of each plot with the vertical
dashed line at strain rate =
1.0, decreases, and m
(slope of each plot)
increases with increasing
temperature
Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Increasing temperature decreases C, increases m

- At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost
negligible
• Flow curve is a good representation of material
behavior
- As temperature increases, strain rate becomes
increasingly important in determining flow stress
Friction in Metal Forming
• In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:

- Metal flow is retarded
- Forces and power are increased
- Wears tooling faster
• Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working
Lubrication in Metal Forming
• Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in

many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction
• Benefits:
- Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
- Better surface finish
- Removes heat from the tooling
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant
• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal

drawing, etc.)
• Hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Cost
Press
Mechanical Press - The ram is actuated using a flywheel. Stroke

motion is not uniform.
Press
Hydraulic Press - Longer strokes than mechanical presses,

and develop full force throughout the stroke. Stroke motion is
of uniform speed, especially adapted to deep drawing
operations
Press
Dies and Punches
Simple- single operation with a single stroke
Compound- two operations with a single stroke
Combination- two operations at two stations
Progressive- two or more operations at two or more

stations with each press stroke, creates what is called
a strip development
Dies & Punches
Progressive dies & Punches
Dies & Punches
Overview of Sheet Metal Forming operations
The various sheet metal forming operations are:

1. Blanking: It is an operation of cutting a flat shape from a sheet metal. The part
punched out is called the blank and the remaining sheet is the scrap. In the
blanking operation, the blank size is equal to the die size and the clearance is
added to the punch.
2. Piercing: It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made in the
sheet metal. In this operation, the hole is the required operation and the material
punched out is the scrap. In the piercing operation, the hole size is equal to the
punch size and the clearance is added to the die.
3. Notching: This is the cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the
edge of a sheet, strip or blank.
4. Trimming: Trimming operation is done to remove the flash or unwanted excess
material from the previously formed components. Special dies called trimming
dies are used for this operation.
5. Shaving: This operation is done to cut the edges of the blanked part accurately
and in maintain close and accurate dimensions. The shaving operation removes
the rough and uneven edges of the blanked part
6. Perforating: This is an operation of producing number of holes evenly spaced in
regular pattern on a sheet metal.
Overview of Sheet Metal Forming operations
Sheet Metal Forming

The various sheet metal forming operations are:
7. Bending: Bending is the creation of a formed feature by angular displacement of a
sheet metal work piece. In this operation, the material in the form of flat sheet or
strip is uniformly strained around a linear axis which lies in the neutral place and
perpendicular to the lengthwise direction of the sheet or metal.
8. Curling: Curling is the operation of forming the edges of a component into a roll
or curl by bending the sheet metal in order to strengthen the edges and to provide
smoothness to the surface.
9. Drawing: This is a process of forming a flat work piece into a hollow shape by
means of a punch which causes the blank to flow into a die cavity.
10. Lancing: Lancing is a combination of cutting and bending. It is the operation of
cutting a sheet metal through part of its length and then bending the cut portion.
There is no scrap in this operation.
11. Squeezing: In this operation, the metal is squeezed within the cavity of the die and
the punch to attain the desired shape.

Sheet Metal MFG

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FUNDAMENTALS

• Overview of Metal Forming

Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic

• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

• Desirable material properties:

• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest

where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain

• For most metals at room temperature, strength

Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower

• Performed at room temperature or slightly above

• Better accuracy, closer tolerances

• Higher forces and power required

Major Cold-Working Operations…

Classifications of Squeezing Processes…

Cold Forging Staking

process that reduces/increases the diameter, tapers, rods or

process in which slugs of material are

process which is commonly

process of squeezing all or selected areas of

process where a head is formed on the shrank end of

process where metal while it is confined in a

process where the surface of the metal is

Process used to form recessed cavities in various types of

process is used for making

Bending is defined as the straining of metal around a

Two common bending methods are:

Edge or wipe bending involves cantilever loading of the

When the bending stress is removed at the end of the

Springback is defined as the increase in included angle of

Following is a schematic illustration of springback in bending:

αi: bend angle before springback

Note: Ri and Rf are internal radii

In order to estimate springback, the following formula

Many ways can be used to compensate for springback.

When overbending is used in V-bending (for example), the

Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the

- the plastic deformation of metals about a linear axis

center of the sheet -metal is thinned somewhat at the bend

The bending operation can be considered as a system

Springback - the elastic recovery of the

To compensate with the

Wiping Die Bending

Double Die Bending

Classifications of Bending Processes…

Press Brake Bending rubber

Drawing and Compression

Drawing Bending Compression Bending

Other bending operations include:

(a) Straight flanging

In stretch flanging the curvature

In shrink flanging the curvature

Other bending operations include:

Roll- straightening/ Roll Leveling

The Shearing process involves cutting sheet metal into

Unlike cup drawing where the clearance between the

Shearing between two sharp cutting edges

Characteristic sheared edges