Offshore Book2

Chapter 7
Exploration in the Indian

Offshore Basins—Some
Challenging Issues Related
to Imaging and Drilling
7.1. SUMMARY OF STRUCTURAL AND PETROLEUM SETUP

OF INDIAN OFFSHORE BASINS
The varied tectonic history and the manner in which the development of
major petroliferous basins took place in the onshore and offshore realms have
given rise to diversity in basins along the East and West Coasts of India. It is
clear that both the Kerguelen and the Reunion mantle plumes had variable
impact with regard to the volcanism along the eastern and western margins.
Similarly, the India–Asia collision history and subsequent development of
Fan systems, the drainage pattern of major east flowing river system, resulted
in large variations in the sedimentation history and depositional style along
both these margins. These variations significantly impacted the development
of offshore reservoirs at the margins. While the reservoirs in the western
offshore are generally carbonates, in the eastern offshore, these are mainly
sands as seen in the comparative stratigraphic summary (Fainstein et al.,
2009) of these two areas (Fig. 7.1).
As discussed in Chapter 1, the sedimentary basins along the Indian off-
shore region can be divided into seven geologically defined segments such as
the Kutch–Saurashtra, Cambay/Mumbai Offshore, Konkan-Kerala, Cauvery-
Palar, Krishna–Godavari (KG), NEC-Mahanadi, and the Andaman–Nicobar
Islands. Such a division will help in planning the exploration programs because
of their distinction in terms of the geological history. In order to understand
the imaging challenges and drilling hazards in the Indian offshore basins, a
summary of the structural and petroleum setup of these basins (derived from
Chapters 5 and 6) is very useful. A comparative analysis of the basins will help
in the application of modern technologies to the effort of uncovering the
exploratory potential of offshore basins in India.
Developments in Petroleum Science, Vol. 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53604-4.00007-7

# 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 319
FIGURE 7.1 Comparative stratigraphy of western and eastern offshore of India as revealed from the Mumbai High region in west and the K-G offshore in the
east (adapted with permission from Fainstein et al., 2009 # AAPG conference) (modified after Jenkins, 1992).
Chapter 7 Exploration in the Indian Offshore Basins—Some Challenging Issues 321
The Kutch–Saurashtra basin lying along the west coast of Gujarat adja-
cent to Pakistan border defines the eastern margin of the Indus Fan. The
basin comprises a total sedimentary section of 7000 m ranging from
Mesozoic to Recent with main plays defined by Carbonate Buildups/Plat-
forms, Stratigraphic Pinchouts/Wedgeouts, and Structural Transpressional
rollovers (Biswas, 1982; Biswas and Deshpande, 1983; Satpal et al.,
2006). The Mumbai offshore basin runs from the area south of Saurashtra
and Gulf of Cambay to Goa along the west coast of India and is famously
known for the giant Mumbai High field located on a regional high
200 km from the coast off Mumbai. The Tertiary sedimentary section is
7000 m and ranges from Paleocene to Recent with play types such as Plat-
form and fractured carbonates, Reefal buildups, Anticlinal/fault-related clo-
sures, Wedgeouts against basement highs, and Tilted fault blocks (Biswas,
1982). The Konkan-Kerala basin lying between Goa and south of the south-
ern tip of India is a major frontier deepwater basin. The sedimentary section
is estimated to be maximum 5500 m ranging from Cretaceous to Recent
with basalt cover all over and is expected to be underlain by thick Mesozoic
prospective section. The major speculative play types are Structural Highs,
Carbonate Buildups, Turbidites, and Distal fans (Fainstein and Kalra,
2010). The Cauvery basin is situated along the south east coast of Peninsular
India off the coast of Tamil Nadu. The sedimentary section is maximum
8000 m thick ranging from the Jurassic to Recent with play types having
a variety of Stratigraphic traps (pinchouts, Wedgeouts, lenticular sands)
and several Structural Type Traps (Rangaraju et al., 1993). The KG basin
lying along the coast of Andhra Pradesh is another significant offshore oil-
producing basin of India, apart from the Mumbai High, and is the site for
several new oil and gas discoveries particularly in the deepwater areas.
The estimated sedimentary section is 7000 m ranging from Proterozoic
to Recent with play types such as Structural Highs/Fault Closures, Uncon-
formity-related traps, Wedgeouts, and Channel-Levee systems (Gupta,
2006; Venkatarengan and Ray, 1993). The NEC-Mahanadi basin lies along
the east coast north of Visakhapatnam off the Orissa and West Bengal coast
and covers the deepwater prospective areas of 85 E Ridge and the Bengal
Fan. The sedimentary section in the Mahanadi offshore is of the order of
5000 m ranging from Early Cretaceous to recent with major play types such
as Anticlinal/Fault-related, Wedgeouts, Carbonate buildup, and Turbidite
submarine fans. In the NEC region, the sedimentary section is estimated to
be more than 5000 m with play types as Canyon Cut/Fill, Channel-Levee
Complexes, and Turbidite submarine fans similar to the Mahanadi offshore
(Dehadrai, 1970; Maksoud, 2007). Finally, the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, lying along an Island Arc system, encompasses an outer-arc accre-
tionary wedge as well as the fore-arc, volcanic-arc, and back-arc basins. The
estimated sedimentary section in both fore-arc and back-arc areas exceeds
8000 m. In the fore-arc, the main speculative play types consist of Stratigraphic
322 Basin Evolution and Petroleum Prospectivity of the Continental Margins of India
Pinchout, Turbidite reservoirs (Bastia, 2006). The deeper lithology play types
consists of shallow water-rimmed platform carbonates. In the back-arc basin,
there are major inverted anticline structures forming large four-way dip closures
and three-way fault closures (source: DGH).
7.2. OFFSHORE EXPLORATION IN INDIA—CHALLENGES

AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS
Historically, the offshore geophysical data in India is comprised of regional
gravity, magnetic, detailed 2D seismic reflection, and refraction data as well
as few 3D seismic blocks. As highlighted in Chapter 1, subsequent to the ini-
tiation of NELP, several advancements took place practically in all segments
of exploration activity and made significant impact with regard to offshore
petroleum exploration in India. The role of modern technology is quite
impressive in India as the exploration and production (E&P) industry has pos-
itively responded to the changed environment after NELP. However, due to
large variations in the structural setup and depositional history related to
petroleum systems of the individual offshore basins, the E&P industry quite
often faces several challenges related to imaging, more challenging in the case
of exploration in deepwater areas. For example, the advent of advanced seis-
mic acquisition methods and the consistent utilization of conventional 3D
seismic data in the Indian offshore have improved the seismic resolution of
thin beds yielding for precise facies evaluation of amalgamated channel reser-
voirs in the deepwater slope realm (Bastia, 2007). In the areas of complex
structures and rapid vertical as well as lateral changes in the velocity field,
the Prestack Depth Migration (PSDM) is a very important image enhancement
tool in the offshore and future exploration in India shall be highly dependent
on such advanced techniques (Fainstein et al., 2009).
7.2.1 Imaging Issues in the Indian Offshore

In the Mumbai offshore basin, the Mumbai High and adjoining shallow water
regions present a wide range of geologic and geophysical challenges. The
presence of shallow-water multiples, fractured carbonates, shallow refrac-
tions, high absorption, and the complex basement structure make the seismic
imaging difficult. Multiples represent possibly the largest challenge in this
basin with velocity modeling being quite complex. The Konkan-Kerala basin
has seen several major attempts in data acquisition to understand the basin
through an overall improved resolution, larger bandwidth, and higher S/N
ratio; however, the sub-basalt events still show variability in continuity, pos-
sibly due to potential depth imaging and illumination issues. Possible solu-
tions to look into this problem could be 3D Wide Azimuth acquisition with
long offsets in order to preserve low frequencies for deeper penetration,
PSDM using MMT to constrain basalt thickness, and separate up and down
going waves to attenuate free surface multiples (e.g., Fainstein et al., 2012).
The perturbations in data quality associated with a nonflat sea surface could
possibly be tackled through rough sea deghosting. In the Cauvery basin, major
issues seem to be the basement imaging, multiple attenuation, and anisotropic
environment. In the KG basin, targets tend to be thin sands leading to gener-
ally higher frequency acquisition to ensure vertical resolution. The KG basin
exhibits extreme structural complexity and a huge array of fault types making
the velocity modeling difficult. Mapping of Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous
structures and understanding of channel-sands connectivity through seismic
attributes are other major challenges in this basin. The complex geologic struc-
tures and depositional regimes in the NEC-Mahanadi basin pose complexities
in velocity modeling. Accurate knowledge of pore pressure is important both
in exploration as well as in drilling. During the exploration stage, pore pressure
prediction can be used to develop fluid migration models so as to rank the
prospects (Sayers et al., 2002).
7.2.1.1 Data Processing/Prestack Time Migration

In the KG and Cauvery offshore basins, processing of high-resolution 3D seis-
mic data with Prestack Time Migration (PSTM) has remarkably improved the
resolution of deepwater thin sands. Application of multiple attenuation techni-
ques has benefited a lot in many areas. For example, the use of Surface-
Related Multiple Attenuation technique (SRME) is demonstrated (after
Mishra et al., 2008) for one of the 2D seismic line in Konkan-Kerala offshore
(Fig. 7.2). Specialized processing techniques are generally applied to attenu-
ate the water bottom energy and reduce noise after migration. In one of the
sub-basalt prospect areas of the Konkan-Kerala basin, Fainstein et al. (2012)
recently demonstrated that advanced 3D seismic data acquisition techniques
along with state-of-art processing work flow methodology will bring out
improved resolution of sub-basalt structural features (Fig. 7.3). Similarly, bet-
ter processing strategies would result in improved imaging of the subsurface
and enhance the signal-to-noise ratio (Fig. 7.4).
7.2.1.2 Depth Imaging

As the standard PSTM would not be able to handle significant lateral change
in velocities, the depth migration is performed. Depth migrated images can
significantly change our understanding of the deposition and structure which
used to be solely based on the time processing results. In the depth migrated
imaging, the positioning of the flanks may change or apex of the structure
could move laterally and hence is critical in the making or breaking of a
potential prospect discovery (Fainstein et al., 2009). Thus, significant invest-
ment could be saved due to an improved positioning of the exploratory well.
For example, the results from a depth migrated section show marked improve-
ment over a prestack time migrated section (Fig. 7.5) for imaging the sub-basalt
structures (after Fainstein et al., 2009).
FIGURE 7.2 Stacked sections from KK offshore basin showing marked improvement in
resolution: (A) before the application of SRME technique and (B) after SRME application (adapted
with permission from Mishra et al., 2008 # Society of Petroleum Geophysicists, India).
FIGURE 7.3 Results of 3D over–under seismic survey and special processing workflow for
imaging the sub-basalt structures in the KK offshore basin (adapted with permission from
Fainstein et al., 2012 # Society of Petroleum Geophysicists, India). Two successive cross-line
sections (top panel) and one in-line section (bottom panel) show several features such as sag
basin, faults, anticline structures, etc. below the basaltic top.
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
T
i 3500
m 3600
e
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700 A B
4700
FIGURE 7.4 A representative seismic section from Konkan–Kerala basin showing improvement in
resolution: (A) advanced processing and (B) conventional processing (adapted with permission from
Bastia, 2010 # Society of Petroleum Geophysicists, India)
7.2.1.3 Seismic Interpretation

The improved seismic resolution through application of standard PSTM and
PSDM algorithms yields a regional view of maps and prospective oil struc-
tures which greatly helps the modern seismic interpretation (Roberts et al.,
2008). The regional mapping of source patterns and migration pathways from
source rocks to reservoirs has been significantly improved. The offshore data-
sets are interpreted for key seismic horizons and the structural maps are pro-
duced as well as prospects outlined. Attribute analysis of the amplitude,
frequency, and phase is carried out along selected 2D lines or time-slices
within volume for the purpose of stratigraphic lateral facies distribution and
reservoir facies characterization (Fig. 7.6). Further, 3D seismic data provide
distribution of faults within the volume and with the help of isochron and
isopach maps, the basin reconstruction is subsequently attempted. Real-time
visualization of mapping and seismic attributes are now a days integrated with
modern deepwater drilling, completion, and production technology. Petrophy-
sics and Formation Micro Imager (FMI) analyses became extremely useful for
understanding the matrix porosity and permeability of carbonate reservoirs in
the Mumbai High region of western offshore (Rai et al., 2004) and for the
facies analysis and distribution of amalgamated deepwater turbidite sand
reservoirs in the eastern offshore (Thakur et al., 2010).
7.2.1.4 New Technique Synergies—Electromagnetic,

Magnetotelluric, and Ocean Bottom Cable 4C Methods
Conventional seismic and seismic reprocessing of vintage data has shown some
limitations in illuminating what lies beneath the basalts especially in the areas
FIGURE 7.5 Comparison of (A) PSTM time converted to depth section and (B) PSDM section
(adapted with permission from Fainstein et al., 2009 # AAPG conference). Note the marked
improved in the resolution of both Tertiary as well as Mesozoic strata below the basalts.
situated on volcanic passive margins and encounter the complex geological

situations argued for and against petroleum generation, migration, and entrap-
ment (Mishra et al., 2008). However, MMT in conjunction with high-resolution
seismic data may determine the basalt thickness and the sub-basalt Mesozoic
sediments below them. Advanced seismic data acquisition techniques, and Con-
trolled Source Electromagnetic (CSEM) experiments together may solve such
issues as known from the industry experience in the Konkan-Kerala basin.
2.5 km
200 ms
1088 m
FIGURE 7.6 Results of seismic data analysis in the KG offshore showing sinuous channels and
splays depicted through stratal amplitude slice of the horizon marked in blue in the seismic section
(shown in the inset) (adapted with permission from Bastia, 2007 # Technology Publications,
Dehradun).
CSEM is a tool that may extract resistivity which relates to porosity, permeabil-
ity, cementation, clay content, fractures, and fluid content, all of which are para-
meters required for modeling and seismic inversion. The complexity of several
areas poses a constant challenge that is tackled by combining diverse geophys-
ical synergies. Marine EM and Magnetotelluric (MMT) methods have great
potential for the understanding of the West Coast of India affected by the
Deccan basalts (Gorain, 2012). Accurate velocity models from the reflection
tomographic techniques (Chatterjee et al., 2012) and the 4-C seismic data are
useful in pore pressure prediction studies.
7.2.2 Issues Related to Logging and Petrophysics

Once the initial identification of prospective area is established from detailed
seismic data, the logging and petrophysical data will be acquired through
exploratory drilling which play a significant role in the hydrocarbon explora-
tion strategy. The method has evolved from simple wireline logging to LWD
(logging while drilling), and in this regard, the contributions of Schlumberger
in terms of the development of modern technology as well as its application
for solving complex geological problems are noteworthy. In earlier times,
the well data as well as core data used to have applications in facies analysis
and for the estimation of paleocurrent direction (Hardas, 1993); however, with
the fast growing technology, log analysis acquired significance practically in
all aspects of reservoir characterization. While the lithostratigraphy and facies
evaluation help to a great extent in refining the existing geological models, the
petrophysical interpretation further reduces the uncertainties of models. Fur-
ther, the borehole imaging is useful for fracture characterization. Petrophysi-
cal and formation fluid data are also important in rock physics analysis.
As discussed in previous chapters, most of petroleum production in India
originates from the Tertiary formations. Apart from few onshore areas, the
future focus of hydrocarbon exploration in the country essentially will depend
on the deepwater plays as well as the Mesozoic sediments underlying the Cre-
taceous basaltic rocks. Most of the deepwater prospects are combination traps
of structure/stratigraphy and their total volumes should be estimated by dril-
ling. The most important deepwater reservoir discovered in the KG Basin,
the Dhirubhai gas field discovery in 2002 is seen structurally through mapping
and stratigraphically through attribute analyses.
The conventional logging became an important tool in the exploration pro-
grams of almost all major petroliferous basins in India. The importance of
logging data for accurate knowledge of the subsurface can be realized from
the large number of wells drilled in two of the most important producing
basins of India such as the Cambay basin and the Mumbai High region. For
example, the high-resolution borehole imaging of drilled wells in the Mumbai
High region has helped to characterize the fracture system in the limestone
reservoir. We present here an interesting case study, wherein the high-
resolution logs integrated with petrophysical and seismic data helped to
resolve some major challenging issues with regard to the identification and
characterization of thin beds in the deepwater eastern offshore of India. In
view of many oil/gas discoveries along the eastern offshore and the potential
of thin beds as a major prospect zones, some background information related
to them and various methods of their evaluation are important. A detailed
description of the theory as well as workflow methodology followed for the
thin-bed studies in the eastern offshore is available in various publications
(Bastia, 2007; Bastia et al., 2007; Saxena et al., 2006; Tyagi et al., 2008a,b,
2009a–c; Deepak et al., 2012). Some excerpts from these publications are
briefly presented here.
7.2.2.1 Thin Beds as a Challenge

From the petrophysical point of view, thin beds can be defined as those beds
that are thinner than the vertical resolution of logging devices (Saxena et al.,
2006). Since each logging tool has its own definition of thin beds starting
from 2 to 4 in. sonic, deep resistivity to 0.5 in. in borehole resistivity imager
and the maximum vertical resolution of conventional logging tool is ~10 in.,
the bed having thickness less than 10 in. can be designated as thin beds for
conventional logs. In thin-bedded reservoir, the conventional logs average out

the petrophysical property of sand and shale layer due to lack of vertical res-
olution. So, the conventional log analysis in such cases leads to underestima-
tion of hydrocarbon saturation and hydrocarbon pore thickness. Therefore, in
the case of deepwater channel over bank system, proper characterization of
thin beds is always a very challenging task (Tyagi et al., 2008b). As the thin
beds contain nearly 30–40% of the in-place resources worldwide (Tyagi et al.,
2008a), it is extremely important to find out their true potential with minimum
uncertainty. Further, in thin sand–shale sequences, the hydrocarbon potential
depends on their thickness, mineralogy, sediment compaction, and resistivity
of pays. Due to the presence of conductive clays in between the resistive
hydrocarbon sands, electric current makes short circuiting through shales
(Worthington, 1997; Saxena et al., 2006) leading to low resistivity (Fig 7.7).
Figure 7.7 further shows that the conventional logs average the petrophysi-
cal property of sand and shale layers against the highlighted laminar interval, as
a result, the identification of thin beds using conventional logs is very difficult.
However, the resistivity image and resistivity anisotropy logs can easily iden-
tify the laminated reservoirs.
7.2.2.1.1 Identification of Thin Beds

Though the best way to identify the presence of thin beds is directly from the
conventional core data, as it is not cost effective, we need to evolve strategies
to find indirect evidences to confirm their presence. Some of the indirect
methods such as borehole image, NMR, dipmeter, multicomponent resistivity
logs, etc. would be helpful to identify and characterize them. Of these, the
bore hole image and multi component resistivity logs are the best to identify
and characterize the laminated reservoir. This can be realized in Fig. 7.8,
A B
25% 100 Ωm
25% 10 Ωm
25% 1 Ωm
25% 1Ωm
R R
10 Ωm 25% 100 Ωm
25%
25% 1 Ωm
25% 1Ωm
R = 1.82 Ωm R = 1.98 Ωm
FIGURE 7.7 (A) Core and Image Log over a thin-bedded interval in a well, East Coast of India (B)
demonstrating the lack of sensitivity to the characteristics of resistive reservoir layers in the case of thin-
bed sequences (adapted with permission from Saxena et al., 2006 # AP Energy Business Publications
PTE Ltd).
FIGURE 7.8 Signature of conventional logs, vertical resistivity, and image logs against thin
beds (adapted with permission from Deepak et al., 2012 # Society of Petroleum Engineers).
which shows fine sand and shale lamination in the conventional core (after
Deepak et al., 2012). While the image log shows the same and the vertical
resistivity (red color curve in track 3) also reads high compared to conven-
tional resistivity in this zone, it is not detected in the gamma ray and sigma
log (in track 1), conventional resistivity (blue color curve in track 3), and
neutron density (in track 4) logs.
7.2.2.1.2 Petrophysical Analysis

As mentioned earlier, when thin laminae of sand and shale are intersected by a
wellbore, the high conductivity of the shale leads to electrical current shortage,
and as a result, the hydrocarbon-bearing sand layers being more resistive may
not be detected. Two different approaches are adopted by all major petroleum
companies to resolve this issue as well as to verify the effect of the thin beds
for reservoir characterization (e.g., Tyagi et al., 2009). These are (i) thin-bed
analysis using the Image tools and (ii) resistivity anisotropy approach using
3D resistivity tools. The first method assumes each single sand lamination as
a separate reservoir unit and uses the resistivity borehole image log to improve
the vertical resolution of conventional logs in order to obtain the true petrophy-
sical property of sand and shale lamina. Whereas the second method adopts the
volumetric approach and uses the resistivity anisotropy data by considering the
bunch of sand and shale lamination as a reservoir unit. As the data processing
concept and work flow is entirely different for these two methods, it is important
to understand them separately in more detail. The methods are briefly presented
below (adapted from Tyagi et al., 2008a, 2009a,b).
7.2.2.1.2.1 Analysis Using Resistivity Image Tools For the purpose of

identifying thin beds, shallow resistivity tools with high vertical resolution are
useful. Generally, such tools are used for measuring the dip, orientation of sedi-
mentation, and in stratigraphic studies; however, they are proved to be quite
effective when we integrate them with normal logs for the thin bed analysis.
This approach originally developed and implemented by Alterman and his
co-workers is nothing but a process of sharpening the logs to the finest resolu-
tion with any of the log data in order to bring the true layer property. The work
flow is briefly described here (Fig. 7.9). First, the earth-model parameters in
both reservoir and nonreservoir beds are selected from the core data and logs
along with all available data from thicker intervals. Then, using high-resolution
shallow resistivity logs obtained from Formation Micro Imager, Oil Base Mud
Imager, or some other microresistivity device, the Scaled Synthetic Resistivity
Curve (SRES) is created which is useful for generating a lithofacies model
comprising of five facies such as sand, shale, silt, wet, and tight. After the input
Input Resampled and Depth matched SRES,

VCL, RT, GR, RHOB, and NPHI Logs SRES – Synthetic Resistivity
VCL – Volume of Clay

Log Squaring: Squaring of Logs with
respect to SRES RT – True Resistivity Log
GR – Gamma Ray Log

Facies Identification: Facies identification based
on Images and Vcl and other squared logs RHOB – Density Log
NPHI – Neutron Log

Optimiser: Constraining of logs based on
upper/lower limits for each log based on facies.
Itretive optimization
Output Squared Arrays of RHOB, NPHI, GR, and

RT to be used for processing
Processing of Log Data
FIGURE 7.9 Flow diagram for the Processing of Logs using Image Logs (adapted with permis-
sion from Tyagi et al., 2008a # AP Energy Business Publications PTE Ltd).
logs are squared, the SRES is used to generate an initial set of modeled square
logs for all the input logs. A new set of values for each curve belonging to each
facies are then assigned, but the facies transitions are determined by the squared
SRES curve. Then, the depth-matched model curves are processed in a con-
strained optimizer, which iteratively calculates the difference between the
squared model convolution and the original log by adjusting the square model
curve and recalculating the convolution/log difference. The lower and upper
limits for each facies are used for this adjustment. The macrofacies or volume
of clay (VCL) will also constrain the optimization. The finalization step takes
the optimized squared logs and reoptimizes with no macrofacies constraints.
One can also restrict the optimization process for a certain facies. For better
matching of the synthetic/convolved logs in that facies, the optimization process
can be restricted for that facies, which help clean up the model and assures that
the convolved square logs match the original depth-matched logs.
Limiting the above process to five lithofacies, and squaring and convolu-
tions limiting to deep resistivity (RT), density (RHOB), neutron (NPHI),
and gamma ray (GR) logs, the processing is run using the core-derived para-
meters and by calibrating the model at another well for validation. The pro-
cessed output using the above method in the case of deepwater KG Basin
(after Tyagi et al., 2008a) is depicted in Fig. 7.10. This method works very
well if the bed thickness is less than the vertical resolution of the resistivity
image log (approximately 1 in.). Below this resolution, the method has limita-
tion in that it leads to either underestimation or overestimation (Fig. 7.11) of
net pay (Tyagi et al., 2009c). In addition, since the output of this method is of
very high resolution, it cannot be directly used in geocellular modeling. In
order to address these problems, resistivity anisotropy method was developed.
7.2.2.1.2.2 Resistivity Anisotropy Approach There could be some sand

beds which are still thinner than the resolution of the image logs. The domi-
nance of low resistivity layers, in laminated shaly sand formations, pose pro-
blems in the log interpretation in conventional resistivity measurements. As
majority of the response is due to the shales, the sand layers consisting of
hydrocarbon will have little effect on the overall measurement. The conven-
tional resistivity in a laminated shaly sand formation for the sand resistivity
(Rsd) of 20 Ωm and the shale resistivity (Rsh) of 1 Ωm (Fig. 7.12A) shows that
as the laminar shale increases the resistivity decreases dramatically (Tyagi
et al., 2009a). This leads to large uncertainties in the apparent sand resistivity
even for relatively small volumes of laminar shale because the conventional
resistivity measurements are made horizontally into the formation. As the cur-
rent takes the path of least resistance through the more conductive layers of
the formation, the greater contrast between the layers poses more problem.
This problem has been resolved after the new-generation 3D induction
tools developed by Baker Hughes which measure both horizontal and vertical
resistivities of the layered formation. The theoretical formulations for the
FIGURE 7.10 Sample of processed volumetric data using the Image and Normal logs after
sharpening (adapted with permission from Tyagi et al., 2008a # AP Energy Business Publications
PTE Ltd).
Fine laminations of
sand are not captured
in image log and lead
to underestimation of
sand
Stack of shale
laminations appears as
thick sand bed on
image logs leading to
overestimation of sand
FIGURE 7.11 Issue of underestimation and overestimation of net pay by high-resolution image
log (adapted with permission from Tyagi et al., 2009c # SPWLA).
resistivity anisotropy have been derived and implemented by Gupta et al.

(1998) and Mollison et al. (1999). Making vertical resistivity measurement
is advantageous because the current is forced through all layers of the forma-
tion and is therefore affected by both components. Figure 7.12B shows the
changes in the conventional horizontal resistivity with the vertical measure-
ment with reference to increase in the laminar shale volume. Here, the sand
layers have resistivity of 20 Ωm and the shale layers have resistivity of 1 Ωm.
The tri-axial array induction tool measures the formation resistivity both
perpendicular (Rv) and parallel (Rh) to the direction of the shale–sand layers.
Using Rh and Rv as inputs in a bimodal sand–shale laminar model (Thomas
and Stiber, 1975) shown in Fig. 7.12C, we can obtain the two unknowns:
Rshale and Rsand as given below (after Mollison et al., 2000):
l The horizontal resistivity data (Rh) measures the horizontal shale resistiv-
ity (Rhshale) and the sand resistivity (Rsand) in parallel:

1 Vshale Vsand
¼ þ ð7:1Þ
Rh Rhshale Rsand
l The vertical resistivity data (Rv) measures the vertical shale resistivity
(Rvshale) and sand resistivity (Rsand) in series:
Rv ¼ ðVshale Rvshale Þ þ ðVsand Rsand Þ ð7:2Þ
20 20
18 18
16 16 Vertical
Resistivity
14 14
12 Conventional 12
Horizontal
Rt
10 Resistivity
Rt
10 Resistivity
Measurement
Electrical
8 8 Anisotropy
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Vsh-lam Vsh-lam
A B
50.0
C
Laminated Shale
40.0
Φpmaxmax
20
20
30
40
50
60
80
70
80
90
Φ Shale
30.0 ptsh
60 20
U
40
40
20.0
60
Dispersed Shale 20 80
pmin
10.0
Vshale ∗ Φ shale
0.0
−10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
YSH
FIGURE 7.12 (A) Theoretical response of a horizontal resistivity measurement in a flat, laminated shaly sand formation, where Rsd ¼ 20 Ωm and Rsh ¼ 1 Ωm.
(B) Theoretical responses of horizontal and vertical resistivity measurements in a flat, laminated shaly sand formation, where Rsd ¼ 20 Ωm and Rsh ¼ 1 Ωm.
(C) Thomas–Stiber cross plot indicating that most of the shale is laminar (adapted with permission from Tyagi et al., 2009a # Indian Association of
Sedimentologists).
l The sum of the fractional volumes of the two constituents (i.e., sand and
shale are the only two components of the model) is equal to one:
Vsand þ Vshale ¼ 1 ð7:3Þ
The above system of three equations contains five variables: Rsand, Rhshale,
Rvshale, Vshale, and Vsand. To solve this system of equations, the lambda
(Rvshale/Rhshale) which is shale micro-anisotropy coefficient will be assumed
to be constant throughout the evaluated interval and Rhshale is allowed to vary.
Once this coefficient is selected, the number of parameters is reduced to four.
The fractional volume of the laminated shale (fVshale) can be computed from
standard log interpretation. Water saturation can then be computed using a
bimodal approach used for resistivity evaluation (splitting the formation into
two constituents: one the sand reservoir with structural shale and the other
shale/silt laminae). Given below is the general workflow (after Tyagi et al.,
2009b) followed for the determination of Rv, Rh, formation dip, and azimuth
through inversion:
1. Estimation of reservoir true resistivity (Rsand) and shale true resistivity
(Rtshale) from Rv and Rh.
2. Estimation of laminated/dispersed shale fraction and sand porosity estima-
tion using the Thomas and Stiber (1975) method.
3. Calculation of water saturation (Sw) using reservoir true resistivity (Rsand)
and sand porosity as inputs.
4. Normalization of porosity with respect to total volume.
5. Estimation of gas saturation using sand porosity and Rsand.
7.2.2.1.3 Example/Case Study
In order to understand the hydrocarbon potential of deepwater channel-levee
complex system along the eastern offshore, a large number of wells have been
drilled spanning the area between Cauvery offshore in the south to Mahanadi-
NEC basin in the north. The wells have confirmed the presence of different
channels in the drilled intervals and show shifting of channel axis with time.
The wells have encountered thick (channel) and thin (levee) sands stacked
within the hydrocarbon intervals. We present here an important case study of
a deepwater well of the eastern offshore in which the resistivity anisotropy
approach has been found to be very successful for the characterization of reser-
voirs in laminated sand shale sequences (after Tyagi et al., 2009c). The proce-
dure followed by them along with final result is summarized below:
The well was logged using all conventional anisotropy, image and forma-
tion tester logs. Core sample is collected from the entire reservoir section.
Results of the resistivity anisotropy processing are shown in Fig. 7.13. The
analysis involves two reservoir formations, the upper sand1 and the lower
sand2. The log data correlation study indicates that both the reservoirs are
gas bearing, while sand1 is laminated, sand2 is a thick reservoir.
PHIE
1 v/v 0
PORFIL
0 v/v 1
VOl—MTX
GR PHIT_SS 0 v/v 1
0 GAPI 150 0.5 0 VOl—DSTR
SIGF RV PHIT SWT 0 v/v 1
0 CU 50 0.2 OHMM 200 0.5 v/v 0 1 v/v 0 VOl—DDIS
0 v/v 1
bit DEPTH RH NPHI PHIE SWE SWE PHIT PHIE
VOl—DLAM
6 IN 26 METRES 0.2 OHMM 200 0.6 v/v 0 0.5 v/v 0 1 v/v 0 1 v/v 0 0.5 v/v 0 0.5 v/v 0
0 v/v 1
CALI RSS RHOB PHIE_SS SWT_SS SWE_CAP PHIT BV_WF CBW
6 IN 26 0.2 OHMM 200 1.65 G/C3 2.65 0.5 v/v 0 1 v/v 0 1 v/v 0 0.5 v/v 0 0.5 v/v 0 0 v/v 1
S
A
N
D
1 1900
S
A
N
D
2 1950
FIGURE 7.13 Results of resistivity anisotropy processing and comparison with core data (adapted
with permission from Tyagi et al., 2009c # SPWLA) for a deepwater well in the eastern offshore.
The shale volume is computed from lithology log sigma. The porosity is
obtained from density and neutron logs which shows good match with the
core porosity. The shale distribution and laminar sand porosity have been
computed using Thomas Steiber cross plot. The laminar sand resistivity is
computed from horizontal and vertical resistivity (using Mollison equations).

Finally, the water saturation is estimated using Archie equation by taking lam-
inar sand porosity and laminar sand resistivity as inputs. The estimated aver-
age water saturation is around 10–20% in sand1 and around 5–10% in sand2.
A comparison of the water saturation obtained from the resistivity anisotropy
method and the saturation from the capillary pressure curves shows that both
are in good agreement.
7.3. DRILLING HAZARDS IN THE INDIAN

OFFSHORE—CHALLENGES AND MITIGATION
The tremendous pace at which the offshore exploration activity took place
after the initiation of NELP in India has lead to the delineation of several
new prospects as well as development of offshore oil/gas fields both in the
shallow and deepwater areas. As a result, the offshore areas of India witnessed
immense E&P activity. In the offshore areas, particularly in the deeper waters,
drilling and other related activities are very challenging and risky, as the
safety, suitability, and stability of drilling rigs and other subsea installations
should be taken very seriously (Bastia et al., 2010d). This gave rise to many
challenging tasks to the E&P industry in India while choosing an appropriate
drilling location to ensure safety during the drilling operation. All available
technologies have to be effectively utilized for successful mitigation of
hazards. On the basis of various drilling challenges in the Indian offshore,
and the application of latest technologies, two most important aspects that
pose severe threat to the drilling activity, such as the pore pressure prediction
and the shallow hazards, are dealt in this section.
7.3.1 Pore Pressure Prediction Studies

We provide here a brief insight about the methodology of pore pressure pre-
diction and present an important case study pertaining to the KG offshore
basin which is a major oil/gas-producing basin in the eastern offshore of India.
7.3.1.1 Importance of Pore Pressure Analysis

The pore pressure prediction is very important for successful completion of
the well at any location and helps to a great extent in understanding the pres-
sures in nonreservoirs as well as reservoir rocks. During the exploration
phase, the pore pressure analysis is useful to study the effectiveness of seals
and to rank the prospects (Sayers et al., 2002). With the tremendous pace of
technological advancements, the subsurface velocity information and various
geophysical attributes obtained from seismic reflection data are routinely
integrated with the high-resolution petrophysical and drilling data along with
the knowledge of geological processes for the purpose of carrying out accu-
rate pore pressure prediction analysis and to generate 3D pore pressure
models. Such an analysis is extremely useful and essential for appropriate

selection of mud weight, optimization of casing program, and for taking pre-
cautionary measures to mitigate the drilling hazards. As pore pressure-related
events have a huge economic impact, all out efforts are needed to avoid inci-
dence while drilling through successful pore pressure estimation. It is well
known that drilling rate improves as the mud weight approaches the actual pore
pressure gradient, so prediction of pore prediction will not only improve the
drilling rate but also lowers the overall cost of drilling. Further, presence of
gas can induce abnormally high pressure at very shallow depths, and this kind
of shallow gas presents significant risk while drilling. Pore pressure analysis
from seismic often helps to identify such zones and reduce the drilling risks.
7.3.1.2 Background Theory

When the pressure of a fluid column at any given depth equals the hydrostatic
pressure, it is considered as normal pressure. However, abnormal pressure
conditions may sometimes prevail at depth if the pressure of the fluid column
is either less or more than the hydrostatic pressure. Pore pressure is the pres-
sure of the fluid in the pore space of the rock, and as mentioned above, when
it exceeds the hydrostatic pressure, overpressure situation occurs. From mid-
twentieth century, several investigators have been carrying out studies to
understand the causative processes and mechanisms of generation of overpres-
sure in sedimentary basins. Swarbrick et al. (2002) came up with a compre-
hensive solution linking the generating processes of overpressure with the
stress and fluid expansion suffered by a compressible rock. Similarly,
Bowers (2002) suggested few other mechanisms that account for the abnormal
pressure generation in sediments, and according to him, the mechanisms
resulting abnormal pressure in sediments can be categorized into two types.
These are (i) compaction disequilibrium (Type I) and (ii) mechanisms other
than compaction disequilibrium (Type II).
The compaction disequilibrium (Type I) is widely regarded as the primary
mechanism of generation of overpressure in sedimentary basins and accounts
for most of the pore pressure-related problems worldwide. When the basins
undergo compaction, normally equilibrium is maintained between the rates of
sediment deposition and subsidence. However, if a layer of low permeability
(clay) prevents the escape of pore fluids at rates sufficient to keep up the rate
of increase in vertical stress, the pore fluid begins to carry a large part of the
load and hence becomes overpressured (Hubbert and Rubey, 1959). In such a
situation, the strata retaining more fluid in pore spaces act as an overpressured
zone over geologic time. Under the mechanisms other than compaction disequi-
librium (Type II), several secondary pressure-generating mechanisms can be
listed (Bowers, 2002) and these are related to (i) fluid expansion and (ii) tec-
tonic stress. According to Bowers (2002), all Type II mechanisms can be
referred to as unloading (fluid expansion), which means that expansion and
migration of trapped pore fluid occur after the compaction phase is over.
7.3.1.3 Methods of Pore Pressure Estimation

The general basis for all pore pressure estimation methods is that pore pres-
sure affects the compaction-dependent shale properties such as porosity, den-
sity, sonic velocity, and resistivity. The methods of pore pressure estimation
can be broadly divided into (i) direct methods and (ii) effective stress meth-
ods. The direct methods relate the amount a pore pressure-dependent parame-
ter (resistivity, sonic velocity, etc.) diverges from its normal trend line to the
pore pressure gradient at the depth. There are basically two direct methods:
the cross plots pioneered by Hottman and Johnson (1965) and overlays first
proposed by Pennebaker (1968). On the other hand, the effective stress anal-
ysis is mostly based on the effective stress principle of Terzaghi (1943), which
states that compaction of geologic materials is controlled by the difference
between total confining pressure and the pore fluid pressure. Several effective
stress methods (vertical, horizontal, and velocity-effective stress) are available
in the literature for the estimation of pore pressure (e.g., Bowers, 1995, 2001;
Eaton, 1972; Foster and Whalen, 1968; Ham, 1966; Miller et al., 2002).
A detailed description of all the above mentioned methods is out of scope
of the present book, hence not provided here.
7.3.1.4 Pore Pressure Work Flow Methodology

The pore pressure estimation is carried out by the industry in two broad
phases such as the predrill and postdrill. Before drilling a well, predrill pore
pressure estimation is carried out in order to help the well designing and cas-
ing plan. During and after the completion of the drilling phase, a real-time
postdrill pore pressure analysis is made to ascertain the formation pressure
at the location. Predrill pressure estimation heavily relies on velocities
obtained from the seismic methods which provide changes in interval veloci-
ties with depth. The input seismic velocities are mostly derived for imaging/
stacking processes. In the absence of any reliable offset well information,
accurate predrill prediction is very challenging. Rock physics-based pore pres-
sure modeling using such velocity dataset has inherent drawbacks, and hence,
the accuracy of velocity model is significantly important. In addition, these
velocity data do not have sufficient vertical resolution to identify and perform
pressure analysis. Hottman and Johnson (1965) first showed that log-derived
shale properties can be used to calculate the formation pressure by equivalent
depth method. With the advent of LWD tools, it became possible to calculate
the formation pressures in real time from resistivity logs while drilling. Wire-
line sonic logs, formation tester data, and the Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)
data help to calculate the accurate formation pressures after completion of the
well. Postdrill analysis of well is important because it gives the calibration
points to model regional pore pressure profiles. Lessons learnt from the offset
well data are a key input parameter for estimation of predrill pore pressure.
7.3.1.5 Case Studies from the Indian Offshore

Abnormal pressures occur over a wide range of geological conditions in the
Indian offshore sedimentary basins and pose serious challenges. The possible
cause of abnormal pressuring needs to be very well understood in order to
overcome this challenge. According to Law and Spencer (1998), compaction
disequilibrium is the dominant cause of abnormal pressure in younger
(Tertiary) deltaic sequences, while hydrocarbon generation, aquathermal
expansion, and tectonics contribute to the abnormal pressure in older (pre-
Tertiary) rocks. Rapid sedimentation rate, thickly deposited sediments, high
temperature, clay diagenesis, and deeply buried mobile strata favor abnormal
pressures in both the shallow and deeper parts of the basin. The Krishna–
Godavari offshore is a typical area of abnormal pressure occurrence along
the east coast of India which is characterized by the presence of thick sedi-
ments, high sedimentation rate, and deeply buried mobile shale strata favoring
the shale tectonics. This is manifested in the form of large extensional growth
faults in the shelf and upper slope regions, and mud diapirs and toe thrusts in
the deeper parts of the basin (Choudhuri, 2011). The basin has a proven ther-
mogenic petroleum system in Tertiary and Mesozoic, and biogenic petroleum
system in the Mio-Pliocene.
With high rate of sediment transport and deposition, overpressure zones
occur in the low permeable Mio-Pliocene and Cretaceous shales during burial
as a result of undercompaction. So, pore prediction analysis is of utmost
importance for safe and fast drilling as well as to meet the desired reservoir
depths. For this purpose, Chatterjee et al. (2012) carried out an exercise to
demonstrate the effectiveness of advanced velocity analysis for improved pre-
drill pore pressure prediction for a deepwater well located at a water depth of
~600 m in a High Temperature–High Pressure (HTHP) regime (Fig. 7.14).
According to these authors, the well was drilled to explore synrift sediments
belonging to Mesozoic age to a total depth of more than 4 km with two offset
wells A and B (Fig. 7.14) already drilled in the block with similar targets. In
the wells A and B, mild overpressure was observed in Mio-Pliocene sedi-
ments, whereas both reservoir and nonreservoir rocks belonging to Cretaceous
encountered considerable overpressure. According to Sayers et al. (2006), the
velocity obtained from seismic data has limitations for pore pressure predic-
tion as the sampling interval for velocity picking is usually very coarse and
may not invoke the geological events. However, Chatterjee et al. (2012) effec-
tively integrated the advanced seismic velocity information at the well loca-
tion for predrill pore pressure prediction analysis with the experience gained
at offset wells as a guide. The methodology is follows:
For well A, predrill pore pressure was predicted using dense prestack time
migrated (hand picked and stacked velocity) velocity data, while the postdrill
pore pressure was estimated using petrophysical log data (resistivity, density,
sonic with the VSP data). Considerable variation in the pore pressure is
Go
da
va
ri R
ive Well A
r
Krishna
River
Well C Well B
500 500
1000 1000
Sea Bed
1500 1500
2000 Cretaceous Top 2000
2500 Miocene Top 2500

Albian/Cenomanian Top
3000 3000
3500 Syn-rift Top 3500
4000 Well A 4000

Basement Top
Well B
4500 4500
5000 Well C 5000
5500 5500
6000 6000
FIGURE 7.14 Seismogeological section showing various stratigraphic units and the rifted base-
ment high in the region of drilled wells in KG offshore (adapted with permission from Chatterjee
et al., 2012 # Society of Petroleum Engineers).
noticed at the overpressure zone between predrill and postdrill plots

(Fig. 7.15). Thus, the well A information was used as a guide to predict pore
pressure for well B prior to drilling, but during drilling, a water influx was
observed in the pressure regression zone (synrift). Postdrill pore pressure anal-
ysis supported the presence of an overpressure zone in the synrift reservoir
(Fig. 7.16). In order to overcome this problem, in well C, high-quality veloc-
ity data were used (Inversion and AVO) for predrill pore pressure prediction
taking well A and B observations as a guideline. The pre and postdrill pore
pressure curves of well C are shown in Fig. 7.17. It was observed that there
was minor variation in the pre and postdrill curves both in top of overpressure
as well as in the synrift region (Chatterjee et al., 2012).
OBG Seabed
1200
FG Eaton
LOT
FIT
PP-Deff (Postdrill)
1440 PP Deff (Predrill)
1500
MDT
1680
Late Pliocene
Mid Miocene
1920
Late Eocene
2000
2160 Cretaceous
Depth (m)
2400
2500
2640
2880
3000
3120
B. Up Uncon.
3360
3500
3600
Basement
TB
3840
8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00
Well A PP-Deff (Postdrill) (ppg)
Pore pressure (ppg)

FIGURE 7.15 Pore pressure plot of well A in KG offshore (adapted with permission from
Chatterjee et al., 2012 # Society of Petroleum Engineers).
7.3.2 Shallow Hazards in the Indian Offshore Areas

Apart from the pore pressure problems related to the drilling activity
described above, another major challenging task in the offshore areas is the
identification of suitable locations for any kind of operation on the seafloor.
Safety, suitability, and stability of drilling rigs as well as other seabed instal-
lations are of paramount importance in any offshore exploration activity and
should be taken very seriously. There are many locations in the Indian offshore
which can give rise to potential geohazards and these need to be identified,
understood, and analyzed before venturing into deep marine operations. Geoha-
zards can be simply told as the seabed features or near-surface events that
OBG Seabed
FG Eaton
1440 FIT
LOT 1500
PP-Deff (Predrill)
PP Deff (Postdrill)
RCI
1680
1920
2000
2160 Late Pliocene
2400
2500
Depth (m)
2640 Late Miocene
2880
3000
3120
Eocene
3360
3500
Cretaceous
3600
Kick B. Up Uncon.
3840
Basement
4000
TB
4080
8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00
Well B PP Deff (Postdrill) (ppg)
Pore pressure (ppg)

FIGURE 7.16 Pore pressure plot of well B in KG offshore (adapted with permission from
create problems for drilling or seabed installations (Bonnell and Mullee, 2000;
Yahaya-Joe et al., 2000). High-resolution multibeam bathymetry data as well as
side scan sonar data are used to identify various sea bottom features. In addi-
tion, large number of 2D seismic profiles or the 3D seismic data (wherever
available) can be used for this purpose. From the 3D seismic data, a number
of seismic attribute slices are used to describe the features. Time slices are also
used to demarcate lateral extent of the corresponding features. This kind of
assessment is done on a routine basis to avoid problems while drilling, such
as a gas blowout or subsidence of sediments in the well, causing equipment
loss, in the worst case, loss of the drilling rig or human lives (Heggland,
2004). Depending on the regional geology, tectonics, and the sediment dispersal
pattern, the characteristic geomorphic features related to geohazards vary from
place to place. We present here various shallow hazards in the eastern offshore
areas of India with the main objective of presenting their characteristics as well
as their distribution (after Bastia et al., 2010d).
OBG (Postdrill)
FG Eaton
LOT
760 PP Deff (Postdrill)
PP-Deff (Predrill)
Influx Pleistocene Unconfirmity
1000
MDT
1140
Early Miocene Top
FIT 1500
1520
1900 Maastrichtian Top

2000
2280 Campanian Top

2500
Depth (m)
2660
FIT
3000
3040
Turonian Top
3420 3500
Albian Top
FIT
3800
4000
4180
Influx 4500
4560
4040
8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00
Well C PP Deff (Postdrill) (ppg)
Pore pressure (ppg)

FIGURE 7.17 Pore pressure plot of well C in KG offshore (adapted with permission from
7.3.2.1 Shelf-Slope Morphology Along the Margin

The topography shaded relief map of the Indian offshore (Fig. 7.18) suggests
that the eastern offshore is characterized by a relatively narrow continental
shelf and a relatively wide area comprising the continental slope and rise,
whereas the western offshore is characterized by presence of a wide shelf with
Ganges
Shelf
Shelf Mahanadi Delta
Slope
Godavari delta
Slope
Krishna delta
Cauvery delta Toe of Slope

Volcanic Highs
FIGURE 7.18 Topography shaded relief map of the Indian shield and its contiguous offshore
areas.
width increasing from south to north. The western offshore is prominent for
the presence of giant Mumbai High oil field in the north, where shelf is the
widest in the entire margin. The drainage pattern of major east flowing river
system of the Peninsular India brings huge amount of sediments into the east-
ern offshore and contributes to the morphological variations along the margin.
In the western offshore, except Narmada and Tapti, such major river drainage
system is characteristically absent. Further, the deep offshore areas of the
western margin are characterized by several isolated topographic features of
the Laccadive ridge complex.
7.3.2.2 Various Geohazards and Their Characteristics

7.3.2.2.1 Slope Instability and Slope Canyons
Slope instability is the most serious offshore threat on both local as well as
regional scale. The shelf-slope break and the toe of the slope are considered
to be important boundary markers between different depositional regimes,
and these can be readily recognized from the bathymetry map or slope map of
offshore areas. The steepness of slope causes more erosion as well as bypass
of sediments and therefore shows failure features. On the other hand, the toe
of slope is characterized by smoother seafloor and shows depositional ele-
ments. Attention must be paid to such features as they may pose risk
to subsurface installations or drilling equipments. Along the eastern offshore,
the steepest slope is noticed in southern part in the Cauvery–Palar basin
and the steepness decreases northward and becomes minimum in the
NEC-Mahanadi basin. Average gradient along the eastern offshore is about
0.5 in the shallow water area having depth less than 60 m, 1.5 to 2 between
100 and 200 m water depth, and increases further to 2.5 to 3 on the conti-
nental slope (Bastia et al., 2010d). Regional bathymetry map shows offshore
Gujarat is characterized by the presence of well-developed canyons.
Submarine canyons are the conduits for high sediment flows and strong
turbidity current, and their stability is mainly related to the seabed slope
angles and the canyon walls which modify in time due to dynamic processes
taking place in those areas. These are areas to be cautious for any seabed
installations as large mass of sediments flow through these canyons resulting
strong currents. This is evident from the events like the 1929 Grand Banks
and the 1971 Nice/Var canyon-related submarine cable breakages (Day,
2002). A number of deep canyons identified along the eastern offshore (Bastia
et al., 2010d) from the multibeam bathymetry and 3D seismic data are pre-
sented in Fig. 7.19. Steep walls of the canyons show scar marks related to can-
yon wall failure.
7.3.2.2.2 Submarine Channels

In the shelf-slope area as well as the deep offshore, a number of straight to
highly sinuous submarine channels have been identified (Fig. 7.20). The tur-
bidity current activity along these channels would be hazardous for any kind
of subsea engineering activities and therefore are important.
7.3.2.2.3 Mass Transport Complexes/Mud Flow

The deposits or features related to the submarine mass movement processes
like slides, slumps, and flows with plastic behavior can be referred to as Mass
Transport Complexes (MTCs), and these are generally represented in the seis-
mic sections by chaotic reflectors and transparent zones. The surface mor-
phology of these deposits controls the sediment pathways until it is
completely covered (Dykstra, 2005; Dykstra and Kneller, 2002). Kneller
and Dykstra (2003) observed that largescale MTCs can redirect the sedi-
ment pathways over hundreds to thousands of square kilometers of area on
the seafloor. Therefore, identifying such areas is extremely important because
they are hazard prone and any installation along their path can be affected.
The seafloor map prepared from the 3D seismic data shows the presence of
A yon
e B
Can
ine one Terraces formed due to
mar any
Sub
eC multiple slope failures
marin
M
A′
In ri
Sub
ud
te dg
rc e
flo
an
w
ud
yo
A
flo
T
w
Mud flow originating from T T
canyons
5x vertical exaggeration 10 km 10 km
5x vertical exaggeration
A A′
400 400
C C
C
C
C
C
800 800
FIGURE 7.19 Slope canyon systems along the eastern offshore. (A) 3D visualization of bathym-
etry from KG offshore. (B) Submarine canyons and slope failure scarps in a part of KG basin. AA0
is a section across the canyons shown in (C) (adapted from Bastia et al 2010d).
an active MTC in the KrishnaGodavari basin (Fig. 7.21), and the semblance
attribute extracted from this data demonstrates various features associated
with mass movements. Many such locations could be identified in the off-
shore areas only through detailed studies.
7.3.2.2.4 Sediment Waves

From the 3D seismic data, conspicuous wavy-shaped seismic reflectors are
identified in the deepwater eastern offshore area and these represent the sedi-
ment waves. These are commonly observed on submarine channel levees
(McHugh and Ryan, 2000; Normark et al., 2002; Wynn and Stow, 2002)
and formed in response to spillover and flow stripping from channels of
fine-grained turbidity flows. These can be related to active submarine flows,
therefore should be identified and characterized for hazard analysis. Sediment
waves have been identified (Fig. 7.22) from a number of locations in the east-
ern offshore from seismic sections, where they are either associated with the
channel-levee complexes or with mass transport complex areas (Bastia
et al., 2010d). Active sediment movement and remobilization are noticed
and could be hazardous to any sea bottom installation due to their significant
height and length.
N
A′
Sinuous Channel car
Slump s
Mud flow
s
el
ar
n
an
sc
Ch
p
um
us
uo
Sl
n
Si
ion
irect d
5 km
Flow
200 m 2200 m
A
A′
A Canyon wall
Sinuous Channel
1500 1500
Shallow High-
amplitude anomaly
Older channel fill
B
FIGURE 7.20 (A) 3D visualization of bathymetry in a part of Cauvery offshore area depicting
sinuous channels and straight channels. (B) Section across a sinuous channel showing high-
amplitude seismic reflectors which could be hazardous in case they correspond to shallow gas
charged sands (adapted from Bastia et al., 2010d).
Flow
direc
N tion
ction
Flow dire A
s
striations Slump scar
ar
sc
p
Irregular sea
um
canyon
Sl
bottom features
ar lts
canyon
sc au
tf
lump ar ru
s
S sc th
mp of
lu ion
S
e ss
pr
Im
Sea bottom
A 10 km
A′
Irregular mound-like features

A A′
Irregular sea bottom

3000
Canyon
Thrust fault
MTC
Basal surface Slump scar
3500 Top surface MTC

B
FIGURE 7.21 (A) Semblance attribute overlaid on a seabed relief used to describe the geomor-
phic features in the eastern offshore. Presence of slump scars and striation marks are characteristic
features of a mass transport movement. Block arrows represent different inlets for sedimentation.
The inset shows a zoomed feature of the sea mounds. (B) Seismic section showing irregular water
bottom formed due to toe thrust related to mass transport movement. MTC, mass transport com-
plex (adapted from Bastia et al., 2010d).
7.3.2.2.5 Shallow Faults

Shallow faults are smaller in size formed near the water bottom and are not
associated with any tectonic movement or seismicity. They produce steeper
scarps on the seafloor and can trigger slumps; in certain situations, these act
as failure surfaces along which a large mass of younger sediments can move
down. An interpreted depth section from offshore Godavari basin shows the
presence of shallow faults (Fig. 7.23). These could be interpreted as syn-sedi-
mentary listric faults associated with gravitational sediment loading (Bastia
et al., 2010d). Identifying such areas is important as any drilling or heavy sub-
sea installation in this zone can lead to mass failure.
High: –947.37 A
canyon
Low: –2222.94
A′
Sediment waves
Sediment waves
A A′
2025
2.5 km
2225
FIGURE 7.22 (A) Multibeam bathymetry map from deepwater Mahanadi offshore showing the
presence of sediment waves and a well-developed submarine canyon running from north to south.
(B) Seismic section (TWT) showing seismic signature of the sediment waves. As can be seen
from the section, each wave is having a length of around 1 km and height of 30–50 m which
describes the high energy associated with the formation (adapted from Bastia et al., 2010d).
L1000 L1050 L1100 L1150 L1200 L1250 L1300 L1350 L1400 L1

0
Fault scrap
100
Water bottom
200
Proba
ble slid
Shallow Collapse zone e surfa
ce
300
400
FIGURE 7.23 A depth section from shallow water region of Godavari offshore showing inter-
preted shallow faults. These faults can act as conduit for gas seep or planes for sliding and can
create hazard to drilling operations or any subsea installation (adapted from Bastia et al., 2010d).
7.3.2.2.6 Gas Hydrates

The gas hydrate regions are zones of potential slope failure (Kvenvolden,
1999) in the margins and therefore can pose threat to many seabed operations.
The primary parameters that affect the hydrate stability zone in marine envir-
onments are the water depth, the seafloor temperature, and the geothermal
gradient (Sain et al., 2011). These are generally stable under low temperatures
and high pressures (Kvenvolden and Barnard, 1983). The hydrate stability
zone maps for the Indian offshore have been prepared by several researchers
(Rao et al., 1998; Sain et al., 2011; Sain and Gupta, 2012). The presence of
Bottom-Simulating Reflector (BSR) sequence which is the main marker for
the presence of gas hydrates has been observed in the seismic sections in sev-
eral areas of the Indian offshore (Karisiddiah and Subba Raju, 2002; Mathur
et al., 2007; Ramana et al., 2009; Sain et al., 2011; Sain and Gupta, 2012);
Satyavani et al., 2008; Subrahmanyam et al., 1998) and helps in identifying
potential zones of gas hydrate occurrence. Few representative seismic sections
depicting the presence of BSRs in the KG offshore and the Mahanadi offshore
areas are shown in Fig. 7.24. Detailed analysis made using the seismic data
and shallow core revealed the presence of huge gas hydrate zone in the KG
offshore (Lee and Collett, 2009). The gas hydrate stability thickness map of
the Indian offshore areas is shown in Fig. 7.25 (after Sain and Gupta,
2012), and this map provides a first-order information of spatial and depth
domains of probable gas hydrate occurrence. Further, from the hazard point
of view, the region of gas hydrates could significantly reduce the submarine
slope stability (Nixon and Grozic, 2000), and sometimes may turn out to be
areas of potential geohazard particularly when shallow gas is present under
overpressure conditions.
7.3.2.2.7 Mud Volcanoes

Submarine mud volcanic activity may affect drilling operations, rig installa-
tions, and pipeline routings. The presence of mud volcanoes is reported
from both passive as well as active margin setting (Milkov, 2000). In the
KG offshore area, the presence of one such mud volcano region appearing
as a mound-like feature has been mapped from the 3D seismic as well
as multibeam bathymetry data. On a seismic section (Fig. 7.26), it repre-
sents as a vertical zone with transparent seismic signature and looks like a
pillar-type structure (Bastia et al., 2010d). The amplitudes within the pillar
have been wiped out with a mound sitting above it. The reflection-free zone
below the center of the mud volcano could represent the feeder dyke
(Graue, 2000; Stewart and Davies, 2006). Such features may affect the
stability of bore holes drilled for oil and gas production as the mud is asso-
ciated with poorly constrained pore pressure and fracture strength (Ebrom
et al., 2004).
Distance (km)
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
Seafloor
2.2 A
2.3 BSR
Time (s)
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Distance (km)
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
2.2 B
Seafloor
2.3
BSR
Time (s)
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
NGHP-01-10
1.2 India 1 km
C
Study area
Shallow debris flow?
1.4
Seismic Section
Two-way time (s)
1.6
1.8
Free-gas?
2.0
BSR
Distance (km)
FIGURE 7.24 Seismic sections showing the presence of bottom simulating reflector (BSR)
(A) in Mahanadi offshore and (B) in KG offshore. (C) Presence of gas hydrate in 120-m-thick
fractured shale in KG offshore (adapted from Sain and Gupta, 2012).
7.3.2.2.8 Pockmarks
The concave, crater-like depressions on the seabed associated with the release
of gas or fluids from the subsurface can be termed as pockmarks (Hovland
and Judd, 1988; King and MacLean, 1970). These are generally formed in
soft, fine-grained seabed sediments and represent an important global
65° 70° 75° 80° 85° 90° 95° meter
700
EEZ BOUNDARY
650
Paradip 600
20° 20°
Mumbai INDIA 550
Visakapatnam 500
Kakinada
450
Latitude (∞N)
Marmugao
15° 15° 400
Chennai
Mangalore
350
Pondicherry 300
Calicut
Nagapatinam
10° Cochin 10° 250
200
150
100
5° 5°
50
0
65° 70° 75° 80° 85° 90° 95°

Longitude (∞E)
FIGURE 7.25 Gas hydrate stability thickness map for the Indian offshore area (adapted from
Sain and Gupta, 2012) showing prospective zones of gas hydrate occurrence (shown by circle,
oval, and square symbols). Mn, Mahanadi; Am, Andaman; KG, Krishna–Godavari; C, Cauvery;
KL, Kerala-Laccadive; KK, Kerala-Konkan; S, Saurashtra.
mechanism for degassing deeply buried sediments thereby contributing signif-

icantly methane into the atmosphere (Judd, 2005; Kvenvolden and Rogers,
2005). The high backscatter values from the calcareous material over these
features help to identify them in the multibeam bathymetry. Significant pres-
ence of pockmarks at number of locations in the eastern as well as western
offshore is noticed in high-resolution multibeam bathymetry dataset and few
such areas are presented here (Figs. 7.27). Along the western offshore, starting
from the Kerala–Konkan in the south to the Kutch offshore in north, pock-
marks of various size and shape have been noticed. Presence of such dense
cluster of pockmarks could be dangerous if they are active and hence detailed
studies are required.
7.3.2.2.9 Gas Chimney

The upward migration of gas from the deeper parts gives rise to gas
chimneys and causes problems during drilling (Heggland, 2004). The gas
is transported upward along with the migrating pore water and forms an
inverted cone shape characterized by low amplitude. Bastia et al. (2010d)
identified one such area characterizing the presence of gas chimney in the
offshore KG basin. The high-amplitude anomalies identified near to the
gas chimney indicate probable gas charge along the fault. For this reason,
A A′
3000
Time Slice
MV
BSR
4000
A
5000
Concentric fault due

to subsidence
A A′
MV
Radiating fault
B
1 km
Time slice at 3428 ms
FIGURE 7.26 (A) Reflection strength extracted along a seismic section in the KG offshore
showing that white-colored plume-shaped feature corresponds to loss of amplitude zone which
is identified as the mud volcano. At around 3500 ms, a seismic reflector cross-cutting other reflec-
tors is interpreted to be a BSR. (B) Time slice of coherency attribute showing the mud volcano
and related features. In the time slice, the circular feature depicts the mud volcano (adapted from
Bastia et al., 2010d).
A B
Pockmarks
Mud Volcano
A⬘
A
D
C
A⬘ pockmark
A
Pockmarks
2.5 km
FIGURE 7.27 Backscatter image overlaid on multibeam bathymetry data from deepwater area of Krishna basin shows identified mud volcanoes and pockmarks
in the area. (A) Two topographic positive mounds interpreted as mud volcanoes are circled. Small depressions on sea bottom (in B and C) are interpreted as pock
marks (adapted from Bastia et al., 2010d). In (D), the multibeam bathymetry in KK offshore is shown which reveals the presence of a large mound and the section
below shows its association with a fault (adapted from Mahapatra et al., 2008).
22° INDIA INDIA
21° i 13°
ha nad
C- Ma
NE
ar
Pal
20°
y-
12°
ver
19°
Cau
18°
50 km
84° 85° 86° 87° 88° 89° 11°
17° INDIA
50 km
ari
av
od 10°
16° a-G 79° 80° 81°
ishn
Kr
Topography (m) Sediment Waves
15° Bathymetry (m) Mud flow /

Mass transport complex
Potential Gas Hydrate Mud Volcano / Pockmarks
Shallow Faults
14° Submarine Canyon
Slope failure mass
50 km
Gas Chimney
80° 81° 82° 83°

FIGURE 7.28 Map summarizing the identified marine geohazards along the eastern offshore areas (adapted from Bastia et al., 2010d).
amplitude maps are prepared to identify the anomalous areas representative

of shallow gas accumulations as well as faults. As these are areas of active
gas seepage, one should be cautious for undertaking drilling activity.
A summary of various geohazards identified in the eastern offshore areas
is presented in Fig. 7.28. Shallow core analysis would be more useful for a
detailed understanding of these features. Further, the above results do not rule
out the presence of any other type of geohazards and more data will be
required to properly characterize them.

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Chapter 7

Exploration in the Indian

7.1. SUMMARY OF STRUCTURAL AND PETROLEUM SETUP

Developments in Petroleum Science, Vol. 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53604-4.00007-7

7.2. OFFSHORE EXPLORATION IN INDIA—CHALLENGES

7.2.1 Imaging Issues in the Indian Offshore

7.2.1.1 Data Processing/Prestack Time Migration

7.2.1.2 Depth Imaging

7.2.1.3 Seismic Interpretation

7.2.1.4 New Technique Synergies—Electromagnetic,

situated on volcanic passive margins and encounter the complex geological

7.2.2 Issues Related to Logging and Petrophysics

7.2.2.1 Thin Beds as a Challenge

conventional logs. In thin-bedded reservoir, the conventional logs average out

7.2.2.1.1 Identification of Thin Beds

7.2.2.1.2 Petrophysical Analysis

7.2.2.1.2.1 Analysis Using Resistivity Image Tools For the purpose of

Input Resampled and Depth matched SRES,

VCL – Volume of Clay

GR – Gamma Ray Log

NPHI – Neutron Log

Output Squared Arrays of RHOB, NPHI, GR, and

Processing of Log Data

7.2.2.1.2.2 Resistivity Anisotropy Approach There could be some sand

resistivity anisotropy have been derived and implemented by Gupta et al.

computed from horizontal and vertical resistivity (using Mollison equations).

7.3. DRILLING HAZARDS IN THE INDIAN

7.3.1 Pore Pressure Prediction Studies

7.3.1.1 Importance of Pore Pressure Analysis

models. Such an analysis is extremely useful and essential for appropriate

7.3.1.2 Background Theory

7.3.1.3 Methods of Pore Pressure Estimation

7.3.1.4 Pore Pressure Work Flow Methodology

7.3.1.5 Case Studies from the Indian Offshore

2000 Cretaceous Top 2000

2500 Miocene Top 2500

3500 Syn-rift Top 3500

4000 Well A 4000

5000 Well C 5000

noticed at the overpressure zone between predrill and postdrill plots

Pore pressure (ppg)

7.3.2 Shallow Hazards in the Indian Offshore Areas

2160 Late Pliocene

2640 Late Miocene

Pore pressure (ppg)

1900 Maastrichtian Top

2280 Campanian Top

Pore pressure (ppg)

7.3.2.1 Shelf-Slope Morphology Along the Margin

Cauvery delta Toe of Slope

7.3.2.2 Various Geohazards and Their Characteristics

7.3.2.2.2 Submarine Channels

7.3.2.2.3 Mass Transport Complexes/Mud Flow

7.3.2.2.4 Sediment Waves

Irregular mound-like features

Irregular sea bottom

3500 Top surface MTC

7.3.2.2.5 Shallow Faults

L1000 L1050 L1100 L1150 L1200 L1250 L1300 L1350 L1400 L1

7.3.2.2.6 Gas Hydrates