CEE 4361

Fluid Mechanics

Flow Through Pipes

Nafisa Islam,
Lecturer, CEE, IUT
TOPICS
• Pipe flow
• Reynold’s number
• Types of flow
• Characteristics of different flow types
• Velocity distribution in different types of flow
• Head loss
• Frictional head loss determination

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

PIPE FLOW
• Pipes are commonly understood to be conduits of circular cross-
section which flow full and the flow is under pressure.
• Pipe flow can be of two types.
• In some pipe flows, the pipe flows full and the flow remains
under pressure.
Ex. city water and gas main which flow occurs under pressure.
• In some other pipe flows, the pipe does not flow full and the
flow is not under pressure.
Ex. sewer pipes, drainage tiles and culverts.
• Viscous flow pervades the entire flow.
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
PIPE FLOW

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

PIPE FLOW

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
• Depending on viscosity, flow can be of two types: laminar and turbulent.
• The limiting conditions to determine laminar or turbulent flow were
first investigated by Osborne Reynolds in 1883. Reynolds apparatus
consists of two tanks containing water and dye. A horizontal glass tube
is fitted to the tank through which water can flow. The flow through
the glass tube can be regulated by adjusting the regulating valve.
REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

REYNOLDS NUMBER
After many experiments, Reynolds showed that, there is a dimensionless
ratio of flow parameters which can predict the change in flow types. This
dimensionless number is known as Reynolds Number. It is represented as
Re.

ρ𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
Re = = =
µ µ/ρ ν
In a circular pipe –
• the flow will be laminar, if Re < 2000
• The flow will be turbulent, if Re > 4000
• The flow will be transitional, if 2000 < Re < 4000

▪ Re (converging pipe) > Re (straight pipe) > Re (diverging pipe)

▪ Re (straight pipe) > Re (curved pipe)
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
 TYPES OF FLOW
• If a fine thread of dye carried by the
flowing water is observed, then it is a laminar
flow.
• The velocity of flow at which the dye thread
starts becoming irregular is known as the
lower critical velocity (true critical Reynolds
number).
• The velocity at which the whole dye thread is
diffused, is known as the upper critical
velocity.
• Beyond the upper critical velocity the dye
will fully mix up with water and show violent
mixing. Such a how is known as turbulent
flow.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Laminar flow

Turbulent
flow
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Part of a water
body can be both
laminar or
turbulent.

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

CHARACTERISTICS OF LAMINAR FLOW
• Velocity of flow is small and viscous forces are predominant.
• It is smooth and regular, and thus also known as stream line flow.
• There is practically no influence of fluid particles of one layer
over those of the adjacent layers. Diffusion or mixing at
molecular level may occur, but macroscopic movement of fluid
elements from one layer to another does not occur.
• Velocity at any point remains nearly constant in magnitude and
direction.
• Frictional resistance is proportional to the mean velocity of flow.
• Stagnant rivers and canals, blood streams inside body etc. are a
prominent example of laminar flow.
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBULENT FLOW
• The fluid particles no longer move in layers or laminas.
• Violent mixing of fluid particles takes place due to which they
move in chaotic or random manner. As a result, velocity at any
point varies both in magnitude and direction.
• Diffusion occur both in molecular level and from instant to instant.
• Fluctuations occur in wide spectrum.
• Frictional resistance is proportional to the square of the mean
velocity of flow.
• All cases of engineering importance are in the turbulent flow
region. But if the fluid is a viscous oil, then laminar flow is often
encountered.
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL):
A hydraulic grade line (HGL) can be drawn to show the variation of the piezometric head. The
distance from the centerline of the pipe to the HGL is the pressure head.
Energy Grade Line (EGL):
An energy grade line (EGL) shows the variation of the total head. Since the difference between
the total head and the piezometric head is the velocity head, the distance between the EGL and
HGL is also the velocity head.
 Hydraulic Radius (Rh)
For conduits having non-circular cross section, some value
other than the diameter must be used for the linear dimension
in the Reynolds number. Such a characteristic is the hydraulic
𝐴
radius, defined as Rh =
𝑃
Here, A = cross-sectional area of the flowing fluid, P = wetted
perimeter
π 2
𝐴 𝐷 𝐷 𝑟
For a circular pipe flowing full, Rh = = 4
= =
𝑃 π𝐷 4 2

• Rh is not the radius of the pipe.

• It is used to express the shape as well as size of the
conduit.
• For evaluating Re in a non-circular conduit, it is customary to
substitute 4Rh for D. Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
HEAD LOSS FOR
TURBULENT FLOW
(DARCY-WEISBACH
AND FANNING’S
EQUATION)
Fanning’s Equation
 Applicable for determining
head loss for turbulent
flow in a circular conduit

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

LIMITATION OF DARCY - WEISBACH EQUATION

1. The loss of head with turbulent flow varies not only as the
square of the mean velocity, but as some power varying from
1.7 to 2 or more depending on the roughness of pipe. This
discrepancy must be taken care of by varying the value of f.
For laminar flow, the loss of head varies as the first power of
the mean velocity.
2. Since V = Q/A = Q/(πd2/4), for a given Q, f and L, the loss of
head by the Darcy-Weisbach formula varies inversely as the
fifth power of the diameter. Tests have shown the actual
variation is closer to the 5.25 power and that the exponent of
the d of the formula should be close to 1.25. Again, the
discrepancy is taken care of by varying the value of f.
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
HEAD LOSS FOR LAMINAR FLOW (HAZEN-POISEUILLE EQUATION)
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
FRICTIONAL LOSS IN TURBULENT FLOW

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

VELOCITY PROFILE IN LAMINAR FLOW

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity. Because of the no-slip
condition, the fluid particles in the layer in contact with the surface of the pipe come to a
complete stop. This layer also causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers to slow down
gradually as a result of friction. To make up for this velocity reduction, the velocity of the
fluid at the midsection of the pipe has to increase to keep the mass flow rate through the
pipe constant. As a result, a velocity gradient develops along the pipe.
The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid
viscosity are felt is called the boundary layer. The hypothetical boundary surface divides the
flow in a pipe into two regions: the boundary layer region, in which the viscous effects and
the velocity changes are significant, and the irrotational (core) flow region, in which the
frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant.
The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow direction until the boundary layer
reaches the pipe center and thus fills the entire pipe. The region from the pipe inlet to the
point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline is called the hydrodynamic
entrance region, and the length of this region is called the hydrodynamic entry length. Flow
in the entrance region is called hydrodynamically developing flow since this is the region
where the velocity profile develops. The region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully
developed region.
VELOCITY PROFILE IN TURBULENT FLOW

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

VELOCITY PROFILE IN LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Ratio of the average to

maximum velocity
(V/Vc) in a pipe of
circular cross-section in
turbulent flow

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

FRICTIONAL
HEAD LOSS
IN LAMINAR
FLOW
FRICTIONAL HEAD LOSS IN LAMINAR FLOW

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

THICKNESS OF LAMINAR SUBLAYER
Even in turbulent flow there exists next to the wall of the pipe a very thin layer in which the flow is
laminar. This layer is known as the laminar or viscous sublayer. The thickness of this layer is given by
HYDRAULICALLY SMOOTH AND ROUGH WALL
A pipe is said to be hydraulically smooth if the height of the roughness elements
is less than the thickness of the laminar sublayer (k < ), i.e. the roughness
elements are well covered by the laminar sublayer. Here, the effect of
irregularities or projections extend beyond the sublayer.
  > 6k
If the height of the roughness elements are greater than the thickness of the
laminar sublayer (k > ), their presence affects the amount of turbulence and the
pipe is said to be hydraulically rough.
  < 0.3k
In between these values, the pipe will behave in a transitional mode, that is,
neither hydraulically smooth nor wholly rough.
 6k >  < 0.3k
As the height of the roughness elements k increases or the thickness of the
laminar sublayer decreases with increasing Reynolds number, the turbulence
increases to a maxima level at which it is said to be "fully developed".
HYDRAULICALLY SMOOTH AND ROUGH WALL
FRICTION FACTOR

For laminar flow

For turbulent flow up to Re = 105

For turbulent flow and smooth pipes

For turbulent flow and rough pipes

For turbulent flow in neither smooth nor rough pipes

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
OTHER PIPE FORMULAS

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT

LOSS OF HEAD
Head loss is caused by –
i) Pipe friction along the straight sections of pipe of uniform
diameter and uniform roughness,
ii) Changes in velocity or direction of flow.

Losses of these types are ordinarily referred to as Major loss and

minor loss.

Major loss: This is a continuous loss of head, hf, assumed to occur at

a uniform rate along the pipe as long as the size and quality of pipe
remains constant, and is commonly referred to as the loss of head
due to pipe friction.
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
LOSS OF HEAD
Minor Losses: These consist of
1. A loss of head, hc, due to contraction of cross-section. This loss is
caused by a reduction in cross-sectional area of the stream and
resulting increase in velocity.
2. A loss of head, he, due to enlargement of cross-section. This loss
is caused by an increase in cross-sectional area of the stream and
resulting decrease in velocity.
3. A loss of head, hg, caused by an obstruction such as gates or valves
which produces a change in cross-sectional area in the pipe or in
the direction of flow.
4. A loss of head, hb, caused by bends or curves in pipes.
Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
LOSS OF HEAD

Fig. Minor losses in pipe systems

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT
Head loss due to sudden contraction
𝑉22
hc = kc (value of kc is given in Table 8.2)
2𝑔

Head loss due to at entrance

Here, D2/D1 = 0
𝑉22
hc = kc
2𝑔

Head loss due to gradual contraction

𝑉22
hc = kc (generally, for 20°- 40° angle, kc = 0.1)
2𝑔
Nozzle at pipe end is a special case of gradual contraction.
Here, kc = 0.04 - 0.2.
In all of these cases, loss occurs after the fluid enters the pipe.
Therefore, V = V2.
Head loss due to sudden expansion
𝑉12 − 𝑉22
he = ke (ke = 1)
2𝑔
Head loss due to at submerged discharge

It occurs after the fluid leaves the pipe. Here, V2 = 0

𝑉12
hc = ke
2𝑔
Head loss due to gradual expansion
𝑉12 − 𝑉22
he = ke (value of ke is given in Figure 8.2)
2𝑔
Head loss due to bends and elbows
𝑉2
hb = kb
2𝑔
for 90° bend, kb = k90 = 0.15, when R/D = 2
kb = k90 = 0.10, when R/D = 10

for 22.5° bend, kb = 0.40 k90

for 45° bend, kb = 0.80 k90
PIPELINE WITH PUMP OR TURBINE
Pump: adds energy to the system.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + hf + hm
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛾𝑄ℎ𝑝
Pump efficiency, ƞ = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃

Turbine: takes energy away from the

system.
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + z1 - hT = + + z2 + hf + h m
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃
Turbine efficiency, ƞ = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛾𝑄ℎ𝑇

Nafisa Islam, Lecturer, CEE, IUT