Dirac
Dirac
Dirac
Dirac Notation
The vectors {~ei } form a basis and are called basis vectors. If any three-dimension vector
can be represented in terms of the basis vectors, then the basis is said to be complete.
A basis is not unique. In a different basis {~i }, the components will be different to those in
the basis {~ei }.
Matrix format
or
a01
a = a02 in the basis {→
0 − }.
i
a03
The scalar or dot product of two vectors {~ai } and {~bi } is defined as
X
~a.~b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = ai b i . (2)
i
~a.~a = a21 + a22 + a23 . This is the square of the length of the vector.
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I THREE DIMENSIONAL VECTOR ALGEBRA
XX
~a.~b = ~ei .~ej ai bj . (3)
i j
Here δij is the Kronecker delta symbol. This says that the basis vectors are mutually
orthogonal and are normalized.
Picking individual componenets: Given a vector, its component along ~ej can be found
by taking the scalar product of the vector with ~ej as follows
X X
~ej .~a = ~ej .~ei ai = δij ai = aj . (5)
i i
Operators
A operator is defined as an entity which when acting on a vector ~a converts that into
a vector ~b,
Example
dy df (x) d2
Consider y = f (x) => dx
= dx
, d/dx is an operator. Similarly, Â(B̂y = dx2
y,
d2/dx2 is an operator.
2
I THREE DIMENSIONAL VECTOR ALGEBRA
Since Â~ei is a vector, this can be written as a linear combination of the basis vectors
{~ai },
3
X
Â~ei = ~ej Aji , i = 1, 2, 3. (8)
j=1
The number Aji is the component of Â~ei along ~ej . The nine numbers canbe arranged
in a two-dimensional array (matrix) as
A A A
11 12 13
A = A21 A22 A23
A31 A32 A33 .
Problems:
If A and B are the matrix representations of the operators  and B̂, the matrix
representation of the operator Ĉ which is the product of  and B̂ is found as follows,
X
Ĉ~ej = ~ei Cij (9)
i
= ÂB̂~ej (10)
X
= Â ~ek Bkj (11)
k
X X
= ~ei Aik Bkj ⇒ Cij = Aik Bkj . (12)
ik k
3
II MATRICES
Problems:
and
1 −1 1
B = −1 0 0
1 0 1.
II. MATRICES
The components of a vector {~a}, {ai }, are written as the elements of a column matrix
as
a1
a = a2
a3
M
X
bi = Aij aj , i = 1, 2, 3, ......N. (15)
j=1
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II MATRICES
i.e take the complex conjugate of each of the elements of A and interchange rows
and columns. Hence, the adjoint of a column matrix is a row matrix containing the
complex conjugates of the elements of the column matrix.
A matrix is diagonal if all its off-diagonal elements are zero, Aij =Aii δij .
The inverse of a matrix A, denoted as A−1 , is a matrix such that A−1 A=AA−1 = 1.
A unitary matrix A is one who inverse is its adjoint, A−1 =A† . A real unitary matrix
is called orthogonal.
Problems:
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III STATE KETS AND OPERATORS
A quantum state is represented by the ket |ψi. The Hermitian conjugate is the bra, hψ|.
The inner product is
If c = hφ|ψi, then the complex conjugate is c∗ = hφ|ψi∗ = hψ|φi. Kets and bras exist in
a Hilbert space which is a generalization of the three dimensional linear vector space of
Euclidean geometry to a complex valued space with possibly infinite dimensions. The inner
product is linear
An operator is linear if
where † is the Hermitian conjugate of Â. When  is representated by a matrix, the
Hermitian conjugate is found by transposing the matrix and then taking the complex
conjugate of each matrix element. The operation of taking the Hermitian conjugate
of a combination of numbers, states, operators involves changing c → c∗ , |ψi → hψ|,
 → † . For example,
†
c1 † hφ|B̂|ψihξ| = c∗1 |ξihψ|B̂ † |φiÂ. (23)
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IV OBSERVABLES
IV. OBSERVABLES
Observables are represented by Hermitian operators which satisfy † = Â. The expectation
value of a Hermitian operator is real:
Denoting the eigenstates of a Hermitian operator by |ni, the eigenvalues are real since
and
and
†
hm|Â|ni = hm| |ni = † |mi |ni = (am |mi)† |ni = a∗m hm|ni = am hm|ni.
Thus
So hm|ni=0 if m 6= n.
The eigenstates |ni of a Hermitian operator form a complete set. Therefore any arbitrary
ket can be expanded as
∞
X
|ψi = cn |ni (28)
n=0
where
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
hn|ψi = hn| cj |ji = cj hn|ji = cj δnj = cn (29)
j=0 j=0 j=0
Thus
∞ ∞ ∞
!
X X X
|ψi = cn |ni = hn|ψi|ni = |nihn| |ψi. (30)
n=0 n=0 n=0
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IV OBSERVABLES
For two compatible observales, it is always true that they have simultaneous eigenkets.
A component of ψ can be found by operating with the projection operator P̂n = |nihn|,
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
P̂n |ψi = |nihn| cj |ji = |ni cj hn|ji = |ni cj δnj = cn |ni. (32)
j=0 j=0 j=0
The inner product of two states can be expressed in terms of the coefficients of their
decomposition. Let
X X
|ψi = cn |ni, |φi = bn |ni. (33)
n n
Then
X X XX X
hφ|ψi = b∗m hm| cn |ni = b∗m cn δmn = b∗n cn (34)
m n n m n
! !
X X
 = IˆÂIˆ = |mihm|  |nihn|
m n
XX XX X
= |mihm|an |nihn| = an |miδmn hn| = an |nihn|. (35)
m n n m n
Thus
X
 = an |nihn|. (36)
n
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V MEASUREMENTS
V. MEASUREMENTS
P.A.M. Dirac
“A measurement always causes the system to jump into an eigenstate of the dynamical
observable that is being measured.”
∞
X
If |ψi = cn |ni, the results of measurement is
n=0
X X
hÂi = hψ|Â|ψi = c∗m hm|Â| cn |ni (37)
n n
XX X
= c∗m cn an hm|ni = |cn |2 an . (38)
n m n
Now the probability of the measurement being an (or the probability of finding the system
in |ni) is
The probabilistic interpretation, eq. 23, for the square inner product is one of the funda-
mental postulates of quantum mechanics, so it cannot be proven.
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VI POSITION REPRESENTATION
Let x0 be an eigenvalue of the observable x and let |x0 i be the corresponding eigenvector.
x|x0 i = x0 |x0 i
∆x
[x, J(∆x)] = ih̄ J(∆x).
ih̄
The important point to note here is that the spectrum of eigenvalues of the operator x is
continuous and contains all real numbers.
The position wavef unction ψα (x0 ) of a state vector α is defined as ψα (x0 ) = hx0 |αi.
X
hx0 |A(x)|αi = an x0n hx0 |αi = A(x0 )ψα (x0 )
n
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VII MOMENTUM REPRESENTATION
Since
ip∆x i∆x
J(−∆x) = exp =1+ p,
h̄ h̄
i∆x 0
⇒ hx0 |J(−∆x)|αi = ψα (x0 ) + hx |p|αi.
h̄
In the limit ∆x → 0
dψα
hx0 |p|αi = −ih̄ .
dx0
Let p0 be an eigenvalue of the observable p, and let |p0 i be the corresponding eigenvector,
i.e.
p|p0 i = p0 |p0 i.
Z ∞ Z ∞
0 0 0
hβ|αi = dp hβ|p ihp |αi = dp0 φ∗β (p0 )φα (p0 )
−∞ −∞
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VIII TRANSFORMATION FUNCTION
What is the relation between the position wavefunction ψα (x0 ) and its momentum counter-
part φα (p0 )?
∂ 0 0
hx0 |p|p0 i = p0 hx0 |p0 i = −ih̄ hx |p i
∂x0
ip0 x0
0 1
0
⇒ hx |p i = √ exp
2πh̄ h̄
R∞ ip0 x0
∞ dp0 e h̄ φα (p0 )
Z
⇒ ψα (x0 ) = hx0 |αi = dp0 hx0 |p0 ihp0 |αi = −∞ √
−∞ 2πh̄
R∞ −ip0 x0
∞ dx0 e ψα (x0 )
Z h̄
0 0 0 0 0 0 −∞
⇒ φα (p ) = hp |αi = dx hp |x ihx |αi = √
−∞ 2πh̄
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