Chapter - 1

Fundamental Equation and Basic Concept

Branches of the fluid Mechanics: -

Streams of Fluid Mechanics: -

Methodology for fluid Analysis: -

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): -
Computational fluid dynamics is defined as “The art of replacing the integrals or the partial
derivatives (as the case may be) in these equations with discretized algebraic forms, which in
turn are solved to obtain numbers for the flow field values at discrete points in time and/or
space.”

Analytical Vs Numerical Solutions

In mathematics, some problems can be solved analytically and numerically.
• An analytical solution involves framing the problem in a well-understood form and
calculating the exact solution.
• A numerical solution means making guesses at the solution and testing whether the
problem is solved well enough to stop.
The governing equations of aerodynamics, such as continuity, momentum, and energy
equations are highly nonlinear, partial differential, or integral equations; to date, no general
analytical solution to these equations has been obtained. Therefore, CFD is originated.
Outcome of CFD: - Result of any CFD analysis is either finding of force or moment
generated on any aerodynamic body which are generated due to
• Pressure distribution over the body surface
• Shear stress distribution over the body surface
Pressure (P): - It is a compressive force and defined as normal force per unit area.
Shear Stress (σ): - It has two forms, shear stress and normal stress.
• Shear Stress (σyx): - Tangential force (parallel to the surface) per unit area. It
changes the shape of the fluid.
• Normal Stress (σxx): - Normal force per unit area. It Changes the volume of fluid.
It’s a kind of tensile force.

Here σyx means shear stress tangential to plane perpendicular to y-axis in x-direction.
The net effect of the pressure (p) and shear stress distribution (τ) integrated over the
complete body surface is a resultant aerodynamic force (R) and moment (M) on the body.
Lift (L) and drag (D) is a component of resultant aerodynamic force (R).
L = Lift = Component of R perpendicular to V∞
D = Drag = Component of R parallel to V∞
N = Normal force = Component of R perpendicular to chord (c)
A = Axial force = Component of R parallel to chord (c)

• L = N Cos α − A Sin α
Cl = Cn Cos α − Ca Sin α
• D = N Sin α + A Cos α
Cd = Cn Sin α + Ca Cos α
The sources of the aerodynamic lift, drag, and moments on a body are the pressure and shear
stress distributions integrated over the body.
Pressure coefficient: Cp = (p − p∞)/ q∞ = 1 – (V/V∞2)
Skin friction coefficient: Cf = τ/ q∞

Lift, Drag, and moment generated on the airfoil due to integrated effect of pressure and shear stress distribution

Centre of Pressure (Xcp): -Xcp is defined as the location where the resultant of a
distributed load effectively acts on the body or that point on the body about which the
aerodynamic moment is zero.
If moments were taken about the center of pressure, the integrated effect of the distributed
loads would be zero.

• Flow that is assumed to involve no friction, thermal conduction, or diffusion is called

an inviscid flow.
• Flow of gases at a low Mach number is essentially incompressible; for M < 0.3, it is
always safe to assume ρ = constant.
Viscosity and Thermal Conduction: -
• Each molecule in a fluid has momentum and energy, which it carries with it when it
moves from one location to another in space before colliding with another molecule.
• The transport of molecular momentum via random molecular motion gives rise to the
macroscopic effect we call viscosity, and the transport of molecular energy via random
molecular collision gives rise to the macroscopic effect we call thermal conduction.
Therefore, viscosity and thermal conduction are labelled as transport phenomena.
• Viscosity (μ) gives the rise of shear stress at the wall (τw) due to which boundary layer
forms. BL thickness (δ) and local values of τw both are functions of Reynolds number.
Thermal conduction (k) gives the rise of wall heat transfer (𝑞̇ ).
• The temperature inside boundary layer is governed by combined mechanisms of
thermal conduction and frictional dissipation which are different at different x
stations. Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat from a hotter region to a colder
region by random molecular motion. Frictional dissipation in simple way is
dissipation of molecular energy due to friction or viscosity. The heating or cooling of a
wall by a flow over the wall is called “convective heat transfer”.
• Both μ and k are physical properties of the fluid and are functions of temperature only.
A conventional relation for the temperature variation of μ for air is given by
Sutherland’s law

➢ For viscous and incompressible flow, similarity parameters are specific heat ratio (γ),
Reynolds Number (Re) and Mach number (M) but for viscous and compressible flow,
similarity parameters are specific heat ratio (γ), Reynolds Number (Re), Mach
number (M) and Prandtl number (Pr) because in compressible flow, energy equation
is going to be considered.
➢ Thermal conductivity coefficient (k) is directly proportional to viscosity coefficient (μ)
of the fluid and related to each-other by the Prandtl number relation. Prandtl number
is defined as the ratio of energy dissipated by friction (Momentum Diffusivity) to the
energy transported by thermal conduction (Thermal Diffusivity).

In the study of compressible, viscous flow, Prandtl number is just as important as γ,

Re, or M. For air at standard conditions, Pr∞ = 0.71. Note that Pr∞ is a property of
the gas. For different gases, Pr∞ is different. Also, like μ and k, Pr∞ is a function of
temperature however, for air over a reasonable temperature range (up to T∞ = 600
K), it is safe to assume Pr∞ = constant = 0.71 and Cp = 1000 J/(kg · K).
• In fluid mechanics, stress is directly proportional to time rate of strain. Time rate of
strain in xy-plane is defined as

• Stress is always proportional to strain and if moment on fluid element is zero then τxy
= τyx. Normal and shear stress are defined mathematically as
 Here λ is called bulk modulus viscosity coefficient or second viscosity coefficient and
2
by stokes hypothesis 𝜆 = − 𝜇.
3
• In turbulent flow, turbulent transport gives rise to effective values of viscosity and
thermal conductivity called as eddy viscosity ε and eddy thermal conductivity κ,
respectively. These turbulent transport coefficients ε and κ can be much larger
(typically 10 to 100 times larger) than the respective molecular values μ and k. For
the transport of momentum and energy in a turbulent flow, μ and k is replaced by
the combination (μ + ε) and (k + κ); that is

• Velocity gradient, Temperature gradient and shear stress is higher for turbulent flow
than laminar flow.

Basic Definition and Concept

• Blunt body = A body where most of the drag is pressure drag.
• Streamlined body = A body where most of the drag is skin friction drag
• Form Drag = Pressure drags due to flow separation.
• Profile Drag = Skin friction drag + Pressure Drag (For 2-D case)
• Parasite Drag = Skin friction drag + Pressure Drag (For 3-D case)
• Cf is a strong function of Re, where Re is based on the chord length of the plate,
Re = ρ∞V∞ c/μ∞. Note that Cf decreases as Re increases.
• The location of the center of pressure (Cp) for a curved (cambered)
airfoil Xcp moves forward as angle of attack (or CL) increases, and that it is always
behind the quarter-chord point for finite, positive values of Cl but for a flat plate,
Xcp moves forward as the angle of attack decreases.
Drag Coefficient for various aerodynamic shape: -

• With diminish in wakes size CD also diminishes progressively in Figure a, b, and c.

• CD for circular cylinder is independent of Re No. between 10 4 and 105. In figure b and
d, shape of the body is same, so CD is same (CD = 1.2) (104< Re < 105). But drag force
(D) is smaller for smaller cylinder than larger one.
• In figure c, airfoil thickness is d (CD = 0.12) but in figure d, cylinder diameter is 0.1d
(CD = 1.2) but Drag force for both is same (D = q*S*CD).
• In Figure e, for the cylinder with diameter d, as we increased the Re no. from 10 5 to
107, drag coefficient decreased dramatically from 1.2 to 0.6 because the wake region
behind the cylinder decreased.
Drag coefficients for various aerodynamic shapes

Mach number Regimes:-

Gradient of a Scalar Field: - The gradient of p, ∇ p, at a given point in space is defined
as a vector such that:
• Its magnitude is the maximum rate of change of p per unit length of the coordinate
space at the given point.
• Its direction is that of the maximum rate of change of p at the given point.
Gradient applies on scalar quantity and gives vector. This vector points out the direction of
fastest increases of local values of that scalar quantity.

The relative comparison between skin friction drag and pressure drag
for various aerodynamic shapes

Divergence of a Vector Field

As the fluid element moves through space, its volume will change. Time rate of change of the
volume of a moving fluid element of fixed mass, per unit volume of that element, is equal to
the divergence of V, denoted by ∇· V. The divergence of a vector is a scalar quantity.
Divergence operates on a vector and provides the scalar quantity. The scalar values tells that
how much the vector is diverging as it is moving in the flow field.
Physical Meaning of the divergence: -
Divergence simply indicates how much a vector is diverging form its initial specified path.
We can define it as time rate of change of volume of moving fluid element of fixed mass per
unit volume of the element.

Proof: - Consider an infinitesimal element of the surface dS moving at the local velocity V.
The change in the volume of the control volume ∇V, due to just the movement of dS over a
time increment dt. The volume of the long, thin cylinder with base area dS and length
(V.dt)·n
The total change in volume of the whole control volume is equal to the summation of above
Equation over the total control surface.

The time rate of change of the control volume, denoted by DV/Dt.

By divergence theorem

After integration,

Which states that divergence of velocity is equal to time rate of change of the volume of a
moving fluid element, per unit volume.

Curl of a Vector Field

It is possible for this fluid element to be rotating with an angular velocity ω as it translates
along the streamline. We prove that ω is equal to one-half of the curl of V, where the curl of V
is denoted by ∇×V.

Curl (∇×V) is the amount of spin or turn of a vector field. Vorticity (ξ) = Curl = (∇×V)
Angular Velocity (ω) = ½ * (∇×V)

Stokes (×) Theorem: - It converts the line to surface integral.

Divergence (.) Theorem: - It convert the surface to volume. Divergence is always
applied to vector and gives the scalar quantity.

Basically Gausses’s divergence theorm tells that rate of accumulation of mass inside the
control volume is equal to total effect of mass flux coming in and going out through all the
faces of that control volume.

Gradient Theorem: - It converts the surface to volume. Gradient is always applied to

scalar and gives the vector quantity.

Substantial Derivative: -
Consider a small fluid element moving through a flow field. The velocity field is given by
V = u i + v j + w k,
Where u = u(x, y, z, t),
v = v(x, y, z, t),
w = w(x, y, z, t)
In addition, the density field is given by
ρ = ρ(x, y, z, t)
At time t1, the fluid element is located at point 1 in the flow and its density is
ρ1 = ρ(x1, y1, z1, t1)
Later t2 such as point 2. At this new time and location, thedensity of the fluid element is
ρ2 = ρ(x2, y2, z2, t2)
Since the density is the function of space and time so we can write the density at point 2 as

Dividing by t2 − t1, and ignoring the higher-order terms,

From small time from t1 to t2, we can define,

Here, Dρ/Dt is a symbol for the instantaneous time rate of change of density of the fluid
element as it moves through point 1. This symbol is called the substantial derivative D/Dt.

• D/Dt (Substantial derivative) - Time rate of change of a variable of the given fluid
element as it moves through space.
• ∂/∂t (Local derivative) - Local time derivative, i.e., time rate of change of a variable at
a fixed point.
• (V ·∇) (Convective derivative) –Rate of change of volume of moving element as it
moves from one point to another point in space.

Conservative and Non-conservative form of Governing equation: -

• If governing equation is derived by assuming the control volume fixed in space,
then this form is called conservative form of governing equation. It may be in
integral or in differential form. In this form, density is always conserved with space
• If governing equation is derived by assuming the control volume moving in
space, then this form is called non - conservative form of governing equation. It
may be in integral or in differential form. In this form, density is not conserved due to
sudden jump in the variables as in case of shock waves.
• Conservative variables conserve the density and continuity during the flow, they are
(), (u), (v), (w) and (e) and non-conservative or primitive variables does not
conserve the density or continuity of the flow, they are (), (u), (v), (w) and (e).
Why can the N-S equations written in terms of the conservative (or flux) variables
handle discontinuities better than in terms of primitive/non-conservative variables?

• Consider a shock wave and variation of primitive or conservative variables through it.
There are discrete (i.e., sharp) “jumps” in flow variables when we monitor them in
term of primitive variables; they disappear when we monitor them in terms of
conservative variables as shown in below figure.
• As a result of this handling characteristic, conservative forms resolve shock waves
more clearly i.e., with less “wiggles” around shock waves or sharp discontinuities.
They are also more stable (robust) than non-conservative formulations, which often
fail to converge when detecting shock waves.
• An important quality of conservative form is that it captures the location and speed of
shock wave (if it is moving) correctly. This is a clear benefit over non-conservation
forms, which consistently under-predict shock location and shock speed.
 • Finally, there are following advantage of employing conservative form of governing
equation for compressible flow.
1- Programming convenience
2- Handling of discontinuities
3- More stable solution of flows with shock waves
4- Less “wiggles” around shock waves
5- Correct shock location handling
6- Correct shock speed qualities

Mass Flux: - let us consider the concept of mass flow. Let us consider there is uniform
velocity V through the cross-sectional area A. Vn is the component of velocity normal to A so
Volume captured by flow in time dt is
Mass captured by flow in time dt is
Mass flow per second or mass flow rate

Mass flow rate per unit area

In many of the equations of aerodynamics, ρu, ρv, and ρw are the mass fluxes in the x, y, and
z directions, respectively.

In a more general sense, if V is the magnitude of velocity in an arbitrary direction, the

product ρV is physically the mass flux (mass flow per unit area) across an area oriented
perpendicular to the direction of V.
Continuity Equation: -
Continuity equation is nothing but concept of mass conversation. It states that

Integral Form of Continuity Equation

Applying the divergence theorem

Differential Form of Continuity Equation

For Steady flow, ∂/∂t = 0 so

∇· (ρV) = 0 i.e. Convective term of mass flux ∇· (ρV) is zero.
For Incompressible flow, ρ = constant so ∂ρ / ∂t = 0 and ρ ∇ · (V) = 0
∇·V=0
Assumption in derivation of the continuity equation is that flow is 3-D, unsteady of any
type, inviscid or viscous, compressible, or incompressible.

Non-Conservative form of Continuity Equation: -

The Vector identity: -
We will use this vector identity to convert the conservation form to non-conservation form.
The continuity equation in conservative form: -
Expanding above equation we have,
Above equation can be written as

The above equation is called non-conservative form of Continuity equation.

Momentum Equation: -
Momentum equation is based on Newton’s second law which states that force applied on
anybody will be equal to time rate of change of momentum of that body.

There are two types of forces.

1. Body forces: - Gravity, electromagnetic forces, or any other forces which “act at a
distance” on the fluid inside V.
2. Surface forces: - Pressure and shear stress acting on the control surface S.

The Integral form of Momentum Equation

The Differential form of momentum equation: -

Above Momentum equation for Viscous flow is called Navier Stokes Equation.

If we will take the assumption of steady (∂/∂t = 0), Inviscid (Fvis = 0) flow with no body
forces (f = 0), then differential form of momentum equation is called Euler Equation.
Non-conservative form of Momentum Equation: -

Above equation is called non-conservative form of Momentum Equation.

Derivation: - Let us not use the fixed, finite control volume but an infinitesimally small
moving fluid element of fixed mass as our model of the flow.To this model let us apply
Newton’s second law in the form Fx = m.ax in x-direction.
We can write for the net force in the x direction acting on the fluid element

After rearranging the terms, we have

But F = m.ax = (ρ.dx.dy.dz) (Du/Dt)

Comparing above two equations, we have

Similarly

Expanding all the terms, we will get the complete Navier-Stokes equations for an unsteady,
compressible, three-dimensional, viscous flow.
In the above form, the Navier-Stokes equations are suitable for the analysis of laminar
flow. For a turbulent flow, the flow can be assumed to be time-mean values over the
turbulent fluctuations, and μ can be replaced by μ + ε.
Energy Equation: -
For a study of incompressible flow, the continuity and momentum equations are sufficient
tools to do the job but for compressible flow, ρ is an additional variable and therefore we
need an additional fundamental equation to complete the system. This fundamental relation
is the energy equation which states that Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can
only change in form.
From our physical principle that energy is conserved.
Here δq = B1 = Rate of heat added to fluid inside control volume from surroundings
δw = B2 = Rate of work done on fluid inside control volume
δe = B3 = Rate of change of energy of fluid as it flows through control volume
Mathematically,

Here 𝑞̇ = Volumetric rate of heat addition per unit mass

Integral form of energy equation

Differential form of energy equation

Non conservative form of energy equation: -
We derive the energy equation for a viscous flow using as our model an infinitesimal moving
fluid element. In the process, we obtain explicit expressions for Q˙viscous and W˙viscous in terms
of the flow-field variables.
Consider again the moving fluid element shown in Figure. To this element, apply the first law
of thermodynamics, which states

Let us first evaluate C.

The rate of doing work by a force exerted on a moving body is equal to the product of the
force and the component of velocity in the direction of the force. On face abcd, rate of work
done by τyx dx dz is uτyx dx dz, with similar expressions for the other faces.
 • The net rate of work done by pressure in the x direction is

Rearranging the terms, we have

• Similarly, in y and z – direction, total rate of work done by pressure in all direction

Let us first evaluate B.

Define 𝑞̇ as the rate of volumetric heat addition per unit mass.

• Total volumetric heating of element =

• The net heat transferred in the x direction into the fluid element by thermal
conduction is

• Now net heat flux into the element is

• Finally, A is time rate of change of energy of the fluid element

• The final form of the energy equation for unsteady, compressible, three-dimensional,
viscous flow without body force which is neglected here.
Now we ended up with 5 equations (1 for Conservation of Mass, 3 for Conservation of
Momentum and 1 for Conservation of Energy), but with 6 unknowns: , u, v, w, p, e. This
means that we need an additional equation to close the system of equations. The 6th
equation to close the system is called Perfect gas Equation.

However above equation introduced the 7th variable in temperature (T), so we need another
closing equation linking T and any of the other 6 variables. Now 7th equation for closing the
system is Caloric State Equation.
e = CV.T
Now we have a system of 7 second order partial differential equations with 7 unknowns. To
solve this set of partial differential equations a set of

- Initial conditions (i.e., the values of , u, v, w, p, e, T at the beginning of time, t = 0)

- Boundary conditions (i.e., the values of , u, v, w, p, e, T at the edges of the domain) are
required.

• Although Navier-Stokes equations are just 3 of these 7 equations, in CFD we often

call all 7 equations as the “full Navier-Stokes equations”.
• These equations were derived nearly 200 years ago, and they basically set 7 simple
rules of nature in which each fluid element must (and indeed does) follow in a fluid
flow.
Bernoulli’s Equation: -
For an Inviscid flow with no body forces,

Multiply above by dx,

-----> 1
Consider the flow along a streamline in three-dimensional space

Putting above in equation 1

-----> 2
The differential of u is
-------> 3

Replacing 2 by 3,

Similarly,

Adding above equations, ---> 4

Substituting both into Equation 4,

Above equation is called Euler equation which is applied to an inviscid flow with no body
forces, and it relates the change in velocity along a streamline dV to the change in pressure
dp along the same streamline.
For incompressible flow, ρ is constant. Integrating above equation between points 1 to point
2, we have

Above equation is called Bernoulli’s equation which is defined for steady, incompressible,
inviscid flow with no body force but can be applied for both rotational and irrotational flow.

Euler Vs Navier-Stock Equation: -

❖ Euler equation is derived from NS equation by considering zero viscosity
❖ As the flow in Euler computations is not having friction with walls (slip wall
condition), it will not generate adverse pressure gradients that are
responsible for flow separation, so we must use NS equation as they are capable.
❖ Due to friction, boundary layer is generated on the surface of the body with no slip
condition which is possible in case of NS, so prism is not required for Euler cases.
❖ Turbulence modelling (SA, SST etc.) can be done with NS equation only. Euler
equations do not require turbulence modelling.
❖ Euler equation can capture compressive shock only and flow separation of another
type that is caused by vorticity generated due to entropy increase.