Senior High School

Physical Science
Various Light Phenomena and Hertz
Produced by Radio Pulses
 After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. explain various light phenomena (S11/12PS-Ivh-66)

Learning Objectives:
a. identify various light phenomena
b. differentiate the various light phenomena

2. describe how Hertz produce radio pulses (S11/12PS-Ivh-68)

Learning Objectives:
a. define radio pulses/Hertz
b. discuss how radio pulses works
c. solve problems involving wavelength and frequency of radio
waves

PRE-TEST

Direction: Read each item carefully. Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. The blue color of distant mountains is due primarily to

A. Diffraction of light. B. Emission of light.
C. Refraction of light. D. Scattering of light.

2. Red sunsets, blue moons, and milky-white skies are mainly the result of
A. Dispersion. B. Reflection.
C. Refraction. D. Scattering.

3. If the earth did not have an atmosphere, the sky would appear ____ during
the day.
A. Black B. Blue C. Red D. White

4. The blue color of the sky is due to

A. Reflection of sunlight off the earth's oceans.
B. Selective scattering of visible light by air molecules.
C. The filtering effect of water vapor in the earth's atmosphere.
D. Transmission of visible light through the ozone layer in the earth’s
stratosphere.

5. EM waves travel at the speed of _____.

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 A. Energy B. Light C. Sound D. Wind

6. According to Maxwell’s theory, EM waves will be produced when there is a

__________.
A. Constant electric field B. Changing electric field
C. Changing magnetic field D. Constant magnetic field

7. Hertz is a unit given to the number of cycles created or completed in a unit

of time known as _____.
A. Amplitude B. Frequency C. Speed D. Wavelength

8. On average, as a cloud grows thicker (taller), which below does not occur?
A. More light is scattered by the cloud.
B. Less sunlight is absorbed by the cloud.
C. More sunlight is reflected from the cloud.
D. Less sunlight is transmitted through the cloud.

9. Imagine that this piece of paper is illuminated with white light and appears
red. You see red light because __________. A. The paper emits red light.
B. The paper disperses white light.
C. The paper absorbs red and reflects other visible wavelengths.
D. The paper reflects red and absorbs other visible wavelengths.

10.Which of the following would be true if the earth did not have an
atmosphere?
A. The sky would always be black.
B. There would be fewer hours of daylight.
C. The stars would be visible in the sky during the day. D. All of the
above

11.Air molecules selectively scatter visible light because

A. Air molecules are smaller than the wavelength of visible light.
B. Air molecules are the same size as the wavelength of visible light.
C. Air molecules are much larger than the wavelength of visible light. D.
The electrons that orbit around the nucleus of atoms have a blue
color.
12.Which of the following sentences are true about Maxwell’s theory?
I. The electromagnetic waves propagate at the speed greater than the
speed of light.
II. A changing magnetic field induces changing electric field.
III. A changing electric field induces changing magnetic field.
IV. The electromagnetic waves propagate at the speed equal to the
speed of light.
A. I and II B. II and III
C. I and IV D. II, III and IV

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 13.How did Hertz calculate the wavelength and frequency of EM waves in his
experiment?
I. Measured the distance between nodes which served as
wavelength of EM waves.
II. Calculated the frequency of the oscillator to get the frequency of
EM waves.
III. Calculated the frequency of the nodes to get the frequency of
EM waves.
IV. Measured the distance between oscillators which served as
wavelengths of EM waves.
A. I and II B. II and III
C. III and IV D. I and IV

14.A helium laser emits light with a wavelength of 633 nm. What is the
frequency of the light emitted by the laser?
A. 4.7 x 1015 Hz B. 4.7 x 1016 Hz
C. 4.7 x 1017 Hz D. 4.7 x 1018 Hz

15.Francis Radio Station broadcasts at a frequency of 102.1MHz. What is the

length of the radio wave in terms of meters?
A. 0.0029 m B. 29.83 m
C. 298.3 m D. 2,983 m

EXPLAIN VARIOUS LIGHT

PHENOMENA

Jumpstart

Activity 1. Search Me!

Directions: Column A is jumbled words, and in Column B are their descriptions.

Try to identify the correct word/s. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. HOLAS luminous ring around the sun

2. COORNA luminous ring surrounding the Sun and Moon
and is formed by diffraction of light by water
droplets
3. RIANWOBS circular arc seen opposite the Sun, usually
exhibiting all the primary colors with red on the
outside

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4. BOWSFOG whitish circular arc seen opposite the Sun in fog
5. BUEL KISES resulting from selective scattering by air
molecules and are produced as shorter wavelengths of the incoming
visible light (violet and blue) are selectively scattered by small molecules of
oxygen and nitrogen -- which are much smaller than the wavelength of the light.
6. GRAMIES optical phenomenon that creates the illusion of
water and results from the refraction of light
through a non-uniform medium
7. SONGSUD also known as mock suns or "parhelia", are a pair
of brightly colored spots, one on either side of the
sun.
8. PRAMIRY rainbow forms between about 40° and 42° from
the antisolar point.

9. DARYCONES about 10° further out from the antisolar point

than the primary bow, is about twice as wide, and
has its colors reversed.
10. SUPRERNUMEARY SOWB set of interference rainbows just inside the
primary rainbow.

Discover

Rainbows, sunsets and halos; a spectacular display of colors and visuals in

the sky called "atmospheric optics" or light phenomena. As sunlight (or moonlight)
enters the atmosphere, it is either absorbed, reflected, scattered, refracted, or
diffracted by atmospheric particles or air molecules. These processes, individually
or in combination, are responsible for producing the most optical effects. This
module investigates these particle-light interactions and the assortment of light or
optical effects they produce. The Light and Optics can be organized into the
following sections:

The light or optical effect depends upon the type of particles that it
encounters and on its wavelength. For this reason the optical effects discussed in
this module have been grouped according to the following classifications of
atmospheric particles: mechanism of its occurrence, air, dust and haze; ice
crystals, and lastly water droplets.

1. Mechanisms - Particle/Molecule-light interactions responsible for creating

optical effects. This interaction includes reflection, scattering, refraction, and
diffraction.
2. Air, Dust, Haze - Optical effects resulting from the interaction of light with
air, dust, and haze particles. This effect includes crepuscular rays, blue
skies, blue haze, and sunsets.

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 3. Ice Crystals - Optical effects resulting from the interaction of light with ice
crystals. This effect includes sundogs, sun pillars, and halos.
4. Water Droplets - Optical effects resulting from the interaction of light with
water droplets. This effect includes cloud iridescence, rainbows, and a silver
lining along the edge of clouds.

Mechanism
1. Reflection of Light - Light is said to be reflected when the angle at which light
initially strikes a surface is equal to the angle at which light bounces off the
same surface.
Reflection can explain the origin of color in some cases because certain
portions of white light are more easily absorbed or reflected than others. For
example, an object that appears to have a green color does so because that object
absorbs all wavelengths of white light except that of green, which is reflected.
One form of reflection—internal reflection—is often involved in the
explanation of optical phenomena. During internal reflection, light enters one
surface of a transparent material (such as a water droplet), is reflected off the inside
surface of the material, and is then reflected a second time out of the material. The
color of a rainbow can partially be explained in terms of internal reflection.
How about seeing your image or reflection on a concave and convex side of
the spoon?

• Convex side - this side that bulges out. A convex mirror makes what you see
smaller and more so as you look closer to the edges. Convex mirrors are
sometimes used to see around corners in traffic or in stores to detect
shoplifters. Turn the spoon around.
• Concave side - this side which curves inwards. If you are close to a concave
mirror, you see an enlargement. A concave mirror can be useful in the
bathroom when you're putting on make-up or shaving. If you back away
from a concave mirror, you reach the focal point at this point, the image gets
all fuzzy. If you keep moving backwards, the image in a concave mirror turns
upside down.
2. Scattering of Light by small particles and molecules in the atmosphere.
Some particles and molecules found in the atmosphere have the ability to
scatter solar radiation in all directions. The particles/molecules which scatter light
are called scatterers and can also include particulates made by human industry.

Figure 1. Scattered light by atmospheric particles

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu /(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/sct.rxml

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Types of Scattering

a) Selective scattering (or Rayleigh scattering) - air molecules, like oxygen and
nitrogen, for example, are small in size and thus more effective at scattering
shorter wavelengths of light (blue and violet). The selective scattering by air
molecules is responsible for producing our blue skies on a clear sunny day.
b) Mie Scattering is responsible for the white appearance of clouds. Cloud
droplets with a diameter of 20 micrometers or so are large enough to scatter
all visible wavelengths more or less equally. This means that almost all of the
light which enters clouds will be scattered. Because all wavelengths are
scattered, clouds appear to be white.

Figure 2. Mie Scattering creating white clouds

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.
edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/sct.rxml)
When clouds become very deep, less and less of the incoming solar radiation
makes it through to the bottom of the cloud, which gives these clouds a darker
appearance.

3. Refraction of Light

a. As it passes from denser to less dense mediums. The bending of light as it

passes from one medium to another is called refraction. The angle,
wavelength, and density of that substance determine how much the light is
refracted. The refraction of light by atmospheric particles can result in a
number of beautiful optical effects like halos, which are produced when
sunlight (or moonlight) is refracted by the pencil-shaped ice crystals of
cirrostratus clouds.
b. As it passes from less dense to more dense mediums. When light passes from
a less dense to a denser substance (for example, passing from air into water),
the light is refracted or bent towards the normal. The normal is a line
perpendicular (forming a 90-degree angle) to the boundary between the two
substances. The bending occurs because light travels more slowly in a
denser medium.

Mirages
Mirages happen as the ground is very hot and the air is cool. The hot ground
warms a layer of air just above the ground. When the light moves through the cold
air and into the layer of hot air, it is refracted (bent).

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 Figure 5. Desert Mirage in Cape Verde of the coast of
Africa By Ladislav Luppa via Wikimedia Commons

A layer of very warm air near the ground refracts the light from the sky
nearly into a U-shaped bend.

4. Diffraction of Light
Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an
object.

Figure 6. Diffraction
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/diff.rxml

An optical effect that results from the diffraction of light is the silver lining
sometimes found around the edges of clouds or coronas surrounding the sun or
moon. The illustration above shows how light (from either the sun or the moon) is
bent around small droplets in the cloud.
Air, Dust, Haze

• Crepuscular Rays - sun rays converging on the horizon. Crepuscular rays

occur when objects such as mountain peaks or clouds partially shadow the
sun's rays. The name crepuscular means "relating to twilight," and these
rays are observed at sunrise, and sunset. Crepuscular rays are often red or
yellow in appearance because blue light from the sun is selectively scattered
out by air molecules.

Figure 7. Crepsular Rays

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/air/crp.rxml

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 • Blue Skies and Blue Haze - resulting from selective scattering by air
molecules. Blue skies are produced as shorter wavelengths from incoming
visible light (violet and blue) are selectively scattered by small molecules of
oxygen and nitrogen -- which are smaller than the wavelength of light. The
violet and blue light have been scattered over and over by the molecules
throughout the atmosphere, so our eyes register it as blue light coming from
all directions, giving the sky its blue appearance.

Figure 8. Blue Sky

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/air/blue.rxml)

• Sunsets Appear in a Variety of Colors. As the sun sinks toward the horizon,
sunlight enters the atmosphere at a much lower angle and consequently
must pass through much more atmospheres before being seen by an
observer. Air molecules scatter away the shorter wavelengths of light (violet
and blue). The light with longer wavelengths (yellow, orange and red)
penetrates through the atmosphere produces colorful sunsets. The
combination of refraction and scattering of sunlight by atmospheric particles
is responsible for producing twilight, the brightness in the sky we observe
even though the sun is below the horizon.

Figure 9. Twilight

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/air/s

As incoming sunlight passes through a denser atmosphere, shorter wavelengths of

light (violet and blue) are efficiently scattered away by particles suspended in the
atmosphere. This allows predominantly yellow and red wavelengths of light to reach
the observer's eyes, producing a yellowish-red sunset.

Figure 10. Yellowish-red Sunset

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 http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/air/sun.rxml

When there is a high concentration of particles in the atmosphere that are

slightly larger than air molecules (like smoke, dust, and pollutants), shorter and
intermediate wavelengths of light (violet, blue and yellow) are scattered away.
Therefore, only the longer wavelengths (orange and red) reach the observer's eyes,
giving the sun an orange-red appearance. Dust and ash particles injected into the
atmosphere by volcanic eruptions can also cause red sunsets.

Figure 11. Red Sunset

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/air/sun.rxml)

Ice crystals

 22 Degree Halo - a ring of light 22 degrees from the sun or moon. A halo is a
ring of light surrounding the sun or moon. Halos form when light from the
sun or moon is refracted by ice crystals associated with thin, high-level
clouds (like cirrostratus clouds). A 22-degree halo is a ring of light 22
degrees from the sun (or moon) and is the most common type of halo
observed and is formed by hexagonal ice crystals with diameters less than
20.5 micrometers.

Figure 12. 22-Degree Halo

(http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/ice/halo/22.rxml
• 46 Degree Halo - is a ring of light observed 46 degrees from the sun or moon.
Although they are less common than 22-degree halos, the process by which
they form is similar. What determines if a 46-degree halo or a 22-degree halo
develops as the light passes through hexagonal ice crystals? A 22degree halo
results from "in one side, out another side"; a 46-degree halo from "in one
side, out the bottom."

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 Figure 10. 46-Degree Halo
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/air/crp.rxml

• Sundogs - also known as mock suns or "parhelia” are a pair of brightly

colored spots, one on either side of the sun. Sundogs form as sunlight is
refracted by hexagonal plate-like ice crystals with diameters larger than 30
micrometers and their flat faces horizontally oriented.

Figure 11. Sundog

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/ice/sd.rxml

The difference between sundogs and halos is the preferential orientation of

the ice crystals through which the light passes before reaching our eyes. If the
hexagonal crystals oriented with their flat faces horizontally, a sundog is observed.
If the hexagonal crystals are randomly oriented, a halo is observed.

• Sun Pillars – A sun pillar is a vertical shaft of light extending upward or

downward from the sun. Typically seen during sunrise or sunset, sun pillars
form when sunlight reflects off the surfaces of falling ice crystals associated
with thin, high-level clouds (like cirrostratus clouds).

Figure 12. Sun Pillars

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/ice/sp.rx
• Coronas - produced by diffraction of light. On a clear night, for example, the
light you see coming from the moon is straight. However, if a thin cloud layer
is found between the observer and the moon, the diffraction and dispersion

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 of the moonlight actually casts a light larger than the original light source.
This 'crown' of light around the sun or moon is called the corona.

Figure 13. Corona

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/wtr/coro.rxml

• Glories - also, a combination of refraction, reflection, and diffraction combine

to produce other optical effects such as glories and the "Heiligenschein" effect
-- which is a bright area around the head of an observer's shadow on a
surface containing spherical water droplets. Glories are the rings of
illuminated light seen most commonly from planes’ shadows as they fly over
clouds of liquid water. In both phenomena, the light ultimately is bent close
to 180° right back to the observer.

Figure 14. Glories

https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/256636/what-is-the-explanation-of
the-glory-optical-phenomenon

• Silver Lining and Cloud Iridescence - produced through diffraction of

sunlight. In the picture below, the sun is shining from behind the growing
cumulus tower. This bright outline along the edge of the cloud is the silver
lining, which occurs when light is diffracted by cloud droplets along the
cloud's outer edge. Silver linings are observed around thicker clouds
containing larger droplets. Sometimes, diffraction of sunlight in clouds
produces a multitude of colors. This optical effect is called cloud iridescence.

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 Figure 15. Silver Lining
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/wtr/ir.rxml

Water droplets

Rainbows - is an arc of concentric colored bands that develops when sunlight

interacts with rain drops.
A rainbow occurs when rain is falling in one portion of the sky, and the sun
is shining in another. Sunlight is refracted as it enters a raindrop, which causes the
different wavelengths (colors) of visible light to separate. Longer wavelengths of light
(red) are bent the least, while shorter wavelengths (violet) are bent the most.

a. Primary Rainbow
The primary rainbow forms between about
40° and 42° from the antisolar point. The light path
involves refraction and a single reflection inside the
water droplet. If the drops are large, 1 millimeter or
more in diameter, red, green, and violet are bright,
but there is little blue. Such large droplets are
suggested by the rainbow at right. (taken from
http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/rbowpri.html)

b. Secondary rainbows
The secondary rainbow is about 10° further out from the antisolar point than
the primary bow, is about twice as wide, and has its colors reversed.
The light of the secondary bow is one-tenth the intensity of that of the
primary bow, given the same viewing conditions. The region between the two
rainbows should be a bit darker than the sky outside the secondary rainbow, but
this is a smaller difference.

Figure 16. Primary (Right) and Secondary Rainbow (left) http://hyperphysics.phy-

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/rbowpri.html

c. Supernumerary bows – set of interference rainbows just inside the primary

rainbow. Supernumerary bows occur when raindrops responsible for the
main rainbow are much uniform in size. Usually, there is some variation in
size of raindrops, and the supernumeraries are washed out altogether. There
is always some washing out of colors, and the bows show much green and
red in them and not the other colors in the spectrum.

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 Figure 17. Primary rainbow with three supernumerary bows inside the main bow
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/rbowpri.html
Others: Filters

If you pass white light through a red filter, then red light comes out the other
side. This is because the red filter only allows red light through. The other colors
(wavelengths) of the spectrum are absorbed. Similarly, a green filter only allows
green light through. This is called color by subtraction.
A red jumper (or any shirt or cloth) is red when viewed in white light because
all the wavelengths of the spectrum that fall on it are absorbed, except red is
reflected into the eye.

Figure 18. Color by Subtraction

https://www.le.ac.uk/se/centres/sci/selfstudy/lht5.htm

Explore

Enrichment Activity: “Know My Cause”

Direction: Match column A to Column B. Write your answer in a separate sheet of

paper.

Column A Column B
(Light Phenomena) Cause of the Occurrences

1. Rainbows A. Mie Scattering

2. Upside down image B. Formed as sunlight is refracted by hexagonal plate-like
ice crystals with diameters larger than 30 micrometers where they are
oriented with their flat faces horizontal.

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3. Blue skies on a clear C. A layer of very warm air near the ground sunny day
refracts the light from the sky nearly into a
U-shaped bend.
4. White appearance of D. Occur when raindrops responsible for the clouds main
rainbow are much uniform in size.
5. Halos E. Diffraction of sunlight in clouds produce a multitude of colors.
6. Mirages F. It is about 10° further out from the antisolar
point than the primary bow, is about twice as
wide, and has its colors reversed.
7. Yellowish-red sunset G. High concentration of particles slightly larger than air
molecules (like smoke, dust, and
pollutants), the shorter and intermediate
wavelengths of light (violet, blue and yellow)
are scattered away
8. Orange-red H. Refraction by ice crystals associated with appearance of sun
thin, high-level clouds that hexagonal
crystals are randomly oriented
9. Sundogs I. Diffraction of cloud droplets
10. Coronas J. Concave mirror
11. Cloud iridescence K. Scattering of shorter wavelengths of light
(violet and blue)
12. Primary rainbow L. Rayleigh scattering
13. Secondary rainbow M. It is formed between about 40°, and 42° from the
antisolar point where the light path involves refraction and a single reflection
inside the water droplet.
14. Supernumerary bows N. Color by subtraction
15. Red shirt or cloth is O. Sunlight is refracted as it enters a raindrop, red which
causes the different wavelengths
(colors) of visible light to separate.

Deepen

At this point, you are task to apply what you learned in the various light
phenomena and the different properties of light involve. Read each application and
answer what is being asked.

Performance Task: “Beam Me a Light”

In this activity you will be needing:

• Flashlight
• Red, blue, and green construction paper
• See-through colored cellophane
• Masking tape or a rubber band

Research Questions:
1. Why did the papers look white, red, blue, and green (respectively) in white
light?

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 ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How did the construction paper and cellophane affect the white flashlight
beam?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Why did the yellow and green papers seem to lose their color when red light
was shined on them?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Procedure
1. Darken the room as much as possible.
2. Turn on the flashlight and aim it at the white paper. Observe and record the
color of the paper in the data table.
3. Repeat step 2 with the red, blue, and green pieces of paper.
4. Place the red cellophane in front of the beam of the flashlight as shown using
tape or a rubber band to secure the cellophane paper filter. Shine the filtered
beam on the white, red, blue, and green papers and record the colors seen.
5. Repeat using the blue and green cellophane. After each test, record the
results.

On a separate sheet of paper, copy the table and place your answer on each column
of your results.

Results
Cellophane None Red Green Blue
Paper
White
Red
Blue
Green

Rubrics for Scoring the Output

Exceeds Meets Nearly Meets
No Evidence
Criteria Standard Standard Standard
( 1 pt)
(5-4 pts) (3 pts) (2 pts)
Organization/ The student Paragraph Logical The ideas are
Structural demonstrates development is organization: not organized.
Development of logical and present but not organization of
the Idea subtle perfect. ideas not fully
sequencing of developed.
ideas through
well-developed
paragraphs;

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 transitions are
used to
enhance
organization.
No errors in Almost has no There are some Many errors in
punctuation, errors in errors in punctuation,
Mechanics capitalization, punctuation, punctuation, capitalization,
and spelling. capitalization, capitalization, and spelling.
and spelling. and spelling.
No errors Almost no errors There are some Many errors in
sentence in in sentence sentence
structure sentence structure and structure
Usage
and word structure word usage. and word
usage. and word usage.
usage.

HOW HERTZ PRODUCES RADIO

PULSES

Jumpstart

Direction. Find the term in the puzzle that fits each clue given below. Then write
the term on the blank next to the clue. The terms read across, down and
diagonally.

EM SPRECTRUM WORD SEARCH

M K I O V I S I B L E U
I F R E Q U E N C Y R L
C H S M A S S L E S S T
R G Y S Q U F S D T N R
O R A P H N S Y E A O A
W A R E L N E A R R I V
A D X C O Y C R A S T I
V I S T A Q O A R E A O
E O O R V N N M F L I L
S H X U T C D M N P D E
P J E M R S P A I R A T
W A V E L E N G T H R E

1. Energy is emitted into the air and received by your stereo.

2. Energy from this type of wave will cook popcorn.
3. These are large balls of gas that create and emit their radiation.
4. It is the amount of matter in an object.

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5. This type of radiation is normally felt as heat.
6. The part of the spectrum that our eye can see.
7. It is the source of ultraviolet radiation for Earth.
8. The distance between adjacent crests in a series of periodic
waves.
9. This type of radiation is abbreviated as UV and causes
sunburn.
10. It is a unit of time, not a minute.
11. A doctor uses this type of wave to look at your bones.
12. Energy radiated in the form of waves.
13. Scientist who gave the full range of types of radiation
14. Radioactive materials emit these, and they have the shortest
wavelength in the spectrum.
15. It is measured in cycles per second. (Hertz or Hz)

Radio Mass Sun Gamma rays Spectrum

Frequency Visible Wavelength Radiation Ultraviolet
Second Infrared X-ray Microwave Stars

Discover

Figure 1. Heinrich Hertz

https://www.famousscientists.org/how-hertz-discovered-radio-waves

Recall that visible light is only one of the seven electromagnetic (EM) waves.
Another type of EM wave is the radio wave which is widely used for
communication and transmission of information regardless of the distance of the
sender and receiver. Radio waves are naturally created by astronomical bodies or
lightning. They can also be created artificially to serve their purpose.

In November 1886, Heinrich Hertz became the first person to transmit and
receive controlled radio waves. Considering how indispensable his wireless
transmissions quickly became, it seems a little odd looking back that he had no
practical purpose in mind for the radio or Hertzian waves he discovered.

His research was focused solely on discovering the theory of

electromagnetism was correct in 1864. According to Maxwell’s theory, EM waves
move at the speed of light, c = 3 x 10⁸ m/s, and is created by oscillating electric and
magnetic fields moving perpendicular to each other, in which a changing electric
field yields changing magnetic field and vice versa.

17
 Hertz had been demonstrating a piece of electrical apparatus called Riess
spirals to students. The spirals produced electric sparks by a process called
magnetic induction. The sparks flew between spark-gaps-small gaps in circuits,
and he became fascinated by sparks.

He started generating them using a piece of electrical equipment called an

induction coil. A car’s spark plugs are powered by an induction coil. The induction
coil transforms low voltage DC electricity coming from a car’s battery into high
voltage AC electricity. This electricity crosses a small air gap at regular intervals as
a spark – i.e. you have a spark plug.

You can see a diagram of an induction coil connected to a spark gap below.

Figure 2. Induction Coil connected to a Spark-gap

https://www.famousscientists.org/how-hertz-discovered-radio-waves

Hertz spark testing circuit

Playing around a little with this apparatus, Hertz connected a secondary
spark-gap to the existing spark-gap as shown. He used the induction coil to
generate high voltage ac electricity, producing a series of sparks at regular intervals
at the main spark-gap. Hertz found that when sparks flew across the main gap,
sparks also usually flew across the secondary gap – that is between points A and B
in the image; Hertz called these side-sparks. He found the behavior of the
sidesparks highly thought-provoking.

He varied the position of connection point C on the side-circuit. The only way
he could stop side-sparks being produced was to arrange the apparatus, so the
length of wire CA was the same as CB. Given that the electricity was alternating
current, this suggested to Hertz that voltage waves were separately racing through
the wire along paths CA and CB.

If the distances CA and CB were the same, then the same voltage must reach
points A and B at the same time. The electrical waves in CA and CB were said to be
in phase with one another so that sparks could not be generated. Sparks could only
be generated if there was a large voltage difference between points A and B.

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 Distances CA and CB are equal (red line). Voltage waves reach the sparkgap
in phase with one another. There is no voltage difference between A and B, so no
sparks jump over the gap.

Hertz did more experiments which revealed that the sparking at the main
gap produced regular electrical waves, in which its behavior was predictable. He
pictured waves of electric charge moving back and forth, creating a standing wave
within the wire. In other words, he believed the circuit was vibrating like a tuning
fork at its natural resonant frequency. He thought he now had a circuit in
resonance. Of course, in Hertz’s circuit the vibrations were not of sound, but they
were vibrations of electric charge. It’s worth bearing in mind that resonance is
not needed to produce electromagnetic waves – they’re produced whenever electric
charges accelerated.

The importance of resonance is that if a receiver has the same resonant

frequency as a transmitter, the incoming electromagnetic waves have a much
stronger effect on it. This is similar to an opera singer shatters a champagne glass
because its resonant frequency is the same as the note she sings.

Hertz is aware that the frequency of electrical vibrations and hence

resonance is determined by electrical properties called inductance and capacitance.
Hertz looked more closely at these factors in the circuit.

Breaking Away

He identified that a phenomenon called self-induction was taking place in

the wires. This allowed him to deduce that the electric vibrations had an
extraordinarily high frequency. Hertz decided to break the hard-wired connection
between the main spark circuit and the side-spark circuit, as shown in the image
(above). He also arranged the capacitance and inductance of the main circuit, so its
resonant frequency was 100 million times a second. Today we would write this
vibration frequency as 100 MHz. The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named in
honor of Heinrich Hertz.

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 Figure 3. Induction Coil without hard-wired connection to Spark-gap

Producing and Detecting Radio Waves

In November 1886, Hertz put together his spark-gap transmitter, which he

hoped would transmit electromagnetic waves.

Figure 4. Hertz Spark-gap Transmitter

https://www.famousscientists.org/how-hertz-discovered-radio-waves
Hertz’s spark-gap transmitter is composed of two hollow zinc spheres of
diameter 30 cm, which are 3 m apart. These act as capacitors. A 2 mm thick copper
wire run from the spheres into the middle, where there is a spark-gap. Today we
would describe this oscillator as a half-wave dipole antenna. For his receiver, he
used a length of copper wire in the shape of a rectangle whose dimensions were 120
cm by 80 cm. The wire had its spark-gap.

Hertz applied high voltage AC electricity across the central spark-gap of the
transmitter, creating sparks. The sparks caused violent pulses of electric current
within the copper wires leading out to the zinc spheres.

Hertz detected the waves with his copper wire receiver – sparks jumped
across its spark gap, even though it was as far as 1.5 meters away from the
transmitter. These sparks were caused by the arrival of electromagnetic waves from
the transmitter generating violent electrical vibrations in the receiver.

This was an experimental triumph that Hertz produced and detected radio
waves. Strangely, though, he did not appreciate the monumental practical
importance of his discovery. Summing up Hertz's importance: his experiments
would soon trigger the invention of the wireless telegraph and radio by Marconi,
and later on TV and other devices were made.

The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

To calculate the speed of the EM waves, Hertz performed another experiment
that aimed the radiation into a wide metal sheet. A standing wave was formed, from
which he was able to measure the distance between nodes which served as the
wavelength (λ) of the EM wave, while the frequency (f) was calculated from the

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frequency of the oscillator. From these two quantities, Hertz was able to calculate
the speed of the EM wave (v=λf).
The speed of the EM wave was equivalent to the speed of light, which served
as a proof of Maxwell’s theory. The frequency of a wave, which is the number of
cycles created in a unit of time was named hertz, in honor of Heinrich Hertz.

Photo taken at https://www.famousscientists.org/how-hertz-discovered-radio-waves/

“I do not think that the wireless waves I have discovered will have any practical
application.”

Explore

Enrichment Activity: How Radio Waves Woks?

Direction: Use the words below to complete the following sentences. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper.

https://www.forestville.com/cms/lib/NY19000591/Centricity/Domain/38/Fun_intro_to_EM
S_worksheet.pdf

A. Radio waves are produced through ____________________ aerial in the form of

__________, which travel through the atmosphere. Another ________________ is used
as ____________________ (usually a radio or a television). The receiving aerial
pickups the waves and converts them into an alternating current with the same
__________ as the radio waves.

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 Alternating currents, aerial, receiver, transmitting, frequency

B. Radio waves can experience ______________ caused by _______________ such

as mountains. Other broadcasts, tuned to a similar ________________ can also
interfere.
Interference, frequency, obstruction

C. Radio waves cannot be __________ or ___________ but when they reach a

________, they are converted into ____________ or ___________.

Receiver, heard, sound, pictures, seen

D. Radio waves are good at _____________ (sending out to lots of receivers) and
that is how we get to listen to radio and TV broadcasts. TVs and radios can
________ broadcast signals using antennas.

Broadcasting, receive

Deepen

Performance Task: “Wavelength of a Radio Station”

You are listening to an FM radio station with a frequency of 94.9 Hz, which
equals 94,900,000 Hz. What is the wavelength of these radio waves? Use the wave
speed equation v = λf, and assume the waves travel at the speed of light, 300,000.0
km/s. (3x 108 m/s is the speed of light).

Solution:

• Given : frequency: f = 94,900,000 Hz

wave speed: v = 300,000.0 km/s

• Unknown: wavelength: λ?

 Solve for λ
v = λf v = λf v = λ or λ = v
f f f f f f

 Substitute the given to the wavelength formula:

Remember!
λ=v = 300,000.0 km/s = 300,000.0 km •1/s
Hz = 1 cycle per
f 94,900,000 Hz 94,900,000 • 1/s λ
second or 1/s
= 0.00316 km

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 Convert this to meters (m)? Why? Unit of measurement for wavelength is m
Answer: λ = 0.00316 km x 1,000 m = 3.16 m
1 km
It’s Your Turn!

Try to answer what is being asked. On a separate sheet of paper, solve the
following. Show your complete solution.

1. Your friend is listening to an AM station with a frequency of 1,520 kHz. What

is the wavelength of these radio waves?

2. What is the frequency of the radio waves broadcast by an AM station if the

wavelength of the radio waves is 500.0 m?

Rubrics for Scoring the Output

Criteria Exceeds Meets Nearly Meets No Evidence
Standard (5 Standard (4 Standard
pts) pts) (3 pts) (1 pt)
Completed all Completed most Completed Completed just a
the work of the work some of little of the work
Completion
the
work
Tried to do all Tried to most Tried to do Tried to do just
Effort the work the work some the work a little of the
work
Completely Understood the Understood Did not
understood the problem and part of the understand the
Understanding problem mostly solve it problem but problem
and could not solve
solve it it
Computation, Computation, Computation, Computation,
solution solution is right solution is right solution
Computation and but didn’t but didn’t get and
answer is right arrived with the answer answer is
exact answer erroneous
Clear and Clear but Messy and Untidy and very
Neatness organized solution is not solution is not hard to read
organized organized

Gauge

Direction: Read each item carefully. Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following phenomena is not produced by refraction?

A. Crepuscular rays B. Halos

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 C. Mirages D. Sundogs

2. Which of the following are capable of producing a red sunrise or sunset?

A. Volcanic ash B. Small suspended salt particles
C. small suspended dust particles D. All of the above

3. A ring of light encircling the sun or moon could be either ______.

A. A rainbow or a halo. B. A halo or a sundog.
C. A halo or a corona. D. A sundog or a crepuscular ray.

4. Refraction of light by the atmosphere is responsible for

A. Mirages.
B. Increasing the length of daylight.
C. Causing the sun to appear to flatten-out on the horizon.
D. All of the above

5. Which of the following are caused by the bending of light through ice crystals?
A. Halos and sundogs B. Rainbows and halos
C. Halos and the green flash D. Sundogs and sun pillars

6. Halos are caused by ____________.

A. Scattering of light by ice crystals.
B. Diffraction of light by cloud droplets.
C. Refraction of light passing through raindrops.
D. Refraction of light passing through ice crystals.

7. On a foggy night, it is often difficult to see the road when the high beam lights
are on because of ____ of light by the fog.
A. Absorption B. Refraction C. Scattering D. Transmission

8. If the setting sun appears red, you may conclude that A. The next day's weather
will be stormy.
B. You will not be able to see the moon that night.
C. Only the longest waves of visible light are striking your eye.
D. The sun's surface temperature has cooled somewhat at the end of the
day.

9. This can only be seen when the sun is to your back and it is raining in front of
you.
A. Halo B. Rainbow C. Sundog D. Sun pillar

10. Which of the following processes must occur in a raindrop to produce a

rainbow?
A. Refraction, reflection, and scattering of sunlight
B. Refraction, reflection, and dispersion of sunlight
C. Reflection, scattering, and dispersion of sunlight
D. Transmission, reflection, and dispersion of sunlight

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11. What event in Hertz’ experiment made him think that EM waves are being
transmitted?
A. Production of light B. Production of wave
C. Production of spark D. Production of sound

12. What quantities were needed to solve for the speed of the wave? A. Amplitude
and wavelength B. Frequency and period
C. Speed and wavelength D. Wavelength and frequency

13. Which of the following statements are true about how Hertz calculated the
speed of the EM waves?
I. He was able to create a standing wave from which he measured
the wavelength of the wave.
II. He was able to provide evidence that light cannot be absorbed.
III. Hertz made the radiation hit a broad metal sheet.
IV. He was able to create a standing wave from which he measured
the frequency of the wave.
A. I and II B. II and IV
C. III and IV D. I and IV

14. Violet has a wavelength of 4.10 x 10-12 m. What is the frequency?

A. 7.3 x 10-17 Hz B. 7.3 x 10-19 Hz
C. 7.3 x 1017 Hz D. 7.3 x 1019 Hz

15. An FM station broadcasts at a frequency of 107.9 MHz. What is the wavelength

of the radio signal?
A. 2.8 m B. 280 m
C. 2,800 m D. 28,000 m

Answer Key

LESSON 1: Explain Various Light Phenomena

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LESSON 2: Describe How Hertz Produce Radio Pulses

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