Technical Seminar talk – PWI Annual Convention 2001

Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment – A Brief Overview

By : Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin 28-29 September 2001

Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment

– A Brief Overview
Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew
Managing Director, Gue & Partners Sdn Bhd
&
Ir. Tan Yean Chin
Associate Director, Gue & Partners Sdn Bhd

ABSTRACT: The design and construction of high speed track embankment over very soft soils have always
been a challenging task for geotechnical engineers. This paper presents a brief overview of the geotechnical
solutions that are commonly used in Malaysia to treat the subsoil for embankment construction. The
importance of the subsurface investigation to acquire the necessary information for design and construction as
well as some typical defects and solutions are also discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION localised very soft areas where additional subsurface

investigation should be carried out.
The design and construction of high speed track The basic information required for planning and
embankment over very soft soils has always been a preliminary design of the embankment includes :
challenging task for geotechnical engineers. There - Site Topography;
are many different types of ground improvement - Geology and Landuse;
techniques that can be used for construction of the - Soil Stratigraphy;
embankment on soft soils. The design and choice of - Soil Strength;
construction method in this formation are not only - Soil Compressibility;
governed by direct costs, but also duration of - Groundwater Levels.
completion, long term maintenance costs, and cost The commonly used field and laboraty tests in
benefits. Malaysia are :
This paper presents a brief overview of the (A) Field Tests :
various commonly used techniques for construction - Light Dymanic Penetrometer (JKR or
of embankment on soft soils. The importance of the Mackintosh Probes)
subsurface investigation to acquire the necessary - Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
information for design and construction as well as - Field Vane Shear Test
some typical defects and solutions are also discussed - Piezocone (CPTU)
- Pressuremeter Test
(B) Laboratory Tests :
3 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION - Unconfined Compression Test
- Triaxial Test (UU, CIU and CID with
When planning of the subsurface investigation (S.I.),
pore pressure measurement.)
the Engineer shall always remember that majority of
- Consolidation Test
the unforeseen costs associated with contruction on
- Compaction Test (for fill materials)
soft soils are geotechnical in nature. Additional costs
are often attributed to inadequate planning of S.I.
For safe and cost effective design of embankment on
and improper interpretation of the factual
clayey subsoil, it is very important to detect
information.
intermediate sand layers between the clayey subsoil
Site reconnaissance is required to confirm and
using either piezocone (CPTU) with pore pressure
obtain additional information from the site. Site
measurement and continuous sampling in borehole.
reconnaissance allows the engineer to compare the
The existence of the intermediate sand layers will
surface features and topography of the site with data
reduce the drainage path and increase the rate of
and information obtained from desk study. One
consolidation thus reduce significantly the waiting
important aspect of site reconnaissance is the study
time to achieve the required settlement, and in certain
on the vegetation to search to tell-tale signs of
case even the use of vertical drains can be omitted.

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Technical Seminar talk – PWI Annual Convention 2001
Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment – A Brief Overview
By : Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin 28-29 September 2001
Additional soil properties may be needed depending The factor of safety to be used in the stability
on the construction methods to be adopted. The analysis will depend on the following factors :
planning and interpretation of the site investigation - Method of analysis
and interpretation will not be covered in this paper. - Reliability of the design method
Details of the subject can be obtained from papers by - Reliability of the design soil parameters
Gue & Tan (2000), Gue (1999) and Tan (1999). - Consequences of failure in terms of human
All engineers are strongly advised to provide site life and economic loss.
supervision of the S.I. by staff under his/her direct
control to ensure tests are carried out according to British Standard BS6031:1981 gives no specific
the specifications with proper equipment, accessories values or method for soil strength determination for
and method. Otherwise, they would be taking great use in embankment design. It only refers to a range
risks of getting wrong or improper data. Site of factor of safety between 1.3 and 1.4 for cut
supervision is also a legislation requirement as stated slopes. Generally in practice, the factor of safety on
in Uniform Building By-Laws, 1984 and Street, shear strength (FOS) from total stress or undrained
Drainage and Building Act, 1974 (Act 133). strength analyses used in temporary stage is usually
taken as between 1.2 to 1.3. FOS of 1.4 and 1.5 are
normally adopted in effective stress analyses of
4 DESIGN CONCEPT embankment for permanent stage using moderately
conservative soil parameters.
Before carrying out an embankment design and
selection of the most appropriate construction
methods, the following issues should be considered:
4.1 Settlement Analysis
- Boundary of the embankment;
- Influence of the embankment on adjacent
In addition to various stability analyses for
structures, services, slopes and drainage;
embankment designs, settlement prediction is also
- Earliest construction start date and
very important especially for high speed track.
completion date;
Settlement of the subsoil supporting the embankment
- Tolerance on total and differential
will take place during and after filling. It is
settlements of the proposed embankment.
necessary to evaluate both the magnitude and rate of
- Rate at which embankment fill material
settlement of the subsoil supporting the embankment
can be placed;
when designing the embankment so that the
- Availability of fill from other parts of the
settlement in the long term will not influence the
site;
serviceability and safety of the embankment.
- Availability of alternative materials;
In carrying out stability analyses, it is necessary
- Cost analysis and implication of the
to estimate the magnitude of settlement which occurs
ground treatment proposed.
during construction so that the thickness of the fill
- Future maintenance (frequency and cost)
can be designed to ensure stability. An iterative
process is required in the estimation of settlement
It is very important to check for the stability of the
because the extra fill (more load) required to
embankment with consideration for different
compensate for settlement will lead to further
potential failure surfaces namely circular and non-
settlement.
circular as shown in Figure 1.
When a load of finite dimensions is rapidly applied
on a compressible subsoil, the resulting settlements
can be conveniently divided into three stages :
(A) Initial Settlement (also called immediate or
undrained or shear settlement), ρi
(B) Primary Consolidation Settlement, ρc
(C) Secondary Compression, ρs

Figure 1 : Circular & Non-Circular Failure Surfaces The details of the embankment design, can be
obtained from papers by Tan & Gue (2000).

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Technical Seminar talk – PWI Annual Convention 2001
Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment – A Brief Overview
By : Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin 28-29 September 2001

5 GROUND TREATMENT METHODS

5.2 Excavation and Replacement of Soft Soils
The engineer will only able to identify the suitable (Total or Partial)
ground treatment to be adopted after carrying out
both technical and cost analyses. Some of the This old method is still viable where the very soft
embankment construction methods commonly used in compressible cohesive soils are excavated out and
Malaysia are as follows : replaced with better materials (e.g. compacted sand
(a) Modification of Embankment Geometry or suitable fill) that provide a stronger and less
(b) Excavation and Replacement of Soft Soils compressible foundation. The experience on
(Total or Partial) highway construction in West Malaysia indicates
(c) Surcharging that the excavation and replacement depth up to a
(d) Staged Construction maximum depth of 4.5m is viable in terms of cost
(e) Vertical Drains (with surcharging or/and and practicability. Usually the excavation should
staged construction) extend to at least to the toe of the embankment and
(f) Lightweight Fills using Expanded beyond to increase the stability of the embankment.
Polystyrene (EPS) This method will be more difficult if the
(g) Geosynthetics Reinforcement groundwater level is high. If pumping of water is not
(h) Stone Columns practical, then underwater replacement materials
(i) Piled Embankment (granular materials) should be used. These materials
shall be of a grading that it is effectively self-
compacting. The main disadvantage of the method is
5.1 Modification of Embankment Geometry the amount of soft soil (unsuitable materials) which
needs to be disposed. During excavation, the
Reduction of slope angle or construction of stability of the temporary slope must also be check to
counterweight berms improves the stability of the prevent slip failure even before the good materials
embankment but this method has a disadvantage of can be placed. This method also requires high
greater land-take and volume of fill materials are quality prediction of bearing capacity and settlement.
needed.

(A) FOS a > FOS b

FOS b

Figure 3 : Partial Soft Soil Replacement

FOS a

(B) FOS a > FOS b 5.3 Surcharging

Surcharging is to subject the ground to higher

pressure than that during the service life in order to
achieve a higher initial rate of settlement thus
FOS b reducing long term settlements. Usually these
methods are used to control both total settlement and
FOS a differential settlement at the abutments to bridge /
flyover and where culverts are crossing beneath the
embankment. Some of the disadvantages of
Figure 2 : (A) Reduction in Slope Angle (B) Using surcharging are :-
Berms

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Technical Seminar talk – PWI Annual Convention 2001
Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment – A Brief Overview
By : Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin 28-29 September 2001
- require waiting period for consolidation soil or terminate shorter in stronger materials
before the temporary surcharge materials (SPT’N’ ≈ 7 to 10). Sometimes, pre-boring is
can be removed required to penetrate some surface crust or artificial
- extra fill materials to be used and later obstructions at the surface.
excavated. Vertical drains will only be effective when using
in conjunction with another technique, such as
This method is only applicable to compressible surcharging and staged construction and the design is
subsoil with reasonably high permeability (if vertical governed by the time allowed in the construction
drains are not used) or height of embankment is low. programme for consolidation to occur.
The vertical drains should have sufficient
capacity to enable the water to discharge to layers
5.4 Staged Construction above and below the consolidating layer. Granular
materials are laid above the ground surface as
Staged construction is the method by which the platform for the movement of the plant and also as
embankment can be constructed on the soft soil such drainage layer. The drainage layer must be free from
that the rate of filling is governed by the increase in blockage so that water from the vertical drains can
soil strength due to consolidation. Usually vertical be discharged effectively. Pre-fabricated drains are
drains are used together to increase the consolidation usually cut off about 150mm above the initial
process. drainage layer prior to placing further drainage
The use of the staged construction method material. Hence the drains have to be properly
requires close liaison and communication between embedded inside the drainage layer by manual
the design engineer, contractor and supervising labour.
engineer. Instruments like settlement markers, We also wish highlight that the spacing of
displacement markers, piezometers, etc. need to be vertical drains has significant influence on the cost.
placed to monitor the performance of the For example, 1m c/c spacing vertical drains will cost
embankment during construction to prevent failure. 300% more than 2m c/c spacing vertical drains. In
In more sensitive cases, confirmation of gain in view of the cost sensitive nature, it is very important
strength is needed before the application of the next to acquire sufficient information of the subsoil so
stage of loading to ensure safety of embankment. that a cost effective design can be carried out.
Similar to surcharging method, staged construction is
usually effective only for compressible soils with
high permeability (if vertical drains are not used). 5.6 Lightweight Fills using EPS

Lightweight fills using Expanded Polystyrene

5.5 Vertical Drains (EPS) will reduce the weight of the embankment
significantly thus increasing the stability of the
Vertical prefabricated band-shaped drains are embankment and reduce settlement in long term.
installed through soft clay soils to accelerate the Usually EPS is used in bridge approach embankment
speed of consolidation of the subsoil by reducing the to smoothen the differential settlement between rigid
drainage path lengths and utilizing the naturally structure (bridge) and the abutment as shown in
higher horizontal permeability of clay deposits. Figure 4. The choice of the grade of EPS will
Prefabricated drains using corrugated polymeric generally depend on the required strength and
materials (polyethylene and polypropylene) for the stiffness. The most critical condition in designing
core, and woven or non-woven fabric or fibre for the embankment using EPS is flotation (uplift forces)
filter. They are about 100mm wide, about 4mm under flood condition because of its the low density.
thick and are installed using a closed-end mandrel
and usually to a depth no more than 30m in very soft

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Technical Seminar talk – PWI Annual Convention 2001
Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment – A Brief Overview
By : Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin 28-29 September 2001

5.8 Stone Columns

Stone columns are used to strengthen thus increase

the stability of the embankment and to reduce
settlement (stiffening). Stone columns also
accelerate the rate of consolidation of the subsoil.
Stone column as the name imply is replacing the very
poor soils are replaced with granular materials
(gravels) in grid pattern forming granular columns.
There are two basic techniques for forming stone
columns, vibro-replacement (in clayey soils) and
Figure 4 : Use of EPS at Bridge Abutment vibro-displacement (in sandy soils).
When designing stone columns the following mode
EPS is supplied in blocks that can be easily handled of failure shall be checked :
by two men. The first layer of blocks should be - Bulging failure
placed on a bliding layer of sand of at least 50mm - General shear failure
thick. Successive horizontal layers of blocks shall be - Sliding failure
placed in a bond pattern to avoid continuous vertical
joints and all blocks are connected by dowels. The The two case histories of embankment failures
top of the EPS is usually covered with high density supported by stone columns investigated by the
polyethylene (HDPE) sheeting and reinforced Authors indicate that the design of stone columns
concrete slab to protect from UV light, hydrocarbons using computer software (Priebe’s Method, 1995)
and solvents that can cause damage to the EPS. alone is not adequate to ensure safety. Further
Other precaution include protection from burrowing checking of the three failure modes stated above
animals/insects. especially general shear failure in very soft cohesive
soil is necessary to prevent failure.
If stone columns are used to reinforce the subsoil
5.7 Geosynthetics Reinforcement for embankment construction, it is also very
important to prevent “mushroom” effects in long
Geosynthetics in the form of geogrid or geotextile are term in which the fill with stone column immediately
sometime used to improve the stability of the beneath it will protrude up like hump compared with
embankment over soft soils. Usually the the fill between the stone columns. This is due to
geosynthethics are placed at the base of the instability of the arch region in the fill above the
embankment. The function of the geosynthetics stone columns. Some general solutions are to use
reinforcement is to reduce the forces causing failure granular (gravels) materials with high angle of
(lateral stresses and outward movement of the soil) friction as fill materials above the closely spaced
and increase the forces resisting failure (tensile stone columns to have proper soil arching of the fill
strength of the geosynthetics). For design of between stone columns or to place high strength
geosynthetics reinforced embankment, reference shall geosynthetics on top of the stone columns before
be made to BS8006 : 1995 “Code of Practice for placing the fill. It is generally recommended to limit
Strengthened/ reinforced soils and other fills”. the spacing of the stone columns to less than 2m c/c
The important parameters for design are strength, to prevent the “mushroom” effects.
stiffness, creep, long term behaviour, permeability,
resistance to chemicals and UV light resistance.
Attention shall be paid to ensure that jointing and 5.9 Piled Embankment
overlap details of the geosynthetics are adhered to.
Care shall be taken as to the handling and use of Piled embankment is sometimes used especially when
plant on geosynthetics as this may affect the time is a major constraint and in some cases it could
properties assumed in design. be more cost effective than other ground treatment
methods.

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Technical Seminar talk – PWI Annual Convention 2001
Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment – A Brief Overview
By : Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin 28-29 September 2001

It is very important to construct the slab of the piled

embankment lower than the original ground level so
that there is no filling at the piled embankment area
to cause long settlement of the subsoil that would
induce negative skin friction (down drag) to the piles.

Figure 7 : Piled Culvert (Not Recommended)

6 CONSIDERATION FOR
APPROACHES TO A CULVERT

Figure 5 : Piled Embankment with Transition Piles Very often, the culverts are design and constructed as
shown in Figure 7 to ensure that the area of flow of
Piled embankment with transition piles is also used the drain through the embankment remain unchanged
to provide a smooth transition (reduce differential with time. This is achieved by using piles to provide
settlement) between bridge abutment and the bridge a rigid platform. The consequences of having rigid
as shown in Figure 5. platform as shown induces differential settlement
The weight of the fill and any load on top of it is between the rigid piled culvert and the unpiled
transferred to the piles using a reinforced concrete embankment.
slab or using high-strength geosynthetics The possible geotechnical solutions to eliminate
reinforcement between isolated pile caps. Many case the differential settlement are (Gue, 2000) :-
histories in Malaysia have shown that using isolated - Provide a larger culvert to allow for long
pile caps with geosynthetics had caused “mushroom” term settlement. (Figure 8)
effects and therefore piled embankment with r.c. slab - Provide a transition piled embankment to the
is recommended. Figure 6 shows an example of cost approaches to a culvert.
saving on the piled embankment by using granular
fill at the slopes of the embankment but it is
important to check and limit the safe height of the
embankment where the fill is not supported by piles
will not fail either through bearing capacity failure or
slip failure. The advantage of using gravels at the
slope is to prevent tension cracks due to differential
settlement between piled and unpiled sections.

Figure 8 : Oversized Culvert

The first option as shown in Figure 8 allows the

culvert to settle evenly together with the embankment
hence the size available for flow will reduce with
Figure 6 : Typical Piled Embankment Section time as the culvert settles and a section of the culvert
will be silted up as shown. The net flow area after
taking into consideration of settlement and siltation
should have a size not smaller than that required for
the volume of flow designed.

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Technical Seminar talk – PWI Annual Convention 2001
Geotechnical Solutions for High Speed Track Embankment – A Brief Overview
By : Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin 28-29 September 2001

7 CONCLUSION REFERENCES

There are many construction methods that can be Gue, S.S. (2000) “Innovative Geotechnical Input for
adopted for the high speed track embankment and Approaches to Bridges and Culverts over
they are : Compressible Soils”. Proc. 4th Malaysian Road
(a) Modification of Embankment Geometry Conference – Towards Better Highway
(b) Excavation and Replacement of Soft Soils Environment, 30 & 31 October, 2000, Kuala
(Total or Partial) Lumpur.
(c) Surcharging Gue, S.S. (1999) ”Selection of Geotechnical
(d) Staged Construction Parameters for Design”. Short Course on Soil
(e) Vertical Drains (with surcharging or/and Investigation and Design for Slope (SCOFG99),
staged construction) 11 & 12th May, 1999, Kuala Lumpur.
(f) Lightweight Fills using Expanded Gue, S.S. & Tan, Y.C (2000). “Subsurface
Polystyrene (EPS) Investigation and Interpretation of Test Results
(g) Geosynthetics Reinforcement for Foundation Design in Soft Clay”. Seminar
(h) Stone Columns on Ground Improvement – Soft Clay (SOGISC-
(i) Piled Embankment 2000), 23rd & 24th August 2000, UTM, Kuala
Lumpur.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Gue, S.S. & Tan, Y.C. (2000). “Planning of
Therefore to ensure a successful construction of high Subsurface Investigation and Interpretation of
speed track embankment over very soft soils, the Test Results for Geotechnical Design”. Seminar
following criteria shall be fulfilled : on Geotechnical Engineering, 22 & 23
• Awareness of the project requirements in September 2000, Penang.
terms of serviceability criteria (deformation Priebe, H.J. (1995) “The Design of Vibro
tolerances, differential settlement, bearing Replacement” Ground Engineering, December
capacity, etc.), costs (construction cost and 1995, pp 31 to 37.
maintenance cost), site constraint and time Tan, Y.C. & Gue, S.S. (2000) “Embankment over
(construction time, service period). Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control”
• Knowledge on the site and subsoil conditions Seminar on Geotechnical Engineering, 22 & 23
through proper desk study, gathering of September 2000, Penang.
geological information and well planned and Tan, Y.C. & Liew, S.S. (2000) “Observational
supervised subsurface investigation and Method to Prevent Failure of Embankment
laboratory testing to acquire the necessary Treated with Vacuum Preloading”. Seminar on
reliable parameters for geotechnical designs. Failures Related to Geotechnical Works, 23 &
• Proper geotechnical design to address both 24 October 2000, Kuala Lumpur.
stability of the embankment and control of Tan, Y.C. (1999) “Piezocone Tests and
deformation. Interpretation”. Short Course on Soil
• Full time proper supervision of the Investigation and Design for Slope (SCOFG99),
construction works by qualified personnel / 11 & 12th May, 1999, Kuala Lumpur.
engineer.
• Careful and proper monitoring on the
performance of the embankment during and
after construction through instrumentation
scheme to prevent failure (Tan & Liew,
2000)
• Proper construction control to prevent
uncontrolled filling, stocking piling of fill
materials causing overloading of the
embankment, proper compaction, etc.

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