MSCPH 510 (L)

Prof. P. D.
Pant
Director School of Sciences Prof. S.R. Jha,
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani School of Sciences, I.G.N.O.U., Maidan Garhi,
Prof. P. S. Bisht, New Delhi
SSJ Campus, KumaunUniversity, Almora. Prof. R. C. Shrivastva,
Dr. Kamal Deolal Professor and Head, Department of Physics, CBSH,
Department of Physics G.B.P.U.A.&T. Pantnagar, India
School of Sciences, Uttarakhand Open University
Department of Physics (School of Sciences)
Dr. Kamal Devlal (Assistant Professor) Dr. Meenakshi Rana (Assistant Professor (AC))
Dr. Vishal Sharma (Assistant Professor) Dr. Rajesh Mathpal (Assistant Professor (AC))
Dr. Gauri Negi (Assistant Professor)
Board of Studies
Unit writing and Editing

Editing Writing
Dr. Kamal Devlal 1. Dr. Anshuman Sahai

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor,
Department of Physics Department of Physics
School of Sciences, Uttarakhand Open Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, Haryana (India)
University
2. Dr. D. K. Upreti
Assistant Professor- Physics
Govt. PG College Ranikhet
Course Title and Code : Practical Physics (MSCPH 510)

ISBN :
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2022
Published By : Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital- 263139
Printed By :
MSCPH510
Practical Physics
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123
Toll free No. 18001804025
Fax No. 05946-264232, E. mail info@uou.ac.in
htpp://uou.ac.in
MSCPH510
Contents
Course: Practical Physics Course code: MSCPH510
Credit: 3
Unit Block and Unit title Page

number number
BLOCK-I
1 NPN, PNP Transistor characteristics 1-11
2 Study of RC coupled Transformer coupled amplifier 12-17
3 Study of CRO 18-27
4 Study of different oscillators (Hartely, Collpit, Wein’s Bridge) etc. 28-40
5 Study of electronically regulated power supply 41-43
6 Study of transistor and feedback amplifiers 44-65
7 Study of different types of resistances and diodes 66-80
8 Study of e/m by Zeeman Effect 81-95
9 Study of characteristics of FET & MOSFET 96-107
10 Study of lattice dynamic kit 108-121
11 Study of logic gates 122-129
12 Detection efficiency of diodes 130-137
13 Study of ESR spectra of given sample 138-144
14 Study of RCS spectrometer 145-154
15 Study of Gamma ray spectrometer 155-161
16 Study of Multivibrator 162-174
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EXPERIMENT 1
PNP (or NPN) TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
OBJECTIVE:
To draw characteristics of a PNP junction transistor in common base and common emitter
arrangement
APPARATUS:
PNP transistor, batteries, voltmeter, millivoltmeter, milli and micro ammeters
THEORY:
(A) In common base arrangement we draw:

1. Ic/Vc characteristics – We plot collector current versus collector voltage for various
values of constant emitter current.
2. Ic/Ie characteristics – We plot collector current versus emitter current for various
values of constant collector voltage.
(B) In common emitter arrangement we draw:
1. Ic/Ib characteristics – We plot collector current versus base current for a constant
collector voltage.
2. Ic/Vc characteristics – We plot collector current versus collector voltage for various
values of constant base current.
Note: If we have been supplied by a NPN transistor in place of PNP transistor, just keep the
circuit (as discussed ahead) same with input biasing as forward bias and output circuit as
reversed bias accordingly.
PROCEDURE:
(A) Common Base Arrangement:

1. Ic/Vc characteristics:
(i) Make the electrical connections as shown in figure 1 (next page).
(ii) Adjust the emitter current to 1 mA and keep it constant by adjusting variable
resistor R1.
(iii) Adjust collector voltage to – 5V with the help of resistor R2.
(iv) Now increase collector voltage in steps on 1 Volt and note the corresponding
collector current. If emitter current changes then readjust it to 1mA.
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(v) Now reverse the polarity of the collector voltage (exchange terminals of
battery between collector and base) and adjust to 0.1 volt. Note down the
collector current.
(vi) Increase collector voltage in steps of 0.1 volt and take the readings of collector
current until it becomes zero.
(vii) Repeat the whole procedure (point i to vi) for other constant values of emitter
current.
Figure 1. Circuit diagram for common base arrangement
(viii) Draw the characteristics as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2. Output characteristics of collector current versus collector voltage
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2. Ic/Ie characteristics:
(i) Keep the collector voltage fixed at – 5V.
(ii) Adjust emiiter current 100μA (0.1 mA) and note the corresponding collector
current.
(iii) Increase emitter current in steps and note the collector current each time.
(iv) Draw the characteristics as shown in figure 3.
Figure 3. Characteristics of collector current versus emitter current
(B) Common Emitter Arrangement:

1. Ic/Ib characteristics:
(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4. Circuit diagram for common emitterarrangement
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(ii) Adjust the collector voltage – 2V by means of R2 and keep it fix for the whole
experiment.
(iii) Adjust the base current to 20μA by means of R1 and note the corresponding
collector current.
(iv) Increase base current in steps and note the corresponding collector current till
the latter reaches, say about 4 mA. If collector voltage changes then readjust it
to –2V.
(v) Plot collector current against base current as shown in figure 5.
Figure 5. Output characteristics of collector current versus base current
(i) Adjust base current to 20 μA by means of R1.
(ii) Increase collector voltage in steps of 1 volt by means of R2 and note the
corresponding collector current.
(iii) The base current is now adjusted to 40 μA, 60 20 μA, etc. and with every
value of base current; procedure of point (ii) is repeated.
(iv) Plot curves between collector current and collector voltage as shown in figure
6.
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Figure 6. Output characteristics of collector current versus collector voltage
OBSERVATIONS:
(A) For Common Base Arrangement:

S.No Collector Collector current Ic in mA for emitter current
Voltage, Vc,
In volt Ie = 1 mA Ie = 2 mA Ie = 3 mA Ie = 4 mA
1 -5V … … … …
2 -4V … … … …
3 -3V … … … …
4 -2V … … … …
5 -1V … … … …
6 0.1V … … … …
7 0.2V … … … …
… … … … … …
… 1.0V … … … …
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2. Ic/ Ie characteristics:
Collector voltage = - 5 V
S.No Emitter Current, Ie , in mA Collector Current, Ic, in mA
1 … …
2 … …
3 … …
4 … …
5 … …
6 … …
(B) For Common Emitter Arrangement:

1. Ic/ Ib characteristics:
Collector Voltage = -2V
S.No Base current, Ib , in mA Collector Current, Ic, in mA
1 … …
2 … …
3 … …
4 … …
5 … …
6 … …
S.No Collector Collector Current Ic, in mA for base current
Voltage, Vc,
in volts Ib = 20 μA Ib = 40 μA Ib =60μA Ib = 80 μA
1 … … … … …
2 … … … … …
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3 … … … … …
4 … … … … …
5 … … … … …
6 … … … … …
RESULTS:
Characteristics of PNP transistor in common base and common emitter arrangement have been
plotted.
Sources of Error and Precautions:
1. Student should not, in hurry by mistake, connect the transistor directly to the a.c. switch.
Battery, with correct polarity, is to be used.
2. Voltages applied between the different leads should not exceed the recommended value.
3. Overheating of the transistor should be avoided.
QUESTIONS FOR VIVA VOCE
Q.1. What is triode transistor?
Ans. It can be regarded as a combination of two junction PN diodes, one biased in the low
impedance direction and other in high impedance direction, e.g. in a PNP transistor, emitter is
biased in the forward direction while the collector is biased in the reverse direction.
Q.2.What is PNP transistor?
Ans. A junction transistor can be formed by growing a germanium or silicon crystal with two N
– regions separated by very thin P region (called NPN arrangement) or with two P regions fused
on to a very thin N region (called PNP arrangement).
Q.3. What is emitter, collector and base?
Ans. In PNP or NPN arrangement, the central region is called base one of the outer layers as
emitter and the other as collector.
Q.4. Why is it called a transistor?
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Ans. A transistor is basically a resistor that amplifies electrical impulses as they are transferred
through it from its input to its output terminals. The name transistor is derived from the words
transfer and resistor.
Q.5. Whatare the basic materialsused for making transistor?
Ans. Semiconductor germanium or silicon is used.
Q.6. What is peculiar about a semiconductor?
Ans. Its resistivity depends upon temperature and decreases with the rise in temperature.
Q.7. What is the difference between a transistor and vacuum tube?

Ans. (i) transistor is current operated device while tube is a voltage operated device.
(ii) in transistor, output and input circuits are not isolated.
(iii) in transistor, input and output impedances widely differ.
Q.8. What are the advantages of a transistor over a vacuum tube?
Ans. (i) small size, light weight,

(ii) long operating life and more mechanical strength,
(iii) low current requirement.
Q.9. How the current is conducted in a PNP transistor?
Ans. Holes in emitter P region (emitter is biased positively) are repelled to base region. But base
region is thin and lightly doped so the holes drift across the base, N, without meeting electrons to
combine with. Thus holes reach the collector P region (biased negatively). For each hole, an
electron is emitted from negative terminal of the battery and neutralises the hole. For each hole
lost by combination, a covalent bond near emitter electrode breaks and a liberated electron from
there – enters the positive terminal of the battery while the new holes move towards the
collector. This process continues. Thus holes move inside the material from the emitter to
collector while electrons move in the outer circuit from emitter to base. The current in outer
emitter – base circuit is called emitter current Ie and the current in the outer collector base circuit
is called collector current, Ic.
Q.10. Which region in a transistor are heavily doped?
Ans. Emitter region is heavily doped while the base region is lightly doped.
Q.11. How a PNP or NPN’ transistor is biased?
Ans. The emitter – base junction is forward biased while the collector base junction is reverse
biased.
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Q.12. What is the fundamental relation between the currents in a bipolar transistor?
Ans. In the external circuit, the magnitudes of the emitter current, Ie, the base current, Ib and the
collector current, Ic, are given by
= +
Base current is of the order of μA where Ie ≈ Ic of mA order.
Q.13. Why common emitter amplifier is most widely used?
Ans. (i) it has good current and voltage gains.

(ii) it has the highest power gain.
(iii) The difference between its input and output impedances is not very large. Therefore,
common emitter circuits can be connected in cascade directly without using transformers for
matching purposes.
Q.14. Define static current amplification factors.
Ans. (i) αdc, the static current amplification factor for a transistor in common base connection is
the ratio of static (dc) collector current, Ic, to the static emitter current, Ie, at a constant collector
voltage with respect to the emitter. That is
= , at constant Vcb
(ii) βdc, the static current amplification factor for a transistor in the common – emitter connection,
is the ratio of static (d.c) collector current, Ic, to the static base current, Ib, at a constant collector
voltage with respect to the emitter. That is
= , at constant Vce
Normally the value of αdc is greater than 0.9 and less than 1. Value of βdc depending on the
design, may be about 600. Its value (βdc) highly depends upon the position of operating point,
and it determines the quality of a transistor.
Q.15. What are small signal current – amplification factor (a.c current gains).
Ans. For a transistor in CB configuration
For a transistor in CE configuration
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In h- parameters, α is written as hfb and β as hfe as they are also called as small signal forward
current transfer ratio. They are related as
=
1−
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EXPERIMENT 2A
STUDY OF RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVE: To design and study amplifying characteristics of a single stage RC coupled

amplifier.
APPARATUS: A valve 6J5; Two load resistors (RL = 30 KΩ and 47 KΩ), coupling condensers
(Cc = 0.01 μF, 0.02μF, 0.04 μF), Cathode biasing arrangement (RK = 3 KΩ, CK = 25 μF), Grid
leak resistors (0.47 MΩ, 0.1 MΩ), input capacitor (0.1μF), Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (V.T.V.M)
or CRO, High tension (0 – 250 Volts), A.F. Generator (0 – 50 kc/s).
FORMULA USED:At a particular frequency,
#$ $
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CIRCUIT DESIGN:The plate is connected to positive of high tension through a load resistor,
RL. The cathode is connected to negative of high tension through a cathode resistor RK (=3KΩ)
having a capacitor CK (=25μF) across it.
Figure 1. Single stage RC coupled amplifier
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RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER:An input is connected to an audio frequency oscillator. Input and

Output voltages are measured by V.T.V.M or CRO. CC is the coupling condenser and Rg is grid
leak resistor of next stage. Circuit is shown in Figure 1.
PROCEDURE:
1. Wire the circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Set RL= 30 KΩ, Cc = 0.01 μF
Keep the input voltage (output of oscillator) constant, equal to 1V. Vary the oscillator
frequency from 10 c/s to 50 kc/s and note the output voltage at various frequencies.
3. With RL= 30 KΩ, Cc = 0.02 μF, repeat the step 2.
4. With RL= 30 KΩ, Cc = 0.04 μF, repeat the step 2.
5. Now set RL= 47 KΩ and then repeat the step 2 for Cc = 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 μF,
respectively.
OBSERVATIONS:
Input Voltage = 1.0 Volt
Frequency c/s Output Voltage, Volt Voltage Amplification
10 17 17
50 … …
100 … …
500 … …
1000 … …
3000 … …
5000 … …
10,000 … …
20,000 … …
30,000 … …
40,000 … …
50,000 … …
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RESULT: Graph is plotted between voltage amplification and frequency for various values
of load resistor (RL = 30 KΩ and 47 KΩ) and coupling capacitor (Cc = 0.01, 0.02, 0.04 μF). It
is observed in Figure 2 that voltage amplification is not constant at low and high frequencies
but remains fairly constant at mid frequencies. At higher load values, length of flat portion of
the response curve decreases.
Figure 2: Frequency response curve of RC coupled amplifier
Source of Error and Precautions:
1. Values of circuit elements should be chosen carefully.

2. Various voltages developed and applied in the circuit should correspond to circuit voltage
requirements and tube limitations.
3. Prior to using V.T.V.M its suitable range should be chosen first and then zero adjustment
should be done.
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EXPERIMENT 2B
STUDY OF RC COUPLED TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Objective: to design and study amplifying characteristics of a single stage coupled amplifier.
Apparatus: Circuit elements and their values are indicated in the figure (1) Digital Mutimeter,
Audio frequency Oscillator (0-50 kc/s), two output transformers (one high grade and other low
grade.
Circiut:
Figure 1. Circuit diagram of single stage transformer coupled amplifier.
Procedure:
(1) First use high grade transformer for coupling. Keep input at 10 mV (this is output of
audio oscillator connected at the input terminals). It is kept constant throughout the
experiment. Now vary oscillator frequency from 10 kc/s to 50 kc/s. Note output voltage
at each frequency applied.
(2) Repeat the procedure
(3) With a low grade transformer.
Observations:
Input voltage = 10 mV
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Freq in c/s High grade transformer Low grade transformer
Output volt Voltage Output volt Voltage

amplification amplification
10
50
100
Calculations:
For each observation find:
Voltage amplification = Output voltage/ Input voltage
Result: Plot graphs as figure for the two types of transformers in voltage amplification and
frequency
We note that the frequency response curve for high grade transformer (a transformer having high
inductance with negligible distributed capacitance) is fairly uniform.
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Precautions and sources of errors:
1. Input voltage should be checked at every frequency. It should remain constant at all
applied frequencies.
2. Use proper range of digital milliammeter for input and output voltage measurements.
Vive-Voce
1. What is voltage amplification?

Ans: It is the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage.
2. Does it change with input voltage frequency?
Ans: Yes, we observe from frequency response curve that low and high frequencies are
reduced.
3. What are shunt capacitors?
Ans: They include plate – cathode inter – electrode capacitance of the tube and also stray
wiring capacity to the left and right sides of the coupling capacitors.
4. Explain fully CC and Rg coupling?
Ans: Coupling capacitor Cc prevents the high voltage, applied to the plate of the valve,
from the grid of next stage valve. Function of resistor, Rg, is to provide a path for the
leakage of electrons that would otherwise be collected at the grid side of Cc and then will
bias the tube cut off.
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EXPERIMENT 3
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
OBJECTIVE: To study the working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
APPARATUS REQUIRED: CRO, frequency generator, digital multi-meter, tracing paper
THEORY:
Cathode Ray Oscillograph utilises the property of cathode rays of getting deflected in the
presence of magnetic or electric fields as well as shows scintillations on a fluorescent screen.
This Cathode Ray Oscillograph traces the oscillation graphs and the first Oscillograph appeared
as an electromagnetic vibrator associated with a moving coil attached with a mirror. This
Oscillograph worked on the principle that includes the deflection of a spot of light on to a scale
when converged on a mirror. The fluctuating current that streams through it, it oscillates the
vibrator which further displaces the spot of light over the scale in the oscillatory path
corresponding to the oscillation of the vibrator. Due to its inertia, this set up follows only small
current fluctuations. To overcome this problem, cathode ray tube was developed which worked
efficiently that in contrary utilised an electric beam. The cathode rays generate a spot of light that
falls on the fluorescent screen and can follow high rate of changes in the voltage as well as
current due to small inertia produced by the electronic beam.
Since the cathode ray tube can ease the movement of spot in two mutually perpendicular
direction at a single time, this property can be utilised for various purposes like that to elucidate
the waveforms of the oscillations as well as to consider different numbers of phenomenon in
television and radio- techniques.
DESCRIPTION:
It was 1897, when Braun constructed an elementary form of cathode ray oscillograph, which was
then known as ‘Braun Tube’. In original discharge tube, cathode rays narrows to a thin beam
while passing through the slit of the anode then travels the length of the tube and strike the
fluorescent screen at the other end of the tube, thus giving a bright spot of light. The electric field
(in the perpendicular direction to the tube axis) of very high potential difference is applied
between two metal plates. The spot moves up and down in straight line when the field is applied.
The requirement of the high voltage for the operation of Braun tube was the major drawback as it
was dependant on the electron emissions from the cold cathode.
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Figure 1. Cathode Ray Tube showing X and Y plates
Mode efficient Cathode Ray Oscillograph was devised with major improvements that utilised
low voltage. In this evolved type, the tungsten filament F, served as cathode, laminated with
oxides of alkaline earth produced thermionic electrons. The high potential difference of 500 to
2000 volts speed up the electrons from the filament upto the anode A (disc shaped with a hole in
the centre). The electron comes out of the hole of anode (also called ‘anode – gun’), strikes the
fluorescent screen S, after the cathode ray travels the length of the tube in a straight line, thus
producing the spot of bright light on the screen. The magnetic fields present outside the tube or
the two pairs of plates P1 and P2 are placed in mutually perpendicular directions, deviate the
beam ray through its electrostatic fields, vertically as well as horizontally while travelling to the
screen. The tube is quite sensitive and can identify the transition even of shortest time. Moreover,
the periodic changes of 200 million/ second frequency can be well recognised and responded by
the cathode ray Oscillograph.
OPERATION OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOGRAPH:
These include:
1. Focusing: Focusing refers to the concentration of large number of electrons by the

device, in form of thin pencil that hits the other side of the screen. Due to this focussing
there is a bright, sharp and defined spot achieved on the screen. Wehnelt cylinder C, also
termed as shield, being a metal cylinder that surrounds the filament and serves the
purpose, by maintaining the negative potential. The negative potential repels the electron
coming from cathode; diverge it and then focuses the electron stream on the central axial
line, such that concentrated beam of electrons is shot out of the anode gun. This can be
done through two different principles: Gas focussing (soft tube) and Electrostatic
focussing (hard tube).
The gas focussing system utilises an inert gas like helium or argon which gets ionised due
to collision with the electrons. The negatively charged electron flows through the stream
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while the positive ions move slowly to form the core of the beam. The positive core
attracts the electrons in order to replenish the lost ones, and thus form a concentrating
effect. The advantage of this system is that it can work at low levels of voltage (300 to
500 V) and it is highly sensitive. Disadvantages include that the focus depends on the
beam intensity. This means that a slight variation in the current of the beam due to any
means, like altering the shield potential, loses the focus of the system. Thus, it seems
impossible for its application in television. Another problem is its limited lifespan of
cathode, as it gets bombarded by heavy slow moving positive ions, thus restricting the
multiple usage of the tube.
Another system, that is the electrostatic focussing system, utilises number of anodes at
increasing potentials.
Figure 2. Arrangements showing the electrostatic focusing system
The potential of the anode is kept in such a manner that the field causes the electron to
focus or converge. It is just like focussing of rays of light through use of lenses, thus the
system arrangement is also called as Electron gun. The relative voltage of the anodes
controls the level of focussing. The first Anode A1 is kept fixed with respect to the
second anode A2, and is at one fourth distance of the latter. This increases the lifespan of
cathode tube as no damage occurs to the cathode. Advantages include: 1 – It focuses
good even at high deflecting fields as no heavy ion containing residual gas is there. 2 –
The spot can be controlled independently to the focus, since voltage of the focus depends
upon the second anode while the beam current depends on the first, thus controlling the
brightness/ sharpness of the spot. The major disadvantage is that it requires high anode
voltage (700 to 1200 V), which also reduces the sensitivity of the tube. Moreover, the
spot does not remain focussed throughout the screen though; these problems have been
reduced in the improvised and modern cathode ray tubes. A method, known as magnetic
focussing is also used where the coil which is placed outside the tube, produces the
magnetic field. This arrangement has the advantage over the electrostatic focussing, in
achieving a better focus that cannot be lost at the sides of the screen. This can be applied
in television, which requires focus throughout the screen.
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2. Deflection system: Deflection system includes two pair of plates that deflect the beam in
the vertical or horizontal direction. One pair which is placed vertically introduces the
horizontal deviation in the beam and is termed as Horizontal or X – plates. Similarly, the
other pair of plates placed horizontally and causes displacement in the vertical direction,
are called as Vertical or Y – plates. The position of cathode tube affects the direction in
which the spot moves. Therefore, the tube is placed in such a way that it can be rotated to
achieve a properly aligned deflection. The sensitivity of the tube depends upon the
position of the deflector plates. Closer the plates to the beam, greater will be the
deflection. Though the plates should not be too close such that the beam strikes the plate
and did not reach the screen at all to produce the spot.
3. Electromagnetic Deflectors: This is a system which includes the electromagnetic
deflection of the spot unlike the one described above (the electrostatic mode of
deflection). In this system, the coils are placed outside the tube and consist of similar two
pair of plates to cause horizontal and vertical displacement. The magnetic field need to be
uniform throughout as the defection of the beam depends on the actual strength of the
field. Difference in the field for a constant current through the coil, affects the sensitivity
to the greater extent.
4. Tube Dimensions: The cathode ray tube is glass conical tube with the screen at the wider
end of the tube. So as to attain, perfect sensitivity and brightness of the spot, the diameter
of the screen and the tube length is adjusted accordingly. The sensitivity can be increased
by increasing the length of the tube. But in practice the situations are different. Longer
the tube, greater will be the diameter of the screen due to the shape of the tube, but
greater the screen’s diameter, higher will be the anode voltage. This has been known that
increased anode voltage, reduces the sensitivity of the tube. It is interesting to see that the
sharpness and brightness of the spot also depends upon the colour of the spot as there are
certain colours which have more sensitivity towards the eyes than the others. The tubes
are made of variable sizes; generally the tube length is two or three times the diameter of
the screen while for the televisions, larger as well as longer tubes are considered.
Moreover, Zinc Silicate is used as the fluorescent material for coating inside the screen,
thus giving brighter green spot with the maximum colour sensitivity of the human eye.
TIME BASE:
Variation of a quantity with respect to time can be studied by using cathode ray oscillograph.
Hence, the movement of screen with respect to time in horizontal (usually) direction gives the
liner time base arrangement. The circuit diagram given below illustrates the simplest time-base
circuit (Figure 3).
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Figure 3. A block diagram showing the basic time-base circuit.
The condenser is placed across the terminals of a neon lamp N. The condenser is charged and
discharged via resistance R from DC mains and neon lamp respectively. The condenser is
charged via resistance R on turning the DC supply until and unless a peak value of voltage
corresponding to Neon lamp is achieved. It is of the order of 150olts. The condenser gets short
circuited as the neon lamp glows. This process discharges the condenser via lamp. Every time
the process gets repeated the neon lamp flashes. The flash rate depends upon the product of
capacitance and resistance. If their product is large, the flashing rate remains low. A horizontal
movement of the spot is observed on screen with charge build up in the condenser. The spot
keeps moving till the condenser is completely charged up. As soon as the condenser discharges
due to flashing of neon lamp, the spot suddenly moves to its starting position. With every
flashing of neon lamp, the point is instantaneously sweeped to the initial point. This offers the
evaluation of frequency from the time base. It can be evaluated as follows:
Let us assume the charging is linear and voltage supplied by DC mains is E so that the
charging current becomes i=E/R. Thus, the condenser acquires the charge Q=it, where t is the
charging time. The voltage across the condenser is V=Q/C (same as that of striking voltage of
neon lamp). Therefore,
%
= &
'(
=
)
*
And frequency =
&
)
=
'(
From the above relation, it can be inferred that the frequency can changed by varying the values
of R and C.
In radio-techniques, where the frequencies used are very high, therefore the time-based
frequencies must be synchronised with the frequencies used. When they get superimposed, trace
the coincided wave and impressions of stationary waves are obtained.
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USES OF CATHODE RAY TUBE:
1. The elucidation of the amplitude of variable quantities, like sound vibrations, oscillatory
voltage, oscillatory current or mechanical vibrations, etc. For this, only one pair that is
either X – plates or Y – plates are used. Variation in the voltage that corresponds to the
variables under examination, when subjected to X – or Y – plates, causes the spot on the
screen to move either horizontal or vertical. The line and the spot movement appear to be
traced due to vision persistence. The distance between both, that is spot as well as the
trace is known as the amplitude of the vibration.
2. Detecting the actual wave form like, alternating current or voltage, sound, etc. Let us
consider that the wave form of voltage oscillations is to be traced as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Block diagram showing the Time-base circuit with X and Y plates, respectively
For this, the voltage is connected to the Y – or vertical plates. On the other hand a time
base circuit of known value of frequency is applied to the X – or the horizontal plates. If
the circuit is considered alone, it produces a spot which lines the screen horizontally.
Similarly, if voltage is applied alone, the spot traces a line on the vertical plane. When
both are applied simultaneously, the combination causes synchronisation of the trace to
take a stationary position which provides the actual wave form. Through the known
frequency of the time base, frequency of oscillatory circuit is obtained.
3. The phase differences between the current and voltage can be studied by constructing
each of the two quantities such that it performs on only one pair of the deflecting plates.
4. The determination of an unknown frequency using the value of a known frequency
5. Tracing the hysteresis curve: The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) can be used to trace the
Hysteresis loop for any specimen say iron, over a complete cycle of magnetisation. For
this purpose, following circuit diagram should be considered.
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The magnetising force H is measured by alternating current that magnetizes the

specimen. Therefore, proportionality should be maintained with the horizontal deflection
of the cathode ray. For this, a resistance (R1) in series is introduced in the circuit (Figure
5).
Figure 5. Circuit diagram for tracing the B-H curve
Across the horizontal X – plates a potential drop across the resistance is applied.
The induced alternating voltage V in the secondary windings gives the measure of change
in magnetic induction B. In order to obtain precise readings, it should be ensured that the
secondary windings are small and is kept outside the magnetising flux. This ensures that
the induction B is only due to the specimen itself. To get the deflection proportional to B,
the rate of change of induction with respect to the voltage must be integrated. Further, in
order to make the induced emf in phase with magnetising coil, a condenser C2 and a large
resistance R2 is employed with secondary winding of the circuit. The voltage across the
condenser C2 is being amplified and thereafter applied to the vertical Y-plates. Then the
spot traces the B-H curve which shows the Hysteresis effect in the form of a loop. As a
precautionary note, the magnetising curve should be enough to saturate the iron specimen
or else a distorted ellipse will be seen instead of a normal hysteresis loop.
6. Other applications include plotting of the response curve of circuits with low and high
frequencies; study of transformer magnetization, comparison of output and input voltages
of an amplifier; vibrations in machinery; heights measurements of Kennelly Heaviside E
layer and Appleton F layer which affect the propagation of radio waves and cause fading
in radar systems; microwave spectrometer; defects in motors and generators during its
operation; elucidation of nervous reactions and heart rhythms, etc.
Thus, the Cathode Ray Oscillograph is of great usage to the engineers, physicist or medical
persons as well as used in research laboratories.
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DISCRIPTION:
Figure 6. Actual image of a CRO
Figure 7. Some useful functions for tracing a curve on CRO
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CONTROLLER FUNCTIONS: Use the CRO Instruction manual for complete description
of model specific points and their functions. Here, for reference we have used a 20MHz Dual
Trace Oscilloscope.
OPERATION:
1) Measuring voltage and time period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this
graph is determined by the nature of the input signal either supplied by the patch cords, or
any other setup.
Amplitude is the maximum value of voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.
• Peak voltage is also known as amplitude.

• Voltage (Peak-peak) or VP-Pis twice the peak ac voltage (amplitude) measured between
maximum and minimum value of peaks. When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to
measure peak-peak voltage.
• Time period is defined as the time taken for the signal to complete one wave of cycle. It
is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and
microseconds (μs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1μs = 0.000001s.
• Frequency is defined as the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz),
but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
1kHz = 103Hz and 1MHz = 106Hz.
F = 1/T
(A) Voltage:
a) Ac voltage measurement: Voltage is will be shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is
determined by the Y (VOLTS/div) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured
because it can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is
half of the peak-peak voltage given by the relation:
Vp-p= V/DIV × H(DIV)
Veffect=Vp-p/2√2
If the probe is magnified by 10 times, then the value calculated should be times 10.
b) DC Voltage measuring: If the DC part of a signal is measured, first set Y Coupling mode
to GND and Y position to make the sweep baseline to be a proper position, then set Y
Coupling mode to DC to adjust LEVEL to synchronize the waveforms. With the vertical
distance from the waveform to the basic sweep baseline, read out each voltage value of
the signal on CRO.
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(B) Time period: When the signal cycle or the time factor between two points, operate as
mentioned above. After the waveform is synchronized, time the value indicated by
SEC/DIV using the horizontal distance between two points or the signal cycle. If one part
of the signal is measured, pull out MAG knob to magnify 5. Adjust ‘X’ position to move
the waveform to the proper position for observation. Then the value measured should be
divided 5.
Calculate the time intervals by the following formulae:
Time interval (S) = [Distance between two points (DIV) × Sweep time factor
(TIME/DIV)]/ Magnification factor horizontally
(C) Frequency Measurement: As to the frequency measurement of the repeated signals, first
measure out the signal cycle, then work it out as following:
f (Hz) = 1/T (S)

If the frequency of the measured signal is very high, even if SEC/DIV is set to the fastest
step, the displayed waveform is still very close. Calculate the value with the cycles
displaced in 10 DIV on X – axis for higher accuracy:
f (Hz) = N (Cycles)/ Values on SEC/DIV × 10
Result: The study of CRO is complete.
Precaution:
1) Never switch on the CRO while all its full controls on maximum mode. Reduce the knobs
to minimum value.
2) Do not play with the knobs unnecessarily as they get loose with times and these effects
the efficiency of CRO in future.
3) Always connect a CRO on Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) line. This helps to plots
the graphs with reduced ripples and better signal to noise ratio.
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EXPERIMENT 4A
STUDY OF DIFFERENT OSCILLATOR
OBJECTIVE:
To design a Wien bridge oscillator and to measure the frequency of oscillations generated.
APPARATUS:
2 SB 75 PNP transistors (or equivalent available), capacitances and resistances of the values
shown in the circuit (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Circuit diagram of a Wien Bridge Oscillator
Three switches K1, K2 and K3, one C.R.O, one audio frequency oscillator, V.T.V.M. or CRO,
and a 6V DC supply.
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CIRCUIT DESIGN:
Various circuit element values are shown in the figure. There are two RC combinations. When
K2 is closed (K3 is open) then R = 4.7KΩ and C = 0.01μF so that frequency of the oscillator will
be
1 1
= =
2-./ 2 × 3.14 × 4,7 × 107 × 0.01 × 1089
= 3387.99 c/s = 3388 c/s
But when K3 is closed (K2 is open) then R = 4.7 KΩ and C = 0.1 μf so that
1 1
= =
2-./ 2 × 3.14 × 4,7 × 107 × 0.01 × 1089
= 338.8 c/s = 339 c/s
For the circuit to work as an oscillator, switch K1 should be closed so that positive feedback
exists and the circuit oscillates. If K1is opened, the circuit works as amplifier. When an a.f.
oscillator (keep input low 10 mV) is connected at A and C, we can measure output voltages, E0,
with the help of V.T.V.M. between A and C terminals and voltage feedback, Efb, between B and
C terminals at various input frequencies. If we then plot a graph in Efb/E0 with frequency then it
will have its maximum at f = 3388 c/s (for R = 4.7 KΩ and C = 0.01 μf) or f = 338.8 c/s (for R =
4.7 KΩ and C = 0.1 μf).
FORMULA USED:
1
= c/s
2-./
PROCEDURE:
1. With R = 4.7 KΩ and C = 0.01 μf: Close K2 and K1 (Open K3):

Connect terminal B to Y input of C.R.O and terminal, C, to ground of C.R.O. Use
internal synchronisation and form wave pattern on the screen. Suppose 3 waves are
formed. Then disconnect B and C from C.R.O. Instead connect an audio oscillator
frequency (Internal synchronizing frequency of C.R.O should not be disturbed this time.
It should remain exactly at the value at which it was set for Wien Bridge oscillator
waveformon C.R.O screen) make the same number of waves (3 waves as formed with
Wien bridge oscillator, say) on the C.R.O screen. This frequency of audio oscillator, at
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which these same waves are obtained, gives the frequency of Wien bridge oscillator.
Compare this value with the calculated value of the frequency.
2. With R = 4.7 KΩ and C = 0.1 μf: Close K3 and K1 (Open K2):
Proceed as detailed above as in step 1.
3. Disconnect supply to the circuit. Connect K2, open K3. Connect audio frequency
oscillator at A and C terminals. Keep its output 10 mV. Vary oscillator frequency and
note E0 and Efb at every frequency with the help of V.T.V.M or CRO.
4. Connect K3, open K2.
Proceed as detailed above in step 3.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Oscillator frequency
With R = 4.7 KΩ, C = 0.1 μf = c/s
2. Oscillator frequency
With R = 4.7 KΩ, C = 0.01 μf = c/s
3. Remove supply to circuit.
Oscillator With K2 close With K3 close

Frequency
c/s Efb E0 Efb/ E0 Efb E0 Efb/ E0
10 c/s … … … … … …
… … … … … … …
… … … … … … …
… … … … … … …
50 k c/s … … … … … …
CALCULATIONS:
1
= = ⋯ !/?
=
2-./*
1
= = ⋯ !/?
=
2-./@
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RESULTS:
RC Values Exp. value of Theoretical value of Frequency values

frequency frequency from graph
R = 4.7 KΩ and C …. …. ….
= 0.1 μf
R = 4.7 KΩ and C …. …. ….
= 0.01 μf
Plot graph in Efb/ E0 with oscillator frequency as shown in figure.
Find frequency, at which this ratio is maximum (as marked by dotted line). It gives frequency
corresponding to the combination used.

1. Polarities of the supply should be connected properly.
2. Zero adjustment should be done for every range of V.T.V.M. selected for use.
VIVA – VOCE
Q.1. What is the advantage of using phase shift oscillator?
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Ans. R.C. oscillators can be used for very low frequencies where L.C resonant circuits would be
too bulky and expensive.
Q.2. What is phase shift network in your circuit?
Ans. It is a lead – lag network consisting of a series RC and a parallel RC combination. At low
frequencies, the phase angle is positive and the circuit acts like a lead network. On the other
hand, at very high frequencies, the phase angle is negative and the circuit acts like a lag network.
In between, there is a resonant frequency at which phase shift equals 0˚, fr is given by
1
=
=
2-./′
At which frequency feedback fraction (Efb/ E0) reaches a maximum value of 1/3.
Q.3. The circuit of Wien bridge oscillator works like a two stage RC coupled amplifier?
Ans. Yes, it is a two stage RC coupled amplifier in which a fraction of output voltage is fed back
to the input terminals.
Q.4. What are its advantages?
Ans. It has low distortion and good frequency stability.
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EXPERIMENT 4B
STUDY OF HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
OBJECTIVE:
To design a Hartley oscillator and to calibrate the dial of its tank circuit capacitor in terms of
frequency and to find the dielectric constant of a liquid, say kerosene oil.
APPARATUS:
A NPN transistor 2N3055, one R.F.Choke (R.F.C. which it is a coil of high inductance used to
prevent high frequency oscillations from reaching the supply say of 30mH), Capacitors of values
0.02 μf, 0.05 μf, 0.05 μf, 25 μf. Resistors of values 33K, 10K and 4.7K. Variable air capacitor (0
– 1000 pf) and an inductive coil (of mH order) with various tappings to serve as tank circuit of
the oscillator (they are C and L in the circuit). A 20V D.C. supply, an air capacitor in which
liquid can be filled and closed, a CRO. The complete circuit is shown below for your
convenience.
CIRCUIT DESIGN:
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Figure 1. Circuit diagram of Hartley oscillator
The voltage developed across the tank circuit (LC circuit) is fed back to the base emitter junction
through 0.02 μf capacitor and the variable tap on the coil. Resistors of 33 K and 10 K bias the
circuit into class C operation, where C is a variable air capacity (0 – 1000 pf) as shown in Figure
1(a). A dial marked in degree, say from 0˚C to 90˚C, is attached to its slow motion handle. Coil
L of order of mH is wound on a former and various tapping terminals say after every 5 turns are
provided. The variable tap wire can be connected as shown in Figure 1(b) to any of the tapping
terminals 1, 2, 3, ….etc.
(A) For Calibration of air capacitor or tank capacitor:
PROCEDURE:
1. Keep C at some value say its dial pointer on 10˚. Now connect variable tap from base end
with tapping terminals 1, 2, 3, … towards collector end. For each tap, note the a.c. output
voltage (for it keep V.T.V.M. or CRO on some suitable a.c. range and adjust zero of
scale). For any particular tapping, output voltage will be maximum. Note this tapping.
Fix the variable tap in this tapping terminal for calibrating dial of capacitor as described
in step 2.
Plot a graph in the output voltage with number of tappings.
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2. Using coil of appropriate frequency range (in which the frequency of tank circuit is
expected to lie) in frequency meter (wavemeter) start calibrating the dial of variable air
capacitor. Keep dial pointer on 10˚ and then adjust frequency meter for maximum
deflection. Read this frequency. Next keep dial pointer on 20˚ and obtain maximum
deflection in frequency meter. Read this frequency. Continue likewise till the whole
capacitor range is covered. Thus the variable air capacitor is calibrated.
(B) For the measurement of dielectric constant:

1. Keep the variable air capacitor at some dial reading (say at 40˚) and note frequency, f0,
from the table as measured in point 2 of part A.
2. Now connect another cylindrical condenser (with air in between the plates) in parallel
with variable air capacitor and again measure the frequency of the circuit with the help of
wavemeter. Let it be fa.
3. Fill the cylindrical condenser with dielectric and again measure the frequency of the
circuit. Let it be fd.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Variable tapping readings with CRO or V.T.V.M.

No. of tappings Output voltage, Volt
1 …
2 …
3 …
4 …
… …
2. Calibration of capacitor:
Dial Division Frequency, c/s
10˚ …
20˚ …
30˚ …
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… …
… …
90˚ …
3. For dielectric constant measurement.

Dial reading Frequency f0 in c/s Frequency fa in c/s Frequency fd in c/s
… … …
CALCULATIONS:
Dielectric constant is given by the formula
C
@
D E
@
− @
F
B= @
D E
@
− C
@
F
RESULTS:
1. Plot a graph in output voltage (V.T.V.M) reading with number of tappings.

2. Draw a calibration curve in dial divisions and corresponding frequency.
3. Dielectric constant of the liquid, k =……
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power ratings of power transistor 2N 3055 should be kept in mind while performing the
experiment.
2. It is better to use heat sink with 2N3055.
3. Inductive coil may be of order of μH and variable air capacitor of value (0 – 500 pf).
VIVA VOCE
Q.1. What is the function of 33 K, 10 K and 4.7 K resistors?
Ans. They provide necessary bias conditions,
Q.2. Through which path voltage is fed back from tank circuit?
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Ans. The voltage developed across tank circuit is fed back to the base emitter junction through
0.02 μf capacitor and variable tap on the coil.
Q.3. What is the function of R.F.C?
Ans. It is a radio frequency choke of large reactance (mH order) at the oscillation frequency. Its
function is to prevent r.f. curremt from reaching the d.c. supply.
Q.4. What is the mathematical relation for frequency of oscillation here?

H
Ans. It is G = , where L is the total inductance of the coil.
IJKLMNO
EXPERIMENT 4C
STUDY OF COLPITT OSCILLATOR
OBJECTIVE:
To study the Colpitt’s oscillator and hence find the feedback fraction.
APPARATUS:
A NPN transistor 2N3055, one R.F.Choke (R.F.C. which it is a coil of high inductance used to
prevent high frequency oscillations from reaching the supply say of 30mH), Capacitors of values
0.02 μf, 0.05 μf, 0.05 μf, 25 μf. Resistors of values 33K, 10K and 4.7K. Variable air capacitor (0
– 1000 pf) and an inductive coil (of mH order) with various tappings to serve as tank circuit of
the oscillator (they are C and L in the circuit). A 20V D.C. supply, an air capacitor in which
liquid can be filled and closed, a CRO.
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THEORY:
The circuitcomprises of two capacitors C1, C2 and inductor L. The Colpitt’s oscillator has two
capacitors that are placed across a common inductor L and the centre of these two capacitors is
tapped. The frequency of the oscillations is determined by the magnitude value of C1, C2 and L.
1
=
2πKP/Q
'R 'S
where, /Q =
'R T'S
/* − /@ − Pis also the feedback circuit that produces a phase shift of 180˚.
OPERATION:
When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors C1 and C2 are charged. The capacitors discharge
through L, setting up oscillations of frequency determined by above equation. The output voltage
of the amplifier appears across C1 and feedback voltage is developed across C2. The voltage
across 180˚ out of phase with the voltage developed across C1(Vout). The voltage feedback
(voltage across C2) to the transistor provides positive feedback. A phase shift of 180˚ is produced
by transistor and a further phase shift of 180˚ is produced by C1 – C2 voltage divider. In this way,
the feedback is properly phased to produce continuous undamped oscillations.
Feedback fraction (mv): The amount of feedback voltage depends upon feedback fraction mv.
WX S 'R
Feedback fraction mv= =W =
U
V XR 'S
/*
=
Y
/@
CIRCUIT DESIGN:
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MSCPH510
Figure 1. Circuit Diagram of Colpitt’s Oscillator
Procedure
• Hook up the circuit as shown in the circuitdiagram.

• Switch on the powersupply.
• Slight modification in value of C1, C2can be made to get perfect sine waveoutput.
• Observe the output waveform inCRO.
MODEL GRAPH:
TABULATION:
Amplitude (Volts) Time(ms) Frequency (KHz)
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CALCULATIONS:
N
Feedback fraction mv:NH
I
Equivalent Output Circuit:
Figure 2: Equivalent Feedback Circuit diagram of Colpitt’s Oscillator
RESULT: Thus, the Colpitts oscillator was designed and its output waveform was verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never connect the input with high frequencies at the beginning of the experiment.
2. Before connecting the CRO, check the output for noise in the input signal. This may help
to remove the noise factor.
3. Make the circuit diagram properly.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is sinusoidal oscillator?

Ans. An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequencies is
known as a sinusoidal oscillator.
2. What are the advantages of electronic oscillators over mechanical oscillators?
Ans. An electronic oscillator is a non-rotating device, which produce a little wear and tear
and therefore, these have longer life. Without any moving parts like those of mechanical
oscillators, these are much silent in operations.
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3. What are the types of sinusoidal oscillations?

And. There are two types of oscillation:
a) Damped Oscillations
b) Undamped Oscillations.
4. What is a tank circuit?
And A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is known as
an oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.
5. Define frequency of oscillations and what is its mathematical formula?
Ans. Frequency of oscillation of a tank circuit is determined by L and C constants of the
components. The actual frequency of oscillation is the resonant frequency given by:
*
= = @Z√['
EXPERIMENT 5
STUDY OF ELECTRONICALLY REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
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OBJECTIVE: To study the electronically regulated power supply
APPARATUS: Breadboard, 3 Voltmeter (0-30V), digital multimeter, one ammeter (0-100mA),

resistance 220Ω, 1kΩ, 130Ω, 100Ω, a frequency generatoras a voltage source (0-30V), a npn
transistor (in CB and CE mode), connecting wires, patch cords for CRO, clips.
THEORY: The regulated power supply comprises of three circuits, namely - a zener diode as
a voltage regulator, the bridge rectifier and the filter via capacitor.
In general the two types of voltage regulators are:
(i) Series Voltage Regulator
(ii) Shunt Voltage Regulator
In Shunt regulator the load is kept in parallel connection while in the series regulator the load
is connected in parallel.
Transistor Series Voltage Regulator

Some active devices such as a transistor, zener or a combination of both is employed as per
the requirement, in a voltage regulated power supply. The circuit diagram of a Series Voltage
Regulator is shown below:
Figure 1. Circuit diagram for a transistorized series voltage regulator
The load current passes through the series transistor and hence it is called as a series voltage
regulator. However, the excessive load current may destroy the transistor. The unregulated
d.c. supply is fed to input terminals and the regulated output is obtained across the load. The
zener diode provides the reference voltage.
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The base voltage of transistor is held relatively constant voltage across the zener diode.
Vout = Vz - VBE
If the output voltage decreases, the increased base-emitter voltage causes the transistor to conduct
more, thereby raising the output voltage. On the other hand, if the output voltage is increased, the
decreased base-emitter voltage causes the transistor to conduct less. Therefore, the output voltage
remains regulated in both the instances.
The limitations of this circuit are:

a) Although the changes in Zener current are reduced a lot, yet the output is not constant. This is
due to decrease in both VBE and VZ as the room temperature increases.
b) The output voltage cannot be changed easily as no such means is provided.
Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator
A shunt voltage regulator provides regulation by shunting current away from the load to regulate
the output voltage. The circuit diagram of shunt voltage regulator is shown below.
Figure 2. Circuit diagram for a transistorized shunt voltage regulator
The voltage drop across series resistance depends upon the current supplied to the load RL. The
output voltage is equal to sum of zener voltage (Vz) and transistor base-emitter voltage (VBE)
Vout = Vz + VBE
If the load resistance decreases, the current through base of transistor decreases. As, a result, less
collector current is shunted. Therefore, the load current becomes larger, thereby maintaining the
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regulated voltage across the load.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 1 and 2, respectively.
2. Connect the frequency generator at the input of the circuit at specified voltages (see figure).
3. Keep the voltage below the zener breakdown voltage.
4. By variying the voltage in steps of 0.1 to 1V, note down the changes in load resistance.
Table:
S. No. Input Voltage (Vin) Output Voltage(Vout)

1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 .
5 .
6 .
. .
. .
. .
10. 1
RESULT: The transistor series and shunt voltage regulators have been studied.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make the connections properly.

2. Never cross the zener breakdown voltage.
3. Keep a check on the β parameter of the transistor for calculating the Ic and Ib, if required
for calculations.
EXPERIMENT No. 6A
STUDY OF TRANSISTOR
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MSCPH510
You have to design specifically on breadboard using different components (passive and active)
for the comparative study of Common Emitter (CE), Common Base (CB) and Common
Collector (CC) Transistor Amplifiers. These practical transistor amplifier configurations are
evaluated in respect of their main parameters and results are compared with theoretical
calculations. Practical experience on this board carries great educative value for Science and
Engineering Students.
OBJECTIVE:
1. Study of Common Emitter (CE) transistor amplifier circuit and evaluation of its input and
output resistance, voltage gain and power gain.
2. Study of Common Base (CB) transistor amplifier circuit and evaluation of its input and
output resistance, voltage gain, current gain and power gain.
3. Study of Common Collector (CC) transistor amplifier circuit and evaluation of its input
and output resistance, voltage gain, current gain and power gain.
FEATURES:
The circuit consists of following built – in parts:
1. ± 9V DC at 100mA, IC Regulated Power Supply internally connected.

2. All the three circuits i.e. CE, CB and CC are built separately.
3. Adequate number of other electronic components.
4. Sine Wave Signal Generator of 1 KHz, with variable level, low distortion, based on IC.
5. Mains ON/OFF switch, Fuse and Jewel light.
6. The unit is operative on 230 V ± 10% at 50 Hz AC Mains.
7. Adequate number of patch cords stackable from rear both ends 4 mm spring loaded plug
length 0.5 meter.
8. Good quality, reliable terminal / sockets are provided at appropriate places on panel for
connections / observation of waveforms.
OTHER APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20 MHz

2. A.C Millivoltmeter OMEGA TYPE ACV – 25
PANEL DESCRIPTION:
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MSCPH510
Keep a 1 KHz sine wave signal source with adjustable level. In the breadboard, draw three
transistor amplifiers of common emitter, common base and common collector configurations
respectively.
THEORY:
Three Basic Transistor Configurations
A transistor has three electrodes (terminals) i.e., Emitter, Base and Collector. In whatever way a
transistor is connected in a circuit it must have two input leads and two output leads. Since a
transistor has only three leads this follows that one lead will be common to both input and
output. The common lead gives the name to that transistor configuration viz. Common emitter,
Common base and Common collector. The common collector configuration is also called emitter
follower.
Very often the common lead is used as a reference point for the entire circuit and is thus
connected to chassis or ground. Hence the three configurations can also be called as grounded
emitter, grounded base and grounded collector. These three basic transistor configurations are
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1(a) Common Emitter Collector (b) Common Base (c) Common Collector circuit
diagrams
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Each configuration has specific characteristics that make it useful in different circumstances.
Their characteristics are compared in table 1.
Table 1:
Parameters Input Output Voltage Current Power Where Used

Resistance Resistance Gain (Av) Gain (Ai) Gain (Ap)
Configuration (R ) (Rout)
in
Common Around 1K Around 20 Around Around Around General

Emitter K 100 100 10,000 Purpose
Amplification
Common Around Around Around Less than Around 50 Very high

Base 100 E 500 K 100 1 frequency
circuits
Common Around Around Less than Around Around 50 Buffer

Collector 300 K 200 E 1 100 circuits
Note: In practical circuits this is approximately equal to the value of collector resistance.
The parameters given in Table 1 are only for comparison purpose. The actual values in practical
circuits are subject to particular device and circuit design.
1. COMMON EMITTER:
In the common emitter circuit, the input and output voltage are 180˚ out of phase. In this
configuration the current gain is called Beta (β).
The voltage gain Av, the current gain Ai and input and output resistance may be calculated from
the following relation:
,\ .
Y = −
,]
] = −ℎ\
_ = Y . ]
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MSCPH510
ℎ= ℎ\ .
.]` = ℎ] −
1 + ℎa .
Or
.]` = ℎ]
Or
.a = 1e ℎ= ℎ\
ℎa − b d
ℎ] .c
.a = 1fℎ
a
The current gain in common emitter configuration is mentioned as
∆ /ℎ " "! ! m !$mm "

Beta LβO = =
∆ /ℎ " " n ? !$mm "
The h parameter of the transistor used in this training board i.e, BC 177 (PNP) from the data
book are as follows:
At 3 mA collector current
ℎ] = 2o2
ℎ\ = 100
ℎa = 50 q ℎ
Note: The above parameters are not measured parameters for the particular transistor used. The
actual parameters of the particular transistor may differ from these figures.
Substituting these in the relation for voltage, current gain & input and output resistances we get:
100 × 2o2
= − = −100
Y
2o2
] = − ℎ\ = −100
_ = 100 × 100 = 10,000
.]` = ℎr = 2K2
1 1
.a = = = 20o
ℎa 50 × 1089
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2. COMMON BASE:
In this configuration the emitter base circuit is forward biased whereas the collector base circuit
is reverse biased. In the common base circuit the input and output voltages are in phase. The
current gain of this configuration is termed as alpha (α).
The relation between alpha and beta is given below:
=
1−
Where β = current gain of common emitter configuration
This circuit is used for VHF and UHF amplification, as well as to match low impedence to high
impedence. Here,
.[
= .
Y
m]`
] = f
m]` = − .c
∆
ma =
∆
For the given circuit these parameters are:
Y = 50
] = 0.96
_ = 48
m]` = 100 v
ma = 2o
3. COMMON COLLECTOR:
In this configuration also the input and output voltages are in phase. This circuit is quite different
from the two previous circuits. The input resistance of this configuration is high due to the high
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resistance of the base collector circuit. The output resistance is low due to the low resistance of
the emitter collector circuit. The circuit makes an excellent isolation network between a high
impedence and a low impedence circuit. The voltage and current gain & input and output
resistances can be calculated using the following relations:
ℎ]
Y =1−w f. x
]`
] = 1 + ℎ\
_ = Y . ]
.]` = ℎ] + D1 + ℎ\ F.)
ℎ]
.a = e1 + ℎ
\
Using the above formulae we get:
Y = 0.99
] = 101
_ = 99.99
.]` = 335.5o
.a = 22 v
OBJECTIVE 1: STUDY OF COMMON EMITTER (CE) TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

CIRCUIT AND EVALUATION OF ITS INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE,
VOLTAGE GAIN, CURRENT GAIN AND POWER GAIN
PROCEDURE:
1. Turn the knob marked level of 1 KHz sine wave generator to fully anti clockwise
direction and using connecting leads connect the output of sine wave generator to the
input of common emitter transistor amplifier. Also connect 4K7 resistor as load to the
output. Refer to Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Study of common emitter transistor amplifier
2. Switch on the mains power to the training board.

3. Now connect the CRO probe to output sockets of CE amplifier. Increase the level of sine
wave generator till the output as seen on the CRO is a clean & undistorted sine wave of
about 3V peak to peak.
4. Now using a calibrated CRO or A.C millivoltmeter record the A.C voltages at the sockets
marked ‘A’ and ‘B’ (These voltages are measured with respect to ground socket marked
G) these are VAG and VBG, respectively.
5. Now connect the CRO probe to the output sockets of CE amplifier. Disconnect the 4K7
resistor across the output sockets and now connect the 2K2 resistor in its place. Note the
level of output signal on CRO, it should have reduced to approximately half the original
value.
Record the reading below:
Ri = 1 Kohm (connected between A and B)
RL = 4K7
Vo =_______
VAG = _______
VBG = _________
Now calculate various parameters using the following formulae:
Y = af
yz
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a .]
=
]
.[ L {z − yz O
= Y. ]
_
.
.]` = yz ]fL
{z − yz O
Ro = Value of resistance connected across the output at which the output level falls to half
the original level
= 2K2 (as demonstrated above)
Now compare these results with the theoretical results as shown earlier in theory section.
OBJECTIVE 2: STUDY OF COMMON BASE (CB) TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

CIRCUIT AND EVALUATION OF ITS INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE,
VOLTAGE GAIN, CURRENT GAIN AND POWER GAIN
PROCEDURE:
1. Turn the knob of 1 KHz sine wave generator to fully anti clockwise direction and using
connecting leads connect the output of sine wave generator to the input of common base
transistor amplifier. Also connect 4K7 resistor as load to the output Ref. to Figure 3
3. Now connect the CRO probe to the output sockets of CB amplifier. Increase the level of
sine wave generator till the output as seen on the CRO is a clean undistorted sine wave of
about 0.3 volt peak to peak.
4. Now using a calibrated CRO or A.C millivoltmeter record the A.C voltages at the sockets
‘G’) these are VAG and VBG, respectively.
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Figure 3. Study of common base transistor amplifier circuit
5. Now connect the CRO probe to the output sockets of CB amplifier. Disconnect the 4K7
resistor across the output sockets and connect the 2K2 resistor in its place. Note down the
level of output signal on CRO it should have reduced to approximately half the original
value.
Ri = 1 K ohm (connected between ‘A’ and ‘B’)
RL= 4K7
VAG =
VBG =
Y = af
yz
= a .]f
] .[ L {z − yz O
_ = Y. ]
.]` = yz .]f
L {z − yz O
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Ro = value of resistance connected across the output at which the output level falls to half the
original level = 2K2 (as demonstrated above)
Now compare these results with the theoretical results as shown earlier in theory section.
OBJECTIVE 3: STUDY OF COMMON COLLECTOR (CC) TRANSISTOR

AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT AND EVALUATION OF ITS INPUT AND OUTPUT
RESISTANCE, VOLTAGE GAIN, CURRENT GAIN AND POWER GAIN
PROCEDURE:
1. Turn the knob of 1 KHz sine wave generator to fully anti – clockwise direction and using
connecting leads connect the output of sine wave generator to the input of common collector
transistor amplifier. Also connect 1K resistor as load to the output as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Study of Common Collector Amplifier circuit

3. Now connect the CRO probe to the output sockets of CC amplifier. Increase the level of sine
wave generator till the output as seen on the CRO is clean undistorted sine wave of about 3V
peak to peak.
4. Now using a calibrated CRO or A.C millivoltmeter, record the A.C voltages at the sockets
‘G’) these are VAG and VBG, respectively.
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5. Now connect the CRO probe to the output sockets of CC amplifier. Disconnect the 1K
resistor across the output sockets and connect the 270E resistor in its place. Note down the
level of output signal on CRO, it should have reduced to approximately half the original
value.
Ri = 1K ohm (connected between ‘A’ and ‘B’)
RL= 1K
VAG =_____
VBG =_____
Y = af
yz
= a .]f
] .[ L {z − yz O
= Y. ]
_
.
.]` = yz ]fL
{z − yz O
Ro = the value of resistance connected across the output at which the output level falls to half
the original level.
= 270E (as demonstrated above)
Now compare these results with the theoretical results as shown earlier in the theory section.
BREADBORD CIRCUIT:
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VIVA-VOCE
1. Explain why the input and output signals in common emitter amplifiers are out of
phase?
2. Which configuration has the highest power gain?
3. If the current gain (Ai) of a common emitter amplifier is 100, what can you state
regarding its hfe?
EXPERIMENT 6B
STUDY OF TRANSISTOR AS FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
SINGLE STAGE COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVE: To study response characteristics of a transistorised RC coupled amplifier with

and without negative current feedback.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: PNP transistor 2SB 77, or AC 125, Resistances of values shown in
the circuit (2K, 3K, 5K, 22K, 5.1K, 470Ω), Capacitances shown in the circuit (100 μF, 100 μF,
50 μF, 50 μF). Audio frequency generator (0 – 50 kc/s), V.T.V.M. as output meter, High
frequency (a.c.) millivoltmeter (0 – 500 mV), 6V d.c. supply.
CIRCUIT DESIGN:
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Figure1. Single RC stage coupled amplifier. For current feedback switch K should be
open
PROCEDURE: Refer to Figure 1.
(A) Without Current Feedback: Switch K is closed:

1. Connect CA and CE.
Keep input voltage (10 mV) constant. Vary oscillator frequency from 10 c/s to 50
kc/s and note the output voltage at various frequencies.
2. Connect CB and CE.
Repeat the procedure written in step 1.
3. Take similar set of observations by connecting CD and CE, CA and CF, CB and CF,
CD and CF.
(B) With Current Feedback: Switch K is open:
Repeat the whole procedure detailed in above method (A).
OBSERVATIONS:
(A) Without Current Feedback:

Frequency Output in Volts
c/s
C = 50 μF with C= 100 μF with
CA CB CD CA CB CD
2k 3k 5k 2k 3k 5k
10 … … … … … …
50 … … … … … …
100 … … … … … …
….. … … … … … …
….. … … … … … …
50,000 … … … … … …
(B) With Current Feedback:

Prepare same table as in (A).
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RESULTS:
Find the voltage amplification at various frequencies by
#$ $
! "=
" $
And then plot graphs in voltage amplification and corresponding frequencies. Do it for both the
cases – with and without current feedback. Without feedback, curves will show rapid fall in gain
at low and high frequencies but not so with feedback.
1. Input Voltage should be kept low.

2. Take precautions about the polarities while connecting the supply.
3. Zero adjustment for every range of V.T.V.M selected should be done.
EXPERIMENT 6C
INSTRUCTION MANUAL FOR STUDY OF CLASS ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘AB’ AND PUSH PULL
AMPLIFIER
Class ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘AB’ and Push Pull Amplifier Circuits has been designed to study the output
again and frequency response of these amplifiers.
The instrument comprises of the following built – in parts:
1. DC Regulated power supply of ± 12V and +5V.

2. Four PNP and four NPN Transistors are mounted on the front panel.
3. Four driver transformers are also mounted on the front panel to perform class B and Push
Pull experiments.
4. Circuit diagram is printed and components are mounted on the front panel.
THEORY:
A practical amplifier always consists of a number of stages that amplify a weak signal until
sufficient power is available to operate a loudspeaker or other output device. The first few stages
in this multistage amplifier have the function of only voltage amplification. However, the last
stage is designed to provide maximum power. This final stage is known as power stage. The term
audio means the range of frequencies that we can hear. The range of human hearing extends
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from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Therefore, audio amplifiers amplify electrical signals that have a
frequency range corresponding to the range of human hearing, that is, 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Figure 1
shows the block diagram of an audio power amplifier. The early stages built up the voltage level
of the signal while the last stage built up power to a level sufficient to operate the loudspeaker.
Figure 1. Block diagram of Audio Amplifier showing its various stages
A transistor amplifier which raises the power level of the signals that have audio frequency is
known as transistor audio power amplifier. In general, the last stage of a multistage amplifier is
the power stage; the amplifier differs from all the previous stages in that here a concentrated
effort is made to obtain maximum output power. A transistor that is suitable for power
amplification is generally called a power transistor. A power amplifier is required to deliver a
large amount of power and such it has to handle large current. In order to achieve high power
amplification, transformer coupling is used for impedence matching. If the collector current
flows at all times during the full cycle of the signal the power amplifier is known as Class ‘A’
power amplifier. A basic class ‘A’ power amplifier normally consists of a signal transistor, wired
in the common emitter mode with the speaker acting as its collector load. The essential feature of
this type of amplifier is that its input (Base) is biased so that the collector current takes up a
quiescent value roughly halfway between the desired maximum and minimum swings of output
current, so that maximum undistorted output signal swings can be obtained.
The Class ‘A’ amplifier is simple and produces excellent low distortion audio signal. Its major
disadvantages are that it consumes a high quiescent current and is relatively inefficient. A basic
Class ‘B’ amplifier normally consists of a pair of transistors driven in anti-phase but driving a
common output load. In this particular design the two transistors are wired in common emitter
mode and driven the speaker via Push Pull transformer. The major advantages of the Class ‘B’
amplifier are that it consumes near zero quiescent current and has a very high efficiency under all
operating conditions. Its major disadvantages are that it produces high levels of signal distortion.
The crossover distortion of the Class ‘B’ amplifier can be virtually eliminated by applying slight
forward bias to the base of each transistor, so that each transistor passes as a modest quiescent
current. Such a circuit is known as a Class ‘AB’ amplifier. Circuits of this type were widely used
in early transistor power amplifier systems. The Push Pull amplifier is a power amplifier and is
frequency employed in output stages of electronic circuits. It is used whenever high output
power at high efficiency is required. Two transistors placed back to back are employed. Both
transistors are operated in Class ‘B’ operation, i.e., collector current is nearly zero in the absence
of the signal. The centre tapped secondary of driver transformer applies equal and opposite
voltage to the base circuits of two transistors. The output transformer has the centre tapped
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primary winding. The supply voltage Vcc is connected across the secondary of this centre tap.
The loudspeaker is connected across the secondary of this transformer.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
(a)
(b)
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Figure 1. (a) Circuit diagram of Class A and Class B amplifier and (b) Class AB and
Push pull amplifier
PROCEDURE:
For Class ‘A’ Amplifier:
1. Connect -12 V DC power supply across power supply sockets through patch cords as
shown by dotted lines in the circuit diagram of Class ‘A’ amplifier.
Table 1:
Sr. No Frequency Input Signal Output Signal Gain Output/ Input
2. Connect Audio Frequency Function Generator across input sockets and set it at sine wave
signal of 30 mV peak to peak amplitude, 100 Hz frequency.
3. Connect CRO across output sockets.
4. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
5. Observe the amplitude output on CRO. Note down the output amplitude.
6. Calculate the voltage gain of the amplifier, using formula
Av = VOut / VIn
7. Increase the frequency of the signal towards 100 KHz in small steps and note down the
voltage gain at different frequencies.
8. Note down the observation in table no. 1 and plot a graph between Voltage Gain vs
Frequency as shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Plot a graph between Voltage Gain vs Frequency
For Class ‘B’ Amplifier:
1. Connect -12 V DC power supply across power supply sockets through patchcords as
shown by dotted lines in the circuit diagram of Class ‘B’ amplifier.
Table 2:
Sr. No Frequency Input Signal Output Signal Gain Output/

Input
2. Connect Audio Frequency Function Generator across input sockets. Set the Audio
Frequency Function generator output to 50 mV peak to peak, 10 kHz sine wave signal.
5. Observe the amplitude output on CRO. Note down the output amplitude.
Av = VOut / VIn
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Figure 3. Plot a graph between Voltage Gain vs Frequency
For Class ‘AB’ Amplifier:
Class ‘AB’ amplifier is basically a power amplifier, it handles large signal. It amplifies the
power level of the signal and does not amplify the voltage level.
1. Connect +5V DC power supply across power supply sockets through patch cords as
shown by dotted lines in the circuit diagram of Class ‘AB’ amplifier.
Table 3:

Input
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signal of 2V peak to peak amplitude, 10 Hz frequency.
5. Observe the output on CRO. Note down the output amplitude.
Av = VOut / VIn
Figure 4: Graph of voltage gain vs frequency
9. We will observe this amplifier does not amplify the voltage level of the input signal but
only the power level of the signal amplifies. If we will connect the loudspeaker load
across output socket, the amplifier will drive the loudspeaker.
For Push Pull Amplifier:
1. Connect +12V DC power supply across power supply sockets through patchcords as
shown by dotted lines in the circuit diagram of Push Pull amplifier.
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Table 4:

Input
signal of 50mV – 100mV peak to peak amplitude, 1.5 KHz frequency.
5. Observe the amplified output on CRO. Note down the output amplitude.
Av = VOut / VIn
7. Increase the frequency of the signal in small steps and note down the voltage gain at
different frequencies.
Frequency.
Figure 5. Plot a graph between Voltage Gain vs Frequency.
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9. Connect the load resistance (R17 or R18) across output sockets and calculate the output
power by using the formula;
P = V2/R (V is the RMS value of the output signal)
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EXPERIMENT 7A
STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESISTORS
OBJECTIVE: To study about different types of resistors and its colour coding.
APPARATUS:
Different types of resistors
THEORY:
This is the most common component in electronics. It is used mainly to control current and
voltage within the circuit. Its function is to reduce the flow of electric current. Its value is
designated in units called the ‘Ohm’. A 1000 ohm resistor is typically known as 1 K=Ohm. It is
an electrical component with known specified value of resistance. The opposition to the flow of
electric current is known as resistance. The resistance of resistor is given by
R = V/I
Where, R=Resistance, V= Voltage, I = Current
Types of Resistors:There are two types of resistors;
1. Fixed Resistor
2. Variable Resistor
Fixed Resistor is one whose value remains stable within the limits of its specification. Variable
resistors are the resistor whose resistance can be changed from zero to a certain maximum value.
There are two types of fixed resistors; 1) Linear and 2) Non Linear. In linear resistor, there is
linear relationship between resistance and temperature while in non linear resistor, there is non –
linear relationship between resistance and temperature.
Figure 1. Symbol of a resistor
There are five types of linear resistors as under:
1. Carbon composition
2. Metal film
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3. Carbon film
4. Wire wound
5. Cernet
Specification of Resistors: The electrical specifications of resistor are its resistance value,
tolerance, wattage, voltage and temperature coefficient.
The value of the resistor can be verified by the colour coding scheme. The tolerance is the
deviation from the real or actual value of resistance. For example, if the resistance value of a
resistor indicates 10 K Ohm ± 10% then the tolerance will indicate that the resistance value of
the resistor lies between 9 K Ohm to 11 K Ohm.
Based on the tolerance value the resistors can be classified as general purpose resistors (±5%,
±10%, ±20%), semi – precision resistor (±5% to ±10%), or precision resistors (±0.01 to 10%).
Wattage rating is the maximum power in watts that the resistor can safely dissipate at ambient
temperature (i.e. without excessive heat). Since it is the current which produces heat power
ratings indicate the maximum current rating a resistor can safely carry. If the current exceeds this
value more heat will be produced than that can be carried safely and the resistor will eventually
burn out. For a given value of resistance, greater the physical size, higher is the power rating.
Colour Coding Scheme of Resistor:There are two methods to find value of resistance.
1. Using Colour band

There are two common ways to know the value of a resistor, by measuring it using an
Ohmmeter, or by reading the colour code printed on it, which is much faster, when you
get used to do it. The colour coding method is explained as below.
Three band resistors – They represent the value as per the colour code. Absence of
fourth band means a resistance tolerance ± 20%.
Four band resistors – Four band types is the most commonly used colour coding
scheme on resistors. It consists of four coloured bands that are painted around the body of
the resistor. The first two bands encode the first two significant digits of the resistance
value, the third is a power of ten multiplier or number of zeros, and the fourth is the
tolerance accuracy, or acceptable error, of the value. The first three bands are equally
spaced along the resistor; the spacing to the fourth is wider.
The table given below s the numerical meaning, and multiplication factor:
Colour Numerical Multiplying factor Percent tolerance

st nd
meaning 1 and 2
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figures
Black 0 1 or 100
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold - 0.1 or 10-1 ±5%
Silver - 0.01 or 10-2 ±10%
No colour - - ±20%
The mnemonics of learning the position number & multiplication factor is:
BB ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife
For example:
(a) Green-Blue-Yellow-Red is 56 × 103 = 560 kΩ ± 2%.

(b) Yellow-Red-Orange-Gold is 42×103Ω±5%.
Five band resistors – It is used for higher precision (lower tolerance) resistors (1%,
0.5%) to specify a third significant digit. The first three bands represent the significant
digits, the fourth is multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. Five – band resistor with a
gold or silver 4th band is sometimes encountered, generally on older or specialized
resistors. The fourth band is tolerance and the 5th, the temperature coefficient.
Using Character:Here, characters (E, K, M) are used for indication. When characters come
between two decimal numbers, it acts as a decimal point.
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E means – Ohm
K means – Kilo Ohm
M means – Mega Ohm
For example,
2E5 – 2.5Ω
3K9 – 3.9 kΩ
2M7 – 2.7 MΩ
CONCLUSION: The study of various resistors was done.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never bend the resistor wire to many times. It may damage the ceramic resistor structure.
2. Switch off the Digital multimeter when not in use. This may save the draining the battery,
when not in use.
EXPERIMENT 7B
STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES
Objective: (a)To study VI characteristics and determine the forward and reverse resistance of pn
Junction Diode (b)To study the voltage regulating characteristic of a Zener diode.
Apparatus: A junction diode, rheostat, zener diode, variable d. c. Power supply (2-20 Volts),
two d.c. voltmeter (0-2 V; 0-10V), d.c. milliammeter (0-100mA), d.c. microammeter (0-100µA).
P-N Junction diode:
Theory:
A p-n junction diode is known as a semi-conductor or a crystal diode. When a p-type

semiconductor is suitably joined to n – type semiconductor, the contact surface is called pn
junction. The n type material has high concentration of free electrons whereas p-type has high
concentration of holes. Therefore, at the junction, there is tendency for free electrons to diffuse
over the p side and holes to the n – side. This process is called diffusion. As the free electrons
move across the junction from n – type to p – type, they neutralize the holes and a junction
devoid of any charge carriers is formed. Hence a positive charge is built on the n-side of the
junction and a negative charge is developed on the p – side of the junction. This further repels
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the majority charge carriers on both the sides. Therefore, a potion barrier gets formed at the
junction. As the layer is deployed of free electrons and holes, it is often called as depletion layer.
The potential difference can be applied across the pn junction in two ways:
1. Forward Bias:
The external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the potential
barrier, thus permitting the current flow, it is called forward biasing. To apply forward bias,
connect positive terminal of the battery to p type and negative terminal to n type as shown in
figure 1.
Figure 1. (a) Symbolic representation of a forward bias pn junction diode (b) A

representation of p type and n type wafers sandwiched together in a forward bias
mode.
The applied forward potential establishes an electric field which acts against the field due to
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field is weakened and the barrier height is reduced
at the junction. As the potential barrier voltage is very small, therefore a small forward
voltage is sufficient enough to completely eliminate the barrier. Once the potential barrier is
eliminated by the forward voltage, junction resistance becomes almost zero and a low
resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Therefore, current flows in the circuit.
This is called forward current. With forward bias to pn junction, we note the following
points:
1. The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage (~ 0.3 Volts), it is
eliminated all together.
2. The junction offers low resistance called forward resistance (Rf) to current flow.
3. The magnitude of current depends upon the applied forward voltage.
2. Reverse Bias:
When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that the potential
barrier is increased, it is called reverse biasing. To apply reverse bias, connect negative
terminal of the battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type as shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. (a) Symbolic representation of a forward bias pn junction diode (b) A

representation of p type and n type wafers sandwiched together in a forward bias
mode.
It is clear that applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same
direction as the field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is
strengthened and the barrier height is increased. The increased potential barrier prevents the
flow of charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a high resistance path is established for the
entire circuit and hence the current doesn’t flow. With reverse bias to pn junction, the
following observations are noted:
1. The potential barrier is increased.
2. The junction offers very high resistance called reverse resistance Rr.
3. No current flows in the circuit due to the high resistance path.
Procedure:
1. Forward – Bias Characteristics:

• Connect the junction diodes in forward bias mode as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Circuit diagram of forward bias p-n junction diode
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• Keeping the sliding contact of the rheostat towards Q, switch on the power supply. The
voltmeter will show zero.
• Increase the voltage in steps of 0.1 V by moving the sliding contact of the rheostat and
record the voltmeter and milliammeter readings. Take observations till the milliammeter
reads about 100 mA.
3. Reverse – Bias Characteristics:

• Connect the junction diode in the reverse bias mode as shown in figure.
Figure 4. Circuit diagram of reverse bias p-n junction diode
• Keeping the sliding contact of the rheostat towards Q, switch on the power supply.
Increase the voltage across the diode in steps of one volt by moving the sliding
contact of the rheostat and record the voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
• Draw the forward voltage and current respectively along the + X and +Y axis
choosing a suitable scale. Also draw on the same graph paper, the reverse voltage and
current respectively along –X and –Y axes choosing another suitable scale.
Note: If you have a variable power supply, then rheostat and fixed supply can be replaced in the
circuit.
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Observations and Calculations:
Sr. No. Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Voltage (V) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Current (µA)
∆|
Determine the Forward/Reverse Resistance = ∆}
from the linear region of the graph.
Result: The forward bias and reverse bias characteristic curves are shown in Figure 5 and the for
∆|
Forward/Reverse Resistance = ∆}
are determined for the given Junction diode
Figure 5. Characteristic curves of forward bias and reverse bias circuit.
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Precautions and sources of error:
1. In both forward and reverse bias the sliding contact of the rheostat should be capped so as
to give minimum voltage before switching on the power supply
2. The reverse bias voltage should be kept below the breakdown voltage of the diode.
3. In forward bias mode the voltage should be increased in steps of 0.1 volts and a milli
ammeter should read the current. In reverse bias mode the voltage should be increased in
steps of 1 volt and a micro ammeter should read the current
Zener Diode
Objective: To study the voltage regulating characteristic of a Zener diode
Apparatus: Same as above
Theory:
A zener diode is highly doped pn junction diode. Due to heavy doping on both p and n side, the
junction is relatively narrow as compared to the normal diode.
Figure 1. Reverse current in zener diodes made through Si and Ge material
As seen from figure 1 , when a reverse bias is applied, a very small current flows through it due
to the minority charge carriers. However, at some reverse voltage (Vz), the reverse current in the
junction increases rapidly. The current through the device increases while the voltage remains
essentially constant, i.e., the reverse resistance decreases. In this condition the diode is said to
have reached the ‘breakdown’.
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There are two possible mechanisms for such a breakdown. Here, due to heavy doping, the
depletion layer is very thin and hence the electric field becomes large even for a small reverse
bias voltage. Electrons are excited directly from the valence band of p side to the conduction
band of n – side by the high electric field across the junction. A very sharp increase in the current
is observed causing the breakdown of the junction. The value of the reverse voltage at which
breakdown occurs is called as the break down voltage or zener voltage.
Another mechanism responsible for breakdown of a normal pn junction is avalanche

multiplication. It occurs when a large reverse voltage applied causes a large electric field and
number of covalent bonds are broken with consequent increase in current. Further, the highly
accelerated carriers collide with the ions and release many more mobile charges and the process
is multiplicative in nature and results in avalanche discharge. This type of breakdown of the
junction is called as avalanche breakdown.
Study of Zener diode as a voltage regulator
A zener dioof input de is also used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a
source whose voltage may vary over a wide range. Zener Diode is preferred over a normal p-n
diode for voltage regulation, as the Zener breakdown occurs below 0.8V and even much below
depending on the amounts of doping and the method of production. Avalanche breakdown in a
normal p-n junction diode occurs at much higher voltages.
The basis circuit of Zener diode as DC voltage regulating circuit is shown in the figure 2. The
Zener diode with breakdown voltage Vz is reverse biased and is connected in parallel with the
load resistance RL across which a constant output voltage is desired.
Figure 2. Circuit diagram for voltage regulation using zener diode
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For an input voltage Vi greater than the Zener voltage Vz, the Zener diode will maintain a
constant output voltage Vo=Vz across the load resistance RL. When the input voltage is increased
slowly, a very small current flows through the Zener diode. It offers a very high resistance to the
current and the whole of the input appears across the output terminals. Consequently, in this
range, the output voltage increases linearly with the input voltage. Once the input voltage is
greater than Vz, the Zener diode offers a very small resistance to the current. Consequently, a
large current flow in the circuit and the voltage drops across the Rs increases thus maintaining
the voltage drop across RL at constant value Vo=VZ. Similarly, when the input voltage is fixed at
a value greater than the breakdown voltage VZ, any change in RL will not affect the output
voltage which remains constant at VZ. The value of RS and RL to be in the voltage regulation
circuit can be calculated as:
] − •
L.c O~]`. =
•~
This gives the minimum value of Rs to be connected in the circuit . VZ and IZM are respectively
the breakdown voltage and the maximum allowable current through the Zener diode and are
specified by the manufacturer.
Besides,
•
L.[ O~]`. =
•~
where (RL)min. is the minimum value of RL for the firing of the Zener diode. So, RL to be
connected in the circuit should be more than (RL)min. Usually, taking RS=100Ω and RL=1KΩ
works well. Now, let us study about the procedure.
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in figure 2.

2. Choose a series resistance RS=100Ω and load resistance RL=1KΩ.
3. Now, increase the Vi in small steps and note down the corresponding output Vo.
4. Take the readings till Vi is well above VZ and VO remains constant.
5. Plot a graph between Vi (on x-axis) and Vo (on y-axis).
6. For observing the effect of load resistance, always keep Vi>VZ.
7. Keep RS same as before and increase RL in small steps starting from a value of about
50Ω. Now, note down the corresponding output voltage.
8. Plot a graph between RL (on x-axis) and Vo (on y-axis).
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Observations:
For output versus input characteristics:
Connected Series resistance RS=100Ω, load resistance RL=1KΩ
Sr.No. Input voltage Vi (Volts) Output voltage Vo (Volts)
For output versus load resistance characteristics:
Connected Series resistance RS=100Ω, Input voltage Vi=10 volts (Vi> Vz)
S.No. Load resistance RL (ohms) Output voltage Vo (Volts)
1 50
2 100
3 150
. 200
. .
. .
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Result:
Figure 3 (a). Plot showing the the output voltage as a function of input voltage (b) Plot showing
the output voltage as a function of load resistance.
1. Plot 1 in Figure 3(a) shows the output voltage as a function of input voltage. The output
voltage varies linearly for Vi≤Vz and becomes constant for Vi≥Vz.
2. Plot 2 in Figure 3(b)showsthe output voltage as a function of load resistance. For load
resistance greater than some minimum value (RL)min, the output voltage remains constant
even hen the load resistance changes.
Precautions and Sources of error:
1. Zener diode must always be connected in reverse bias conditions.

2. The series resistance Rs should be so chosen that it limits the current at breakdown.
3. While studying the effect of input voltage on the output voltage
a. Load resistance RL should be kept much above its maximum calculated value.
b. The input voltage must be increased in small steps upto a point well above the
breakdown voltage VZ.
4. While studying the effect of load resistance on the output resistance on the output
voltage, the input voltage must be kept above the Zener voltage.
QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOCE
p-n junction diode:
1. How does the potential barrier form in a p-n junction diode?

2. What is the depletion region?
3. What happens to the potential barrier when (a) forward bias is applied, and (b) reverse-
bias is applied?
4. Explain the VI characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias mode,
respectively?
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5. What do you understand by knee voltage?

Ans. Knee voltage is the forward voltage beyond which the current through the junction
starts increasing rapidly with the voltage showing the linear variation. Knee voltage is
0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si.
6. What will happen is the reverse bias of a p-n junction is gradually increased?
7. What is the reverse saturation current?
Ans. The maximum current that flows in a reverse biased p-n junction at a specific
temperature before the breakdown. It is due to the majority carriers.
8. How and why the reverse saturation current varies with temperature?
Ans. The reverse saturation current increases with increase in temperature according to
8)•
the current equation c ∝ f
‚Q . This happen because of the increased current density
of carriers.
9. What is the approximate increase in the reverse saturation current for every 10°C increase
in temperature?
Ans. It becomes double for every 10°C increase in temperature.
10. Why Ge diode is preferred in the experiment to find out the band gap?
Ans. This is so because the reverse saturation current of Ge is about 1000 times higher
than that of Si diodes.
Zener Diode
1. What is Zener diode?
Ans. Zener diode is a p-n junction diode with heavily doped p and n regions. It is
specially designed for operation in its breakdown region in reverse bias condition and is
normally used as a voltage regulator.
2. What is Zener voltage? What is the range of available Zener voltage?
Ans. The reverse bias voltage at which the reverse current increases rapidly is called the
reverse breakdown voltage or Zener voltage. Zener diodes are available in the Zener
voltage range of 2.4V to 200V.
3. What causes reverse breakdown?
Ans. The rupture of covalent bonds due to the high electric field across the thin junction
causes reverse breakdown.
4. Is the reverse breakdown reversible?
Ans. Yes, the decrease of reverse bias voltage restores the condition. The broken bonds
are reassembled.
5. On what factors does the reverse breakdown voltage or Zener voltage depend?
6. Ans. It depends upon the level of doping of n type and p type sections of the diode.
Ordinary p-n junction diodes have lightly doped n and p sections and hence have high
value of reverse breakdown voltage. Zener diodes have heavily doped p- and n- sections
and hence have low value of breakdown voltage.
7. How does a Zener voltage of Ge and Si Zener diodes differ?
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Ans. For same order of doping it is less for Ge and more for Si.
8. Why is Si preferred for manufacturing Zener diodes?
Ans. Si is preferred over Ge because of higher operating temperature and current
capacity. The knee point is also sharpened in case of Si diodes.
9. What is the role of the resistor Rs in series with the Zener?
Ans. It is the current limiting resistor and avoids any accidental burn out of the diode.
10. Will the Zener diode fire for any value of load resistance RL?
Ans. No, a minimum value of RL is required.
11. How does the Zener diodes act as voltage regulator?
Ans. Refer to the working of circuit as explained in theory section.
12. What happens to the series current, load current and Zener current when the DC input
voltage of a Zener regulator increases?
Ans. Zener current and series current increase while the load current remains unchanged.
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EXPERIMENT 8
e/m BY ZEEMAN EFFECT
OBJECTIVE: To determine the e/m ratio using Zeeman Effect
APPARATUS: Electromagnetic on rotating stand for axial or transverse mode observation
Lamp fitted on the top of the high current capacity 1 Tesla electromagnet, Hall Probe, Image J
software, constant current poser supply, probe holders.
Figure 1: A setup of the Zeeman Effect on a vibration less table
THEORY: In evolving quantum theory, Zeeman Effect played a vital role. It exhibited the
ƒ„ with different orientations in presence of
quantization of space in terms of angular momentum P
ƒ„. From the Bohr’s theory, we know that the electron’s magnetic dipole
external magnetic field …
moment is
q=
Where, = -. @ (Area enclosed in an orbit with radius R)
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I = Current due to movement of the electron
Also for a steady current,
†‡
= = −
†
Where e = Electronic charge of an electron
T = Time period of the orbiting electron
Hence,
2-.
ˆ=
‰
Where, ‰ = velocity of the moving electron
ƒ„ is given as
The magnitude of P
ℎ
P= .= ‰. =
2-
Where, = Azimuthal Quantum
Therefore,
‰
=
2-.
Š‹
And ‰ =
@Z~(
‰
q= = -. @
2-.
.ℎ
q=
2 × 2-.
ℎ
=
2 × 2-
ћ
=
2
q = qa --------(1)
ћ
Where, qa = , is called as Bohr magneton
@~
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If the total spin contributed by all the electrons is zero for an atom then equation 1, holds to be
true. The q can be written in terms of spin and orbital angular momentum as
qa
q= LP + 2•O
ћ
Note: For details, please study reference number 1.
The total angular momentum J is given as
Ž =P+•
If the total electron spin –S = 0, then reference is given to normal Zeeman Effect and if S ≠ 0,
then it is associated with anomalous Zeeman Effect. During normal Zeeman Effect, for equation
1, holds true J = L.
We would consider magnetic field to be weak because under strong magnetic field the internal
coupling between spin and orbital angular momentum gets destroyed and results in Paschen –
Back Effect. In Paschen Back Effect, the splitting is disproportional, and the splitting distance
does not correspond linearly with the strength of magnetic field. Therefore, for normal Zeeman
Effect, a weak field is employed for internal L-S coupling. If the magnetic field is strong the
Zeeman Effect develops in Paschen Back Effect.
The internal magnetic field associated with an electron of an atom is ≈ 1 Tesla and hence, we
consider here the magnetic field of order 0.8 or below is weak and higher than 1.5 is strong.
In the present experiment, the external magnetic field is kept below 0.8 Tesla.
The applied magnetic field exerts a torque on the atom
• = q×…
•‘
= − ћ
P × … (L is l as we are considering Azimuthal component only)
ƒ„ vector process in
The torque is perpendicular to both B and L. Under this affect the tip of P
circular motion about the external magnetic field B (Figure 2).
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Figure 2. Representation of vector orbital angular momentum L précising about the external
magnetic field B.
The interaction energy ∆v between the external magnetic field B and magnetic moment of the
atom is given as:
•’
∆v = − q . … = + ћ
P. … …(2)
If we take the direction of magnetic field in Z direction, then B = Bz and L = Lz.
Therefore,
qa
∆v = …. P“
ћ
Where, P“ = z component of orbital angular momentum
P“ = ћ
Where = magnetic quantum number and varies as
= − +
Therefore, the energy levels obtained are
∆v = qa … …(3)
This further infers that the energy level splits up into 2l + 1 sub levels (Fiure 3).
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Figure 2. Splitting of energy level in presence of magnetic field.
Conventionally, the l associated with different orbital angular momenta for an atom is given as:
States Orbital Angular Momenta
s = = 0
p = = 1
d = = 2
f = = 3
g = = 4
And so on.
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Figure 3. Splitting of energy levels associated with different orbitals.
In the presence of external magnetic field, three transitions with frequencies ‰ = ‰a , ‰ = ‰a +

qa … and ‰ = ‰a − qa …are obtained. When ∆ = −1 and +1, we get light that is circularly
polarised in the direction along with the field B. A linearly polarised light is obtained when
∆ = 0 in direction along the field B. Electric field (Ew) and magnetic field (Bw) are associated
with a travelling electromagnetic wave. Therefore, the right and left circularly polarised light
corresponding to frequencies ‰ = ‰a + qa … and ‰ = ‰a − qa … are seen and no wave is seen
for ‰ = ‰a , when viewed along the magnetic field B respectively.
Considering the second orientation that is direction of magnetic field is perpendicular, then
linearly polarised light is seen for ‰ = ‰a with Ew ║ to Bw and Ew ┴ to Bw for ‰ = ‰a ± qa …,
respectively.
We would study the Zeeman Splitting in Cadmium (112Cd) red spectral lines. The red line is
obtained when an electron makes a transition from 51D2 state to 51P1 state in the presence of
external weak magnetic field. When the electromagnet produces a uniform magnetic field of
around 0.8Tesla, normal Zeeman effect is observed.
Hall probe is used to measure the magnetic field B. A Hg-Cd discharge lamp is placed between
the poles. For parallel and perpendicular orientations the whole magnetic assembly can be
rotated as per the requirement.
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A red filter is placed in front of the Q water wave plate for removal of other than red extra
emission lines of the spectra. Depending upon the orientation of polarizer and observation
direction, each red spectral line splits into two or three lines when placed in weak magnetic field
lines. This splitting ∆• can be measured with respect to spacing between successive spectral lines
L∆ O when the field is off.
It should be noted that ∆• is ½ of the spacing between two splitting spectral lines. We shall
determine an expression for relationship between frequency shift and magnetic field causing it.
We know that
∆v = ℎ• = 2-ћ–‰
By equating the equations 3 and above equation, we get
qa ‹ …
–‰ =
2-ћ
—…
=
4-
As per the selection rule, ‹ = -1, 0, +1
Therefore,
{
–‰ = 0, ± ˜Z …(4)
~
Now, we shall evaluate frequency shift (∆‰) by using wavelength shift (∆™) as per the Lummer –
Gehrke plate method. The details can be seen in reference number 2.
›S Kœ S 8*
Δ™ = žŸ …(5)
@ •œ S 8*8œ› ¡
ž
Where ™= 643.8 nm for the red line in cadmium, d = 4.04 mm is the thickness of the Lummer
plate, and ¢ = 1.4567 is the refractive index of quartz glass of the Lummer plate. From Cauchy’s
equation fro refractive index
/ £
¢L™O = … + + +⋯
™@ ™˜
We see that, to first non – constant order
†¢ 2/
= − 7
†™ ™
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And so the last term in the denominator of equation 4 is
†¢ 2¢/
¢™ = − 7
†™ ™
Usually, the numbers C are around 0.005 μm2 – after everything is factored in, the term still
small enough compared to 1 to be neglected. Thus we obtain,
›S *
Δ™ = …(6)
@ Kœ S 8*
Now we can measure the spitting Δ• relative to the distance between adjacent spectral Δ . Since
both these quantities will be small, we may use an approximation:
–™ Δ•
≈
Δ™ ∆™
where by Δ• we denote the displacement of the split lines, as before. Using the expression for Δ™
¥¦ ›S *
–‰ = …(7)
¥§ @ Kœ S 8*
The spectral line separation ratio, Δ•fΔ vs magnetic field B is fit linearly using equation 7. This
is used to deduce the value of charge by mass ratio for an electron.
The charge to mass ratio of an electron is determined by curve fit (linear) method for
equation 7. The fit is between the separation ratio (Δ•fΔ ) of the spectral line and magnetic field
B. It is observed that the discrete nature as exhibited by Cd atom (vector model in the influence
of magnetic field) is in fair agreement with the experimental results. The quantization of space is
also confirmed further in this experiment. The polarisation by three Cd lines in the presence of
magnetic field in perpendicular and parallel directions to B is measured using quarter wave plate
and polarised.
PROCEDURE:
1. Set the power source supply:

The current and voltage knobs (two sets) on the power supply can be used for coarse and
fine controls. The current and voltage knobs should be used simultaneously to obtain a
particular value of current. The voltage knob is the principal knob to set the current as it
controls the current and voltage of the electromagnet.
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The constant power supply The electromagnet
The Gauss meter Hall Probe Holder
Setting up the Hall Probe with gauuss meter. Bring out the Hall Probe ith Gauss meter
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Placement of Hall Probe Connect the Power supply to electromagnet
After placing the filters on the optical bench and connecting the laser, and after installing the
camera with the computer, we have the complete setup as shown below.
2. The presence of magnetic field when after turning off the current shows the presence of
residual magnetic field stored from previous experiments. Thus, it is essential to degauss the
electromagnetic before taking any measurements.
For degaussing, the power supply is turned on and the current is increased to 9A. Then it
is reduced to bring the value of current as zero. Thereafter, the power supply should be
turned off, reverse the polarity and turn the power supply. Now increase the current till -8A.
Thereafter, reduce the current to zero and turn it off. Repeat the process by decreasing the
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value of current by 1A during each cycle until 1A current. This eliminates the stray
magnetism left in the instrument.
3. The value of magnetic field can be measured by using Hall Probe. However, it becomes
quite inconvenient to measure directly using the Hall Probe, when lamp is clamped in
between. Thus, before taking the separation measurements, calibration curve is determined.
This curve is associated with the value of current as measured by multimeter for a given
value of magnetic field as measured by Hall Probe.
S. Current I Magnetic Field Magnetic Field Average

No. (A) Increasing (Gauss) Decreasing (Gauss) B
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
. .
. .
. .
. .
10 10
The current is changed and the corresponding magnetic field is measured as shown in table
above. The values of current and corresponding magnetic field are plotted and curve fitting
is done in it. The fitted curve is then capable of predicting the magnetic field values for
given set of current values. The reliability and reproducibility of the calibration curve is
checked. This is done by first maximising the current and then decreasing it to zero. The
current is increased and then decreased in steps of 1A. The curve gives the relationship
between B and I, therefore the Gaussmeter is not required now.
4. Now download the Image J software to measuring the separation between the lines.
5. The separations between the unsplit and split spectral lines are measured with the help of
cross – wire.
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Figure showing the collective split and unsplit lines for better understanding.
The same set of split (right) and unsplit (original-left image) spectral lines should be
chosen carefully. The set should be such that the separation between them is wide, bright
and sharp. Take three sets of readings by choosing one above and one below the first one.
Thereafter average ratios are determined.
A Table for measuring the difference between splitting and unsplit lines is given below.
For your reference, you can use the below mentioned images for better understanding.
Figure for measuring (a) ΔA and (b) ΔS
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Table for measuring ΔA:

S. No. Ring number Distance from Distance Mean ΔA
th
from center Center to n ring from Center
(right) to nth ring
(left)
1 1
2 2
3 3
. .
. .
Table for measuring ΔS:

S. Ring Distance Distance (b-a) (c-a) Mean
No. number from Center from Center ΔS=[(b-
from to nth ring to nth ring a)+(c-
center (right) (left) b)]/2
1 1 a
2 2 a
3 3 a
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4 4 a
5 5 a
6 6 a
Putting these values in equation 7, i.e.

¥¦ ›S *
–‰ =
¥§ @ Kœ S 8*
One can calculate the e/m ratio.
6. The quarter wave plate is used to determine the polarisation of spectral lines. The
polarisation of the light gets changed after passing through the quarter wave plate. These
are made up of birefringent materials. The birefringent materials differ in refractive index
in accordance with the direction of the propagating light. These crystals have an optical
axis and the light passing through them gets doubly refracted. This produces, two rays E
ray (Extraordinary ray, perpendicular to the original direction) and O ray (ordinary,
parallel to original direction) that travel with different speeds.
Due to the birefringent properties, the refractive indices of E ray –ηE and O ray –ηO are
also different. There will be a path difference between E and O ray. If d is the total
distance travelled by the beams, then the path difference
∆ = m) − m¨ = †L¢) − ¢¨ O
Therefore,
2-
–= † L¢) − ¢¨ O
™
For a phase difference of ™f4 or 90˚, the resulting polarised beams are at right angles to
each other. Due to this, the electric vectors oscillate perpendicular to each other. This
theory is used for circulatory polarised light. Due to the property of reversibility of light,
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a circularly polarised light when incident on the quarter wave plate gets linearly polarised
and vice versa. Thus these optical devices are used to get desired polarisation.
PRECAUTION:
1. Make all connections tight.

2. Handle the gauss-meter probe with care.
3. Be careful with the setup as it contains sophisticated Cd tube, He-Neon Laser (once
exposed to eye, may damage it completely) and strong magnetic field.
4. If the temperature of electromagnet goes too high then turn off the power supply and
allow it to cool.
5. Do not change the voltage / current supply very quickly.
REFERENCE:
1. David J. Grifith, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Prentise Hall, 1999.

2. F. Simeon, “The Lummer-Gehrcke Parallel Plate Interferometer”, J. of Sci. Instrum.,
1.10, 296-304, 1994.
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Experiment 9: Study of characteristics of FET & MOSFET
Structure
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Apparatus Used
9.4 Theory
9.5 About apparatus
9.6 Procedure
9.7 Observation
9.8 Result
9.9 Precaution and source of error
9.10 Summary
9.11 Glossary
9.12 References
9.13 Viva-voce questions and Answers
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9.1 Object:
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• What are FET and MOSFET?

• What are bipolar and unipolar devices.
• How the operation of FET/MOSFET are different from NPN and PNP transistor.
• Uses of FET/MOSFET
9.2 Introduction:
After the advance of semiconductor technology, because of small size, low operation voltage and
low noise many semiconductor devices are manufactured and used. Among these all, FET and
MOSFET have important and used in amplification. FET/MOSFET are field effect transistors in
which electric field controls the flow of current. As we know that P and N type semiconductor
are made by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurity in intrinsic semiconductor respectively.
FET is a three terminals device and is a semiconductor bar (either P or N type semiconductor) on
which two PN junction is made on opposite sides in middle parts. The terminals from either side
of bar along the bar are called drain and source terminals and terminal from PN junction is called
gate. The FET/MOSFET is called unipolar device as current inside the bar is due to movements
of only one type of charge carrier (i.e. holes or electrons). The symbolic diagram of FET is
presented in figure 1.
MOSFET as shown in figure 2 is Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor-Field effect-Transistor. This

works in enhancement and depletion modes. The MOSFET has much higher input impedance
than FET. It is a four terminals device having source(S), gate (G), drain (D) and substrate or
body (B).The channel (N-N) of N channel MOSFET is made of heavily doped N type
semiconductor (N+) splitted by P type semiconductor as substrate (body). Two terminal for
source and drain are made on two end of channel. There is insulating thin layer of silicon di
oxide (SiO2) between gate and channel. Similary p channel MOSFET is made. The symbolic
diagram of MOSFET is presented in figure 2.
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Figure 1
Figure 2
9.3 Apparatus Used:

Experimental board of FET/MOSFET
/MOSFET, connection wires.
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9.4 Theory :
The field effect transistor is a semiconductor device in which the controlled by electric field. The
two PN junctions at the two sides of bar of conduction channel (either N or P type material) form
depletion layers. The current flows through N channel bar is by electrons and in P channel bar is
by holes. The width and hence resistance of channel can be controlled by changing the input
voltage between gate and source VGS. The greater reverse voltage VGS will narrow the channel as
the depletion layer of PN junction become wider.
The FET operate on the principle that the drain current through channel can be change by
changing reverse gate source voltage VGS. The working of FET is as
(A) When is drain kept at positive voltage (VDS) with respect to source at zero gate
potential, the drain current flows in channel of the FET. On increasing VDS drain
current increases and becomes saturated after a fixed voltage called pinch of voltage
(VP).
(B) When a reverse voltage VGS is applied between gate and source, the depletion layers
on the two sides of bar become wider and hence drain current decreases. The drain
current Ip decreases on increasing reverse voltage VGS and at some fixed reverse
voltage the channel become completely cut off i.e. the drain current become zero.
This reverse gate source voltage is called cut off voltage.
The working of MOSFET depends on the electrical variations happening in the channel width
along with the flow of carriers (either holes or electrons). The charge carriers enter into the
channel through the source terminal and exit via the drain.The width of the channel is controlled
by the voltage on an electrode which is called the gate and it is located in between the source and
the drain. Gate is insulated from the channel by metal oxide(SiO2) form parallel plate capacitor
with dielectric SiO2.MOSFET work in two following mode
(A) Enhancement mode: When gate (G) is positive with respect to source in N channel
MOSFET, the +ve gate induces –ve charge on the channel side of this capacitor and
makes channel continuous to conduct between source and drain for a positive drain
source voltage VDS. For P channel MOSFET, polarity of Gate voltage (VGG) and Drain
source voltage (VDS) is reversed.
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(B) Depletion mode: When there is no voltage on the gate, the channel exhibits its
maximum conductance. As the voltage on the gate increases (either positive or negative,
depending on whether the channel is made of P-type or N-type semiconductor material),
the channel conductivity decreases.
The MOSFET characteristics are studied by noting the variation of current ID with voltage VGS
and VDS. The variation of current ID with and VDSat constant voltage VGS is called drain
characteristics. The mutual characteristics is curve between ID and VGS at constant VDS. The
drain resistance (rd), mutual conductance (gm) and amplification factor (q) are evaluated using
characteristics of MOSFET. The characteristics for Enhancement mode and Depletion mode will
plotted in same way.
9.5 About apparatus:

The apparatus in the experiment is circuit for a N channel field effect transistor (N channel FET)
as shown in figure 3. The drain is kept at positive voltage with respect to source by the battery
(0-30V) and gate is kept at negative voltage with the source by the battery (0-10V). For the
measurement of drain current milliammeter is used in circuit.
Figure 3
The circuit diagram for N channel metal oxide field effect transistor (N channel MOSFET) is
shown in figure 4.
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Figure 4
9.6 Procedure:
For FET, let us perform the experiment in following steps.
1. Make connection as shown in figure 2.

2. Adjust reverse gate voltage say at 1V by means of R1.
3. Increase drain voltage in step of 1 volt by changing R2 and note the corresponding drain
current.
4. Now note drain current with changing drain voltage for constant reverse gate voltage say
for 1V, 2V, 3V and 4Vetc.
5. Plot curve between drain voltage and drain current for constant reverse gate voltage.
6. Obtain the pinch off voltage from the graph between drain voltage and drain current.
7. Repeat the observation of drain current with drain voltage for different VGS say1V,2V,3V
and 4V and find the pinch off voltage.
For MOSFET, let us perform the experiment in following steps.
(A) Drain characteristics (For N –Channel MOSFET)

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Keep VGS fixed, record drain current (ID) with varying drain voltage (VDS).
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4. Repeat the observation of drain current with drain voltage for different VGS say
4V, 5V, 6V and 7V and find the pinch off voltage.
5. Tabulate the observation and plot graph.
6. Record the pinch off voltage (VP) and corresponding current (IP) for each value of
(VGS) from characteristics or table. Calculate drain resistance (rd).
©L O
Ohmic drain resistance m = = ⋯…..Ω
© L~yO
(B) Mutual characteristics (For N –Channel MOSFET)

3. Keep VDS fixed, record drain current (ID) with varying gate voltage (VGS).
4. Repeat the observation for different VDS say 10V, 12V, 14V and 16V.
5. Tabulate the observation and plot graph.
6. From above plotted graph mutual conductance (gm) is evaluated as
¥ ¬ L~yO
Mutual conductance ~ = ¥ -® L O
= ⋯….. ℎ
9.7 Observation:
Table 1 for FET for Output characteristics (Id/VDS)
S.N. Drain Voltage Drain current Id (mA)

VDS (In volt)
VGS=1V VGS=2V VGS=3V VGS=4V
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Table 2 for MOSFET for Drain characteristics (Id/VDS)
S.N. Drain Voltage Drain current Id (mA) for base current

VDS (In volt)
VGS=4V VGS=5V VGS=6V VGS=7V
Table 3 for MOSFET for Values of VP , IP with VGS.
S.N. VGS Values of S.N. VGS Values of

VPIP and rd VPIP and rd
1 3V VP 4 7V VP
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IP IP
rd rd
2 4V VP 5 8V VP
IP IP
rd rd
3 5V VP 6 9V VP
IP IP
rd rd
Table 4 for MOSFET for Output characteristics (Id/VDS)
S.N. Gate Voltage VGS Drain current Id (mA)

(In volt)
VGS= VGS= VGS= VGS=
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10
9.8 Result:
1. For FET the graph between drain voltage with drain current at constant gate source
reverse voltage VGS are plotted in the graphs and pinch off voltage VP are ………....
2. For MOSFET, the Mutual characteristics and drain characteristics are plotted and
following constants for MOSFET are calculated
(a) Drain resistance m in ohmic region =
(b) Mutual conductance ~ in pinch off region =
(c) The value of amplification factor LqOin pinch off region =
9.9 Precaution and source of error:

1. FET/MOSFET should handle carefully.
2. Sensitive voltmeter and sensitive ammeter sould be used.
3. There should be proper biasing i.e. gate is netaive and drain is positive with respect ro
source.
4. Voltge should not exceeds the rated value of FET/MOSFET.
5. There should be not be fluctuation of power.
9.10 Summary:
1. FET/MOSFET are three terminal unipolar device.
2. Three terminals in FET/MOSFET are called source, gate and drain.
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3. While operating with FET drain is always kept positive with respect to source, while gate
is negative with respect to source.
4. While operating with MOSFET drain is always kept positive with respect to source, gate
is negative (depletion mode) and positive (enhancement mode) with respect to source.
4. Drain and source terminals are interchangeable.
5. The drain voltage for which drain current become saturate is called pinch off voltage.
9.11 Glossary:
Semiconductor: Material whose conductivity lies between conductor and insulator.
Intrinsic semiconductor: Si and Ge in their pure form.
Amplifier: A device which raises the strength of weak signal.
Unipolar device: The semiconductor inside which the conduction is by either (holes or
electrons) charge carriers
Pinch off voltage: The drain voltage for the drain current becomes saturated is called pinch
off voltage.
9.12 References:
1. C. L. Arora,B.Sc. Practical Physics, S. Chand publication, Delhi.
2. V.K. Mehta & Rohit Mehta, Principles of Electronics, S. Chand publication, Delhi.
3. B. L. Thereja, Basic electronics, S. Chand publication, Delhi.
4. S.L.Gupta, V.Kumar, Practical Physics, Pragati prakashan, Meerut.
5.https://en.wikipedia.org.
9.13 Viva-voce questions:

Question1.How a FET is different from npn/pnp transistor?
Answer: In FET current conduction is either by holes or electrons and is controlled by means by
electric field while in npn/pnp transistor input current controls output current and conduction is
due to both holes & electrons.
Question2. Define pinch off voltage?
Answer: It is drain-source voltage at which the drain current becomes constant.
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Question3.What are use of FET& MOSFET?
Answer. FET& MOSFET are used as amplifier
Question4. What is advantages of MOSFET over FET.
Answer: In MOSFET has, the gate is insulated electrically from the channel, no current flows
between the gate and the channel, no matter what the gate voltage (as long as it does not become
so great that it causes physical breakdown of the metallic oxide layer). Thus, the MOSFET has
practically infinite impedance.
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Experiment 10: Study of lattice dynamic kit
Structure
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Apparatus Used
10.4 Theory
10.5 About apparatus
10.6 Procedure
10.7 Observation
10.8 Result
10.10 Summary
10.11 Glossary
10.12 References
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10.1 Objective:
After performing this experiment, you should be able to understand
What is Lattice and lattice vibration?

What are the mono-atomic and di-atomic lattices.
Dispersion relation of mono-atomic lattice and comparison with theory.
Determination of Cut off frequency of mono-atomic lattice.
Dispersion relation of di-atomic lattice – optical mode and acoustical mode energy gap
and comparison with theory.
10.2 Introduction:
Matter in nature exists in three states viz. solid, liquid and gas by chemical composition of one or
more elements. Atoms in matter are attached to each other with force of attraction. In solids,
strong force of attraction maintains their shape and volume. Solids are broadly classified as
crystalline and non-crystalline depending upon the arrangement of atoms or molecules.
The crystalline state of solids is characterized by regular or periodic arrangement of atoms and
molecules. As the energy released in formation of ordered state is less than the disordered state,
the crystalline state (low energy state) thus preferred by most of the solids. The non-crystalline or
amorphous solids are characterized by completely random arrangement of atoms or molecules.
The atomic arrangement in a crystal is called crystal lattice. In the perfect crystal, there is regular
or periodic arrangement of atoms and periodicity varies in different directions. It is always
convenient to imagine points in space that have definite relationship with the atom or molecules
of solids. The arrangement of such imaginary points in space that have definite relationship with
the atom or molecules of solids is called lattice.
10.3 Apparatus Used:
Lattice dynamic kit, CRO and connection wire.
10.4 Theory :
A lattice is a regular arrangement of atoms which are joined together by electrostatic force of
attraction and may be regarded as joined by elastic spring. A two dimension lattice is shown in
figure 1 and it is obvious that the motion of single atom will be shared by all the atoms i.e.
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motion of atom is coupled. Due to internal energy in lattice, the lattice may vibrate in normal
mode and it may vibrate
brate in forced vibration (under effect of mechanical or electromagnetic
external force). The vibration in normal mode results to information regarding thermal
conductivity & specific heat. The forced vibrations are associated with the optical properties of
o
solids. Let’s discuss the lattice vibration for monoatomic and diatomic lattice as following
Figure 1: One dimensional lattice

10.4.1 Vibrations of one –dimensional
dimensional monoatomic lattice
Let consider aone –dimensional
dimensional monoatomic lattice where atoms of mass ‘m’ are attach by
massless springs as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: one dimensional monoatomic lattice
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The atoms are placed in x-axis with interatomic spacing ‘a’. The coordinate of atoms will be
……
,(n-1)a, na, (n+1)a,…….In the state of vibration along x axis, the atoms will have periodic
motion about their equilibrium positions and become the source of elastic wave that propagates
through the medium. Let at any instant of time, the displacement of……,(n-1)th, nth,
(n+1)th,……atoms are …..
un-1, un, un+1……. and β is force constant of spring. As nth atom is
attached to (n-1)th and (n+1)th atoms by two springs, so the net force on nth atoms will be given
as following
F = β (un+1 − u n ) − β (u n − u n−1 )
F = β (un+1 + un−1 − 2u n )
d 2un
m = β (un+1 + u n−1 − 2u n ) 10.1
dt 2
d 2u n
(where, is acceleration of nth atom)
dt 2
The solution of equation 1.1 is
u n = u0 exp i (ωt − Kna ) 10.2
 2π 
(where, na is x coordinate of nth atom , K  =  is propagation vector and ω is angular
 λ 
frequency of wave)
Similarly for (n+1)th and (n-1)th atoms, the solution will be
u n+1 = u 0 exp i[ωt − K (n + 1)a ] 10.3
u n−1 = u 0 exp i[ωt − K (n − 1)a ] 10.4
Putting values from equations 10.2, 10.3 & 10.4 to 10.1, we will get
(
− mω 2 = β e iKa − 2 + e −iKa ) 10.5
(
− mω 2 = β e iKa / 2 − e −iKa / 2 )
2
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2
2  e iKa / 2 − e −iKa / 2 
2
− mω = 4 β i  
 2i 
 Ka 
− mω 2 = −4 β sin 2  
 2 
4β Ka
ω=± sin 10.6
m 2
The relation (10.6) is called dispersion relation and is plotted in figure 3.
Figure 3: D
Dispersion relation
(i) At low frequencies, K → 0

Ka Ka
sin →
2 2
4β Ka
ω=± 10.7
m 2
The phase velocity v p = ω and group velocity v g = dω are same.

K dK
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(ii) At higher frequency, the group velocity v p = ω , group velocity v g = dω

K dK
are different and given by
ω 4β 1 Ka
vp = =± sin 10.8
K m K 2
dω 4β Ka
vg = =± cos 10.9
dK m 2
Thusgroup velocity v p and group velocity v g are different and functions of
frequency. This phenomenon is called dispersion and medium is called dispersive

medium.
4β
(iii) At frequency ω = ± is maximum angular frequency of vibration, K = π or
m a
λ = 2a .
ω 4β a
vp = =± , vp = 0 10.10
K m π
It follows that there is no transfer of signal or energy corresponding to this frequency limit and
hence the wave behaves like standing wave.
4β
From above discussion that vibrations frequency ω 〈 can propagate through the lattice, so
m
the lattice behave like as low-pass filter.
Dispersion relation 10.6 shows that numbers of K values are associated with same frequency ω ,
which lattice can propagates numbers of wavelength corresponding same frequency and K range
π π π π
− 〈K 〈 . The region of K values where − 〈K 〈 called first Brillouin zone, region of K
a a a a
2π 2π
values − 〈K 〈 is called second Brillouin zone and so on. As right half of Brillouin zone is
a a
same to left half, the periodic arrangement of atoms can be explained verified.
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10.4.2 Vibrations of one –dimensional

dimensional di
diatomic lattice
Let consider adi –dimensional
dimensional monoatomic latti
lattice with two atoms of mass ‘m’ and ‘M’ are
attach alternatively by massless springs as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4: O
One –dimensional diatomic lattice
The atoms are placed in x-axis

axis with interatomic spacing ‘a’. In the state of equilibrium, location
of atoms of masses ‘m’ let represented by ……,(2n-2), 2n, (2n+2),…….. Let β is force constant of
spring and u2n be displacement of atom at 2nth site. So we will get following differential
equation
d 2u2 n
F2 n = m = β (u 2 n+1 + u 2 n−1 − 2u 2 n )
dt 2 10.11
d 2 u 2 n+ 2
F2 n+1 = M = β (u 2 n+ 2 + u 2 n − 2u 2 n+1 )
dt 2 10.12
Solutions of equations 10.11 & 10.12 are
u 2 n = A exp i (ωt − 2 Kna )

10.13
u 2 n+1 = B exp i[ωt − (2n + 1) Ka ]

10.14
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Here K is wave vector of particular mode of vibration. The vibration frequency of both atoms is
same as both participate in same motion. The similar expressions for u2n-1& u2n+2 are
u2 n−1 = B exp i[ωt − (2n − 1) Ka ] 10.15
u2 n+2 = A exp i[ωt − (2n + 2) Ka ] 10.16
Putting values from equations 10.13, 10.14, 10.15and 10.16 to 10.11&10.12, we will get
− mω 2 A = βB(e iKa + e − iKa ) − 2βA ⇒ (2β − mω 2 ) A − (2β cos Ka) B = 0 10.17
− Mω 2 B = βA(e iKa + e −iKa ) − 2βB ⇒ − ( 2β cos Ka) A + (2 β − Mω 2 ) B = 0 10.18
The above sets of homogeneous linear equations give to non-zero solutions for A & B for
2 2
2 1 1   1 1  4 sin Ka
ω = β +  ± β  +  −
m M  m M  mM 10.19
So, the allowed frequency range in diatomic lattice split into two branches, an upper branch is
called optical branch and lower branch is called acoustical branch and there exists band of
frequencies between these branches in which wave like solution is not possible is called
forbidden band. In monoatomic lattice optical branch and acoustic branch coincide at K = ± π
2a
and forbidden band disappears.
The vibrations of acoustical branch can be excited by force which makes atoms in crystal move
in same direction. Such effects may produce sound waves on surface of the crystal and therefore
called acoustical vibrations.
The vibrations of optical branch can be excited by force which makes atoms in crystal move in
opposite direction. Optical radiation can make such effects and therefore called optical
vibrations.
The lattice dynamic kit consist of following parts
(a) Audio oscillator with amplitude control and frequency varying facilities.
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(b) Lattice dynamic kit consists of electrical circuit which stimulates one dimensional
monoatomic and diatomic lattice. The kit has switches for monoatomic and diatomic
lattice.
The electrical analog of monoatomic and diatomic lattice as shown in figure 2&3 is chained LC
circuit resented in figure 4&5.
Figure 4: Electrical analog of one dimensional monoatomic lattice
Figure 5: Electrical analog of one dimensional diatomic lattice
The dispersion relation for circuit in figure 4 (monoatomic lattice) is given by

2
ω2 = (1 − cos θ ) 10.20
LC
1
Where ‘ θ ’ is phase change introduce by each section (unit cell) of filter with C ↔ m and ↔β
L
4β Ka 2 β
(as compares to dispersion relation in equation 10.6 we have ω 2 = sin 2 = (1 − cos Ka )
m 2 m
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So, by measuring phase difference between input and output voltage will verify dispersion
relation for monoatomic lattice.
Similarly the dispersion relation for circuit in figure 5 (diatomic lattice) is
2
2  1 1  1 1  4 sin 2 θ
ω = β  +  ± β  +  −
 C1 C   C1 C  CC1
Which is as in equation 10.19

2
21 1  1 1  4 sin 2 Ka
ω = β +  ± β  +  −
m M  m M  mM
1
With C ↔ m , C1 ↔ M and ↔β
L
In diatomic lattice there are two frequencies corresponding to K with gap. Plot of θ with two
frequencies will give acoustical branches (ω+ ) and optical branch (ω− ) .
10.6 Procedure:
Let us perform the experiment in following steps.
For monoatomic lattice
1. Connect the kit to mains and switch on.
2. Keep amplitude R1, R2 nob at maximum. Keep the toggle switch to Lo.
3. Connect the output of kit with the CRO and switch CRO to XY mode.
4. Keep both switches to monoatomic side, let the circuit consist of ten section (LC
circuit called unit cell) given by constant source (audio oscillator with series R1).
With the help of R2 , set the output on CRO to Lissajous figure nearly circle.
5. Starting with low frequency, vary the frequency of audio oscillator with help of TPP
and note the frequencies for which Lissajous figure is circle or ellipse i.e. phase
nπ
difference is . An elliptical shape can be made circular with adjusting R2.
2
6. At circular shape phase difference ‘ θ ’ is 900, so phase difference is 90 per unit cell.
Note the reading.
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7. Repeat the observation with changing frequency.
8. Tabulate the frequency and phase difference ‘ θ ’.
9. Plot the graph.
1 L
10. Find the maximum frequency and compare the result with theoretical value .
π C
For diatomic lattice
1. Keep both switches to diatomic side.
2. Note the value of C & C1.
3. Take observation as taken for monoatomic lattice.
4. Tabulate the frequency and phase difference ‘ θ ’ and Plot the graph.
5. Note the energy gap.

10.7 Observation:
Table 1 for frequency (KHz) and phase difference for monoatomic lattice kit.
SN Frequency(KHz) Shape Phase difference
1 Circle/ellipse 90
2 Circle/ellipse 180
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Table 2 for frequency (KHz) and phase difference for diatomic lattice kit.
SN Frequency(KHz) Shape Phase difference
1 Circle/ellipse 90
10.8 Result:
(a)The dispersion relation of mono-atomic lattice is plotted and presented in graph 1 which
correctly agreed with theory. The cut off frequency of mono-atomic lattice is found………Hz.
(b) Dispersion relation of di-atomic lattice is plotted and presented in graph 2 whichagreed
with theory. The energy gap between optical branch and acoustic branch is …………….

1. Instruction given in manual should be strictly followed.
2. Frequency measurement should be taken carefully.
3. There should be no fluctuation of power.
4. Graph should draw smoothly.
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10.10 Summary:
1. Atoms/molecules of lattice vibrate due to internal energy and external force imposed on
lattice.
2. Due to lattice vibration, there is transfer of energy.
3. Dispersion relation is the relation between frequency and wave vector for mono-atomic
di-atomic lattice.
4. The energy from lattice cannot transfer above certain value of frequency called cut off
frequency. This is electrically same as case of low pass filter.
5. In di-atomic lattice, energy can transfers from lattice in two mode – optical mode and
acoustical mode with energy gap.
10.11 Glossary:
Lattice: A periodic arrangement of imaginary points in space in place of atoms/molecules of
crystal
Lattice dynamic kit: A device to study monoatomic and diatomic lattice. It consists of chain
of LC circuit.
Dispersive relation: It is the relation between frequency and wave.
Cut off frequency: Above certain value of frequency,the energy from lattice do not transfer
is called cut off frequency. This is electrically same as case of low pass filter.
10.12 References:
1. R.K.puri andV.K.Babbar, Solid State Physics and electronics,S. Chand publication, Delhi.
2. S.O. Pillai, Solid State Physics, New Age Publcation, New Delhi.
3. C.Kittle, Introduction to Physics, Wiley India Edition.
5. Practical manual, Mittal Enterprises, Patel Nagar, New Delhi.

Question1. What do you understand by lattice?
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Answer: The regular or periodic arrangement of infinite numbers of imaginary points

(having relationship with atoms/molecules of crystal) in three dimensional space with each
points having identical surroundings is called lattice. Lattice form a actual framework of a
crystals.
Question2. Define dispersion relation of monoatomic and diatomic lattice.
Answer: Due to internal or external energy, the crystal vibrates and there is no transfer of
signal or energy. The frequency of wave of signal related to wavelength is given by
4β Ka
ω=± sin
m 2 in a monoatomic lattice and
2 2
1 1   1 1  4 sin Ka
ω2 = β + ±β  +  −
m M  m M  mM in a diatomic lattice
The above relations are called dispersion relations.
Question3. Define Brillouin zone
Answer: Plot of frequency and wave vector K shows that numbers of K values are
associated with same frequency ω . So lattice can propagate numbers of wavelength
corresponding same frequency, which physically verify the periodicity of crystal. The
π π
regions in which K range as ‘ − 〈K 〈 ’ is called first Brillouin zone. Similarly the region
a a
2π 2π
of K values − 〈K 〈 is called second Brillouin zone and so on.
a a
Question4. What do you understand by optical branch and acoustical branch? Also define
forbidden frequency
Answer: The allowed frequency range in diatomic lattice split into two branches, an upper
branch is called optical branch and lower branch is called acoustical branch and forbidden
band. The vibrations of acoustical branch can be excited by force which makes atoms in
crystal move in same direction. Such effects may produce sound waves on surface of the
crystal and therefore called acoustical vibrations. The vibrations of optical branch can be
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excited by force which makes atoms in crystal move in opposite direction. Optical radiation
can make such effects and therefore called optical vibrations.
Question5. How you understand lattice practically?
Answer: The frequency response of lattice is that it does not transfer energy after certain
frequency limit. So it has same working as low pass electrical filter having chain of units,
and in which one unit is equivalent to LC circuit. In case of diatomic lattice there are two
capacitances C and C1. Hence study of chain of LC circuit (electrical analog of lattice), we
can understand lattice practically.
Experiment 11: Study of logic gates
Structure
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Apparatus Used
11.4 Theory
11.6 Procedure
11.7 Observation
11.8 Result
11.10 Summary
11.11 Glossary
11.12 References
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11.1 Objective:
Types of logic gates
Use of logic gates
Half adder and Full adder
11.2 Introduction:
All digital electronic circuits and microprocessor based on hardware elements are called Digital
Logic gates. Logic gates performs the logical operations of AND, OR and NOT on binary
numbers. There are two voltage levels or states allowed in digital logic circuits and these states
are generally referred to as Logic 1 (HIGH) or Logic 0 (LOW). Boolean algebra is used for
binary operation in logical circuits. TRUE or FALSE and ON or OFF can be understood as
logical level. In term of voltage level, one common logic is logic 1 (5V i.e. HIGH) and logic 0
(0V i.e. LOW).
Simple digital logic gates can be made by combining transistors, diodes and resistors as discrete
components. Such circuits can be made using Diode-Resistor Logic (DRL), Diode-Transistor
Logic (DTL) and Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL). Integrated circuit are available in 74 series
for logical gates families.

Experimental board with slotted ICs for all gates, connection wires.
11.4 Theory :
Figure 1 represents the symbols of all gates. Working of digital logic gates are AND, OR, NOT,
NAND and NOR are as following
(A) AND gate: The AND gate is a basic digital logical gate whose output is at high state
when all the input are in high sate. If one of the input is at low state, the output will be
low.
(B) OR gate: The OR gate is a basic digital logical gate whose output is at high state (1)
when one of the input is high state (1).
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(C) NOT gate: The output state is at low state (0) when input is high (1) and vice versa.
(D) NAND: It is combination of NOT and AND gate.
(E) NOR: It is combination of NOT and OR gate.
(F) XOR: Its out put is in high state (1) when odd numbers of input are at high state(1).
Gate Symbol
AND
OR
NOT
NAND
NOR
XOR
Figure 1
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The apparatus is board contains different circuits (ICs) for the logical gates.
(A) Integrated circuits (ICs) for all above said logical gates are as following
Gate IC PIN diagram PIN diagram description
AND 7408, quad, 22-input IC
OR 7432, quad, 22-input IC
NOT 7404, quad, 11-input IC
NAND 7400, quad, 22-input IC
NOR 7402, quad, 22-input IC
XOR 7486, quad, 22-input IC
Figure 2
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(B) Circuit for half adder
Figure 3
(C) Circuit of full adder
Figure 4
11.6 Procedure:
(A) For digital gates

1. For AND gate, connect wire to input to give all possible combinations of high and low
state (low state’0’ and high state ‘1’.
2. Observe output from LED indicator.
3. Present results in truth table.
4. Perform the observation for all logical gates.
(B) For half adder
1. Connect circuit as in figure 3.
2. Set input (all possible combinations of high and low state (low state’0’ and high state
‘1’).
3. Observe sum and carry.
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(C) For full adder

1. Connect circuit as in figure 4.
2. Set input (all possible combinations of high and low state (low state’0’ and high state
‘1’).
3. Observe sum and carry.
11.7 Observation:
(A) Table for truth table 1 for all gate
Gate Truth table
Input A Input B Output
AND 0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
OR
NOT
NAND
NOR
XOR
(B) Table 2 for half adder

INPUTS SUM CARRY
A B S C
0 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
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(C) Table 3 for full adder

INPUTS SUM CARRY
A B Cin S C
0 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
11.8 Result:
1. The truth tables of all logical gates are presented in tables.
2. The truth tables for half adder and full adder are presented in table 2 and 3 respectively.

1. Avoid direct contact with any power source. Turn off all power sources when not
needed.
2. Before making changes in a circuit, turn off or disconnect the power first.
3. Know that the circuit and connections are correct before applying power to the circuit.
4. ICs should handle and pined properly in mounting board.
11.10 Summary:
6. Output of logical circuits are either high (logical 1) or low state (logical 0).
7. Output of AND logical circuits is high, when both the inputs are at high.
8. Output of OR logical circuits is high, when either of the inputs are at high.
9. Output of not logical circuits is revert of input.
10. Logical circuits are basic unit of microprocessor.
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11.11 Glossary:
IC: Integrated Circuit

DRL: Diode-resistor logic
DTL: Diode-Transistor Logic
Boolean algebra: Used in digital operation
High & Low state: Digital circuit works on two state of voltage i.e. high state (digitally 1)
and low state (digitally low)
11.12 References:
4. S. L. Gupta, V. Kumar, Practical Physics, Pragati prakashan, Meerut.
6. Gupta & Kumar, Hand book of electronics, Pragati prakashan, Meerut.
Question1. What are DIGITAL gates?
Answer: Digital gates are basically electronic components which are used for switching and
manipulating binary data
Question2. What do you mean by universal gate?
Answer: The universal gates are those gate from which we can make any gate by using them.
The universal gates are NAND & NOR gates.
Question3.What are a half-adder and full adder?
Answer:A logic circuit, that can add two 1-bit numbers and produce outputs for sum and carry, is
called a half-adder.
A binary adder, which can add two 1-bit binary numbers along with a carry bit and produces
outputs for sum and carry is called a full-adder.
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Question4. Explain what is a flip-flop?
Answer: A flip-flop is a basic memory element that is made of an assembly of logic gates and is
used to store 1-bit of information.
Experiment 12: Detection efficiency of diodes
Structure
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Apparatus Used
12.4 Theory
12.6 Procedure
12.7 Observation
12.8 Result
12.10 Summary
12.11 Glossary
12.12 References
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12.1 Objective:
What is modulation and demodulation?

Type of modulation.
How diode can be used as detector or demodulator.
12.2 Introduction:
The diode detector is the simplest and most basic form of amplitude modulation(AM), AM
signal detector and it detects the envelope of the AM signal.
The AM diode detector can be built from just a diode and a few other components and as a result
it is a very low cost circuit block within an overall receiver. In the early days of radio, these
signal detectors were made using discrete components, but modern radios will use integrated
circuits with inbuilt detectors.

Step down transformer, PN junction diode, micro ac & dc ammeter/milli ammeter, rheostat, load
resistance, capacitor, battery.
12.4 Theory :
Modulation is the process of mixing of radio waves with carrier wave. A carrier wave is wave of
high energy wave. Modulation is usually applied to electromagnetic signals i.e. radio waves,
lasers/optics and computer networks. The common modulation methods includes Amplitude
modulation (AM), Frequency modulation (FM), Phase modulation (PM), Polarization
modulation, Pulse-code modulation and Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). The
modulation is used to send electromagnetic signal to distant apart. At the other end, the signal is
extract from the modulated signal. This process of extracting original signal from modulated
signal is called demodulation.
The diode is useful in demodulation and therefor called AM diode detector.
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AM diode detection process
The PN junction diode rectify the RF signal and provides an output equivalent to the envelope of
one half of the signal.In view of the operation of the diode detector, it may sometimes be referred
to as an envelope detector.
The incoming amplitude modulated RF signal consists of a waveform of both positive and
negative going voltages as shown. Any audio transducer would not respond to this.
Figure 1
The high frequency element of this is then filtered out by a capacitor. The capacitor act as low
pass filter and thus effectively filter the high frequency elements.
The efficiency of diode i.e. detection efficiency is given by the formula

¨°&_°& a‹&C±
¢% = `_°& a‹&C±
× 100
(’
¢% = × 100
√@)²
Where . is load resistance, E is the current at which the efficiency is evaluated, v= is the
r.m.s. value if input voltage.
Following two methods are employed for the finding efficiency of diode.
1. Direct method and
2. Load line method
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The apparatus as presented in figure 2 consist of a circuit having following two main element
(1) Diode / rectifier: The diode in the detector serves to that enhances one half of the
received signal over the other.
(2) Low pass filter: The low pass filter is required to remove the high frequency elements
that remain within the signal after detection / demodulation. The filter usually consists of
a very simple RC network but in some cases.
The capacitor used in the circuit should be selected so that it is large enough to hold the
peak of the RF waveform, but not so large that it attenuates any modulation on the signal,
i.e. it should act as a filter for the RF carrier and not the audio modulation.
Figure 2
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Figure 3
12.6 Procedure:
For Direct method
1. Make connection the circuit as shown in figure 2.

2. Fixed the load resistance say 20 oΩ.
3. For applied input signal voltage, read the output voltage and load current in
micrometer.
4. Calculate efficiency by the formula.
5. Repeat the procedure 1-4 for different value of input signal voltageLvm O.
For load line method
1. Make connection the circuit as shown in figure 3.

2. Fixed the input signal voltageLvm O.
3. Read the forward current for different forward voltage of PN junction.
4. Draw the graph betweenforward voltage (Vf) and forward current (If).
5. Repeat the procedure 1-4 for different value of input signal voltageLvm O.
6. Draw load line for the load line 20 oΩ.
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7. From graph find the forward voltage (Vf) at the input signal voltageLvm O.
8. Calculate the efficiency ¢% = U

× 100
√@)²
12.7 Observation:
Table 1 for Direct method
Load resistance R = ……. Capacitance = ……..
Input signal Voltage Lv= O Micrometer reading ILq O Output Voltage (v= O . E
¢% = × 100
S.N.
√2v=
Table 2 for load line method

Signal voltage =……..
#$ $
#$ $
S.N. Forward voltage (Vf) Forward current (If)
¢% = × 100
From graph for input signal voltage " $
12.8 Result:
The efficiency calculated by direct method and load line method are presented in table 1 and
table 2 respectively.
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6. There should be no fluctuation of power.
7. Voltmeter and micrometer reading should taken carefully.
8. Current should not exceed the rating value of PN junction.
9. Graph should draw smoothly.
12.10 Summary:
11. PN junction diode in a simple circuit can be used in detecting the audio signal.
12. The PN junction diode is called envelop detector.
13. Filter circuit is used eliminate high frequency carrier signal from the modulated signal.
12.11 Glossary:
PN junction: Semiconductor device made by diffusion of P and N type semiconductor
material.
Rectifier: That covert AC to DC.
Filter: The circuit that allow desire frequency to pass from it.
Efficiency: Capacity of rectification or envelop detection.
12.12 References:
4. S.L.Gupta, V.Kumar, Practical Physics, Pragati prakashan Meerut.
5. Gupta & Kumar, Hand book of electronics, Pragati prakashan Meerut.
5.https://en.wikipedia.org

Question1. What do you understand by demodulation?
Answer: It the reverse process of modulation. By this process an output wave or signal is
obtained having the characteristics of the original modulating wave or signal.
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Question2. How the PN junction diode can be used as demodulator or detector.
Answer: Diode detector circuit operates by detecting the envelope of the incoming signal.
Current is allowed to flow through the diode in only one direction, giving either the positive
or negative half of the envelope at the output. It is the simplest way to demodulate AM. If
the detector is to be used only for audio detection it does not matter which half of the
envelope is used, it will work equally for both cases.
Question3. Discuss the role of filter circuit in detection
Answer: The filter circuit by pass the high frequency (carrier signal of modulated signal). So
it give original modulating signal as output.
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Experiment 13: Study of ESR spectra of given sample
Structure
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Apparatus Used
13.4 Theory
13.6 Procedure
13.7 Observation
13.8 Result
13.10 Summary
13.11 Glossary
13.12 References
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13.1 Objective:
What is ESR spectroscopy?

What is g-Lande factor
13.2 Introduction:
In 1944 by E.K. Zavoisky perform magnetic resonance experiment in solids. Electron Spin
Resonance (ESR) is a branch of absorption spectroscopy in which radiations having frequency in
the microwave region (0.04 – 25 cm) is absorbed by paramagnetic substances. An electron has a
spin and due to spin it possessed magnetic moment. The atoms, ions, molecules or molecular
fragments which have an odd number of electrons exhibit characteristic magnetic properties due
to finite magnetic moment. Such atoms, ions, molecules or molecular fragments absorbs energy
and induces transitions between magnetic energy levels of electrons of unpaired spins. It is also
known as Electron Magnetic Resonance (EMR) or Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR).
It is a sensitive and informative technique for the investigation of different kinds of paramagnetic
species in solid or liquid states and also has great importance in many fields as unpaired electron
in semiconductor and organic free radicals, ferro and anti-ferro magnetic material.

Highly stabilized power supply, Helmholtz coil, sample, RF oscillator, Oscilloscope and
connecting wires.
13.4 Theory :
The phenomenon of electron spin resonance (ESR) is based on the fact that an electron is a
charged particle. It spins around its axis and this causes it to act like a tiny bar magnet. When a
molecule or compound with an unpaired electron is placed in a strong magnetic field The spin of
the unpaired electron can align in two different ways creating two spin states ms = ± ½.The
alignment can either be along the direction (parellel) to the magnetic field (corresponds to the
lower energy state ms = – ½ ) or opposite (antiparallel) to the direction of the applied magnetic
field (corresponds to the higher energy state ms = + ½). The two alignments have different
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energies and this difference in energy lifts the degeneracy of the electron spin states. The energy
difference is given by:
∆ E = E+ – E- = ℎ³ = gµ 0 H
Where ³ - Resonant frequency, µ 0 -Bohr magnetron=0.927 x 10-20 erg/gauss,
h (Planck’s constant)= 6.6 x 10-27 erg.sec and H0 – magnetic field at resonance.
Now if the electron has orbital magnetic moment with spin magnetic moment, then total
magnetic moment will interact with applied magnetic field. The atoms/molecules having
magnetic moment µ , when placed in uniform magnetic fiel ‘H’ will precess around the field
direction with Larmor frequency ω
 e 
ω = g H
 2mc 
Where ‘g’ is called g - lande factor and its value is ‘1’for pure orbital motion and ‘2’ for pure
spin motion.

The block diagram of ESR spectrometer is given in figure 1. The ESR circuit consists of
critically adjusted radio frequency oscillator of frequency range 10-17MHz. The sample is kept
in tank coil of this oscillator, which placed in the 50Hz magnetic field generated by Helmholtz
coil. At the resonance where frequency o oscillation is equal to Larmer’s frequency of sample,
the oscillator amplitudes will dip at resonance due to absorption of power by the sample.
Apparatus contains following parts
(c) Phase shifter to compensate the phase difference which is introduced in amplification
stage of ordinary oscilloscope.
(d) The ESR requires a highly stabilized ripple free voltage. It is obtained using integrated
circuit regulator.
(e) Helmholtz coil is two exactly alike and parallel circular coil, in which current passes in
same direction. There is uniform magnetic field region between two coils in which
sample is kept.
(f) R.F. oscillator is used to find resonant frequency.
(g) Oscilloscope is used to trace the two peaks at resonance.
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Figure 1
13.6 Procedure:
11. Switch on ‘Helmholtz coil’ power and adjust current at 150mA.
12. Set control panel of ESR spectrometer as
Frequency – Centre
Sensitivity – Fully clockwise
Phase – Centre
13. Observe four peaks in oscilloscope (CRO).
14. Adjust sensitivity & frequency of ESR spectrometer and sensitivity of CRO to get
sharp signal.
15. Adjust phase nob of ESR spectrometer to coincide two peaks with the other two.
16. Determine the magnetic field as follows
First calibrate the X plate of CRO by adjusting X amplifier to maximum deflection

deflectio
(say P division on CRO). Then read current in Helmholtz coil and calculate magnetic
field by
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32πn
H= I , H is rms field, peak to peak field is 2 2 H and if
10a 125
represent’P’ division of X plate of CRO. The zero field should be at middle.
n- number of turns in each coil
a-radius of coil
I-current(in amp) flowing in each coil
17. Measure the positions of two peaks (equal distance from middle point) let it be ‘Q’
division. So its value at resonance will be
2H 2
H0 = Q
P
18. Using condition of resonance
ℎ³* = qE ´
ℎ³*
=
qE ´
³* - Resonant frequency, µ 0 -Bohr magnetron=0.927 x 10-20 erg/gauss,
h –Planck’s constant=6.6 x 10-27 erg.sec and H0 – magnetic field at resonance.
19. Repeat the experiment for different value of current.
13.7 Observation:
SN Resonance frequency Current (ampare) Magnetic field in ‘g’ lande factor

(MHz) in R.F. in Helmholtz coil gauss at resonance
oscillator (³* ) (I) at resonance (H0)
1
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13.8 Result:
The value of ‘g’ lande factor for the given sample is …………….

10. The experiment should perform in place where there is no mechanical and electric
disturbance.
11. Sensitivity of X and Y plate should be adjusted to linear range.
12. Helmholtz current should remains constant during observation.
13. High current should not flow in Helmholtz coil to avoid heating in coil.
14. Two peaks should coincide in X scale. If not, check the sinusoidal form of mains
voltage. This may distorted due to other heavy gadgets working on same line.
13.10 Summary:
1. Atoms and molecules with unpaired electron give an ESR signal.
2. ESR involve absorption of electromagnetic radiation.
3. Electrons possess spin angular momentum and an accompanying magnetic moment.
4. The g-factor is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the magnetic moment and
angular momentum of an atom, a particle or the nucleus. It is a proportionality constant
that relates the observed magnetic moment μ of a particle to its angular momentum.
13.11 Glossary:
ESR: Electron spin resonance spectrometer.
R.F. oscillator: Radio frequency oscillator.
Bohr magnetron: The physical constant, which represents the magnetic moment is called
Bohr magnetron. Its value is 9.274 × 10–24J/T.
Resonance: Phenomena of matching frequency.
Helmholtz coil: Two identical coaxial circular coils in which current flows in same
direction. Between these coil, there is uniform magnetic field.
CRO: Cathode ray oscilloscope use to see visual effect of electricity.
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13.12 References:
1. Raj Kumar, Atomic and molecular physics. Kedar Nath publication.
2. Element of spectroscopy,Gupta,Kumar&Sharma, Pragati Prakashan,Meerut.
3. Practical manual, SES instrument Pvt.Ltd., Adarsh Nagar, Roorkee.
4. Molecules Spectroscopy, C. N. Banwell, McGraw Hill
5. https://en.wikipedia.org.
Question1. What is g-lande factor?
Answer: The g-lande is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the magnetic moment
and angular momentum of an atom, a particle or nucleus.
Question2. Which physical phenomenon happens in Electron spin resonance?
Answer: Electron spin resonance involves absorption of electromagnetic radiation.
Question3. Is there any effect by electromagnetic wave on spin of electrons on multi-

electrons system?
Answer: Yes. ESR or EPR is commonly used to measure such effect. In this phenomenon,
electromagnetic radiation is absorbed and it flips spins from low energy to high energy
states. ESR is often measured in systems which not only have many electrons but also where
the electrons interact strongly as in ferromagnetic materials.
Question4. How the sensitivity of measurement is enhanced
Answer: By applying high magnetic field
Question5. When the electrons are aligned either parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of
the external magnetic field, the electrons will precess about the axis. The frequency of
Larmor precession depends on which factors?
Answer: When the electrons are aligned either parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of
external magnetic field, the electrons will start to precess about the axis at a frequency that
is proportional to both applied magnetic field and electron magnetic moment.
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Experiment 14: Study of RCS spectrometer
Structure
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Introduction
14.3 Apparatus Used
14.4 Theory
14.6 Procedure
14.7 Observation
14.8 Result
14.10 Summary
14.11 Glossary
14.12 References
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14.1 Objective:
1. Determine GM counter graphs i.e. plateau and optimal operating voltage of a Geiger-
Muller counter.
2. Efficiency of GM counter.
3. To find absorption coefficient of absorber.
4. Verify the inverse square relationship between.
14.2 Introduction:
The RCS spectroscopy refer to study of radiation counting spectroscopy. The various
instruments used for detecting nuclear particles and radiation are based on the principle of
excitation or ionization of the atoms of medium in which subatomic particles pass. The
ionization process consists of removing an electron from an initially neutral atom or molecule.
Many radiation detectors like ionization chambers, proportional counters, GM counters, spark
counters, cloud chambers and emulsion detectors are based on ionization of atoms by charge
particles.
The loosely bound electrons of neutral atoms of medium can take energy from radiation
and jump to higher excited state. The excited atoms re-emits the energy absorbed in form of
visible photon in de-excitation process in very short time (10-6-10-9secs). The counters based on
this principle are called scintillation counters.
GM counter is a radiation counter used in this practical.GM counter is a metal cylinder filled
with low-pressure gas sealed with a plastic or ceramic window at one end.
14.3 Apparatus Used: GM counting system, GM detector in PVC cylindrical enclosure,

source, Source holder, bench and connection wires.
14.4 Theory :
In GM counter, when a large voltage is applied between anode and cathode of counter, a large
ion multiplication gas is produced due to secondary collisions of electrons especially in anode
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region. Very soon the large flux of secondary electron and ions produced in space between anode
and cathode. Electrons are lighter and collected in anode in short time (10-3-10-4 sec). The
counter come back after short time interval. This make pulse in output of counter. The creating
a pulse which can be amplified and counted.
(A)The plateau region of GM counter
There is a threshold below which the tube doesn’t work. After this, the number of pulses is
proportional to the voltage. This region is known as proportional region.
If the applied voltage is increased further, then a point will be reached after which the count rate
remains constant over a certain region. This region is known as plateau region or Geiger region.
This region is used for Geiger Muller operation. Beyond the plateau region the applied electric
field is so high that a continuous discharge takes place in the tube and the count rate increases
very rapidly.
(B) Efficiency of GM counter
The efficiency of a detector is the ratio of the number of particles of radiation detected to number
of particles of radiation emitted. This definition for the efficiency of a detector is also used for
our other detectors. In practical, we will measure the efficiency of our Geiger counter system and
find that it is quite small. The reason that the efficiency is small for a G-M tube is that a gas is
used to absorb the energy. A gas is not very dense, so most of the radiation passes right through
the tube. Unless alpha particles are very energetic, they will be absorbed in the cylinder that
encloses the gas and never even make it into the G-M tube. If beta particles enter the tube they
have the best chance to cause ionization. Gamma particles themselves have a very small chance
of ionizing the gas in the tube. Gamma particles are detected when they scatter an electron in the
metal cylinder around the gas into the tube. So although the Geiger counter can detect all three
types of radiation, it is most efficient for beta particles and not very efficient for gamma
particles. The scintillation detectors will prove to be much more efficient for detecting specific
radiation.
(C) Absorption coefficient of absorber (Absorption of beta /gamma rays in materials)
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While passing through a gaseous medium, nuclear radiations (either charged particles or gamma rays)
ionizes atoms/molecules. This ionizing property of a nuclear radiation is utilized for its detection. When
a beam of radiation (say γ rays) with an initial intensity I0 passes through an absorber of
thickness x, its intensity will be reduced to a value I(x) given by
I(x) = I0 e −µx
where µ is the absorption coefficient.
Intensity is related to the number of particles per unit area per unit time. We will measure the
number of counts N for a given time period for a given fixed geometry; in this case the number
of counts N is directly proportional to the intensity I, so
N = N0e −µx
The number of counts N for a fixed time period clearly depends on the thickness x of the
absorber brass. We expect to see an exponential decrease of the number of counts with thickness
x.
(D) Inverse square law
As a source is moved away from the detector, the intensity or amount of detected radiation
decreases. Inverse square law says is that the intensity of radiation inversely proportional to
square of distance. Using the GM counter, the intensity of radiation is take by counted with
increasing distances as factor 1/d2.

Geiger-Muller (GM) are used to detect radioactive particles. It was were invented by H. Geiger
and E.W. Muller in 1928. A GM Counter consists of a GM tube having a thin end window, a
high voltage supply for the tube, a particle recorder for particles detected by the tube, and a timer
to stop recorder action. The sensitivity of the GM tube is such that any particle capable of
ionizing a single atom. The collection of the charge produced by ionization formed of a pulse of
voltage at the output of the tube. The amplitude of this pulse very low for counting so amplified.
The pulse amplitude is largely independent of the properties of the particle detected, so give
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information about nature of the particle. GM Counter is a versatile device used for counting
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
Figure 1
G-M tubes as shown in figure 1 is a gas filled cylindrical tube having two electrodes. The
collector electrode (anode) is mounted coaxially and insulated from the outer electrode
(cathode). The gases are usually noble gases. G-M tubes require a high voltage. The ion pairs
produce in the G-M tube surrounds the anode. Due to high mobility, the free electrons are
collected quickly on anode by the strong electric field.
14.6 Procedure:
(A) Characteristics curve of GM counter
1. Make connection between GM counting system and GM detector and main chord to
main power.
2. Place radiation source (beta or gamma) to window of detector.
3. Press start button and
4. Find the voltage at which the GM tube just starts counting (~400V).
5. Starting from this voltage (just starts counting) take the number of counts n(V) for 30.
6. Find counts per second.
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7. Take counts at voltage V in the step of 20 volts.

8. Plot graph between count per second N(V)Voltage applied.
(B) Efficiency of GM counter
1. Convert the disintegrations per minute unit is equivalent to the counts per minute
from the GM tube, because each disintegration represents a particle emitted. The
conversion factor is 1 Ci = 2.22 × 1012 dpm or 1 µCi = 2.22 ×106 dpm.
2. Multiply this factor by the activity of the source and you have the expected counts per
minute of the source.
3. Set the Voltage of the GM tube to its optimal operating voltage, which should be
around 900 Volts.
4. Set time to 60 to measure activity in cpm.
5. Observe count without a radioactive source to determine your background level.
6. Next, place one of the radioactive sources (Po-210, Sr-90, Co-60) in close to detector
window.
7. Now count with the source
8. Find corrected Counts (counts with source – counts without source).
9. Calculate % Efficiency = r x 100/CK , where r is the measured activity in cpm, C is
the expected activity of the source in µCi, and K is the conversion factor.
10. Repeat above for other sources.
(C) Absorption coefficient of absorber (Absorption of beta /gamma rays in materials)
1. Start the GM tube.

2. Set the Voltage of the GM tube to its optimal operating voltage around 900 Volts.
3. Set time to 60 second.
4. Take counts without a radioactive source to determine your background level.
5. Place the radioactive source in the detector window.
6. Place an absorber disk in between source and detector
7. Increase the thickness of absorber by placing two or more similar disc one by one.
Now observe counts (N) with increasing thickness.
8. Draw graph between log N and thickness (x). Find the slope.
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9. Repeat the experiment for other absorber.
(D) Inverse square relationship between the distance and intensity of radiation
1. Start the GM tube.

2. Set the voltage of the GM tube to its optimal operating voltage around 900 Volts.
3. Observed counts without a radioactive source to determine your background level.
4. Place the radioactive source in source holder.
5. The operating voltage must correspond to the midpoint of flat plateau

region of plateau graph.
6. Place the source is 2 cm from the GM tube’s actual detector components and note the
counts for 60 seconds.
7. Increase the distance between source and detector and take the counts.
8. Plot graph between counts and 1/d2.
9. Straight line verify the inverse square law.
10. If the continuous discharge is produced, the voltage should be lowered.
14.7 Observation:
Table 1 for Count Vs applied voltage
Voltage Counts in 60 second Count S.N. Voltage Counts in Count

S.N. (V) rate (V) 60 rate
second
1 10
2 11
3 12
4 13
5 14
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6 15
7 16
8 17
9 18
Table 2 for Count Vs applied voltage
Source Counts Corrected counts Expected Counts Efficiency
Table 3 for Count with thickness of absorber applied voltage
Source Thickness Counts (N)
Table 4 for Counts Vs varying distance
SN Distance between Counts

source and detector (X) in 60
In cm seconds
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14.8 Result:
1. The characteristics curve is presented in graph.
2. The efficiency of GM counter is
3. The absorption coefficient of different absorbent are tabulated in the table.
4. The Inverse square verified.

1. Place the radioactive source closed to detector window.
2. Using the Operating Mode information described above, set the unit up to perform the
desired function.
3. Press the COUNT button to start data acquisition, the STOP button to halt data
acquisition (providing Preset Time is not being used), and the RESET button to reset the
time and data to zero.
4. When the high voltage is on, do not touch the high voltage leads or connectors.
5. Work gently with the radioactive substance.
6. Work with given instruction in operating of GM counter.
7. Do not exceed a photomultiplier voltage of 600 V.
14.10 Summary:
1. The GM counter is used for radiation detector.
2. The GM counter works properly and characteristics curve is as desired.
3. The efficiency of GM counter is low.
4. The square inverse law hold good.
5. The intensity of radiation as counted decreases with thickness of absorber.
14.11 Glossary:
RCS: Radiation counting system
GM counter: Geiger-Muller counter
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Efficiency: It is ratio of radiation detected to radiation expacted.

Pulse: It is flux of current produce in short interval
Radioactive activity:The activity of a sample of radioactive matter is defined by the

numbersof disintegrations taking place at its core at any given moment. The activity also
represents the number of radiations emitted.
14.12 References:
1. B.N. Srivastava, Basic Nuclear Physics, Pragati prakashan.
2. The practical manual by Nucleonix system private limited, Hydrabad
3. S.B. Patel, Nuclear physics: An introduction, New age publication.
4. S.N. Ghosal, Nuclear physics, S Chand publication.

Question1. State principle of GM counter.
Answer: When nuclear radiations pass through the gaseous medium, gas ionization is
produced. This produces the pulse, which is then amplified.
Question2.What gas is used a G.M. COUNTER, why.
Answer: Argon, It is electrically complete in the outer electron shell, making it Electro –
chemically stable.However in the presence of ionizing radiation ,such as gamma or beta,
electrons can be “knocked off” the inner wall of the GM tube by the radiation
Question3. What is the dead time of GMtube
Answer: When the beta from the decay product enters the Geiger Muller tube,it collides
with an atom ionizing it which in turn releases more electron.This causes the chain reaction
of cascading electrons until it hits the electrodes which is measured as one count.After this
event, the tube is filled with slow moving positive ions that advance towards the outer walls.
Question4. What is used of GM counter.
Answer: Devices used for detecting and counting individual particles of radiation. The
device is a gas filled metal tube with a wire through its axis and a high voltage applied to the
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wire. As a particle enter the tube, they create a large avalanche of ionization in the gas
which than discharges, creating a brief electrical pulse.
Experiment 15: Study of Gamma ray spectrometer
Structure
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Apparatus Used
15.4 Theory
15.6 Procedure
15.7 Observation
15.8 Result
15.10 Summary
15.11 Glossary
15.12 References
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15.1 Objective:
To determine the energy of unknown gamma radiation
To determine the photo-peak efficiency
To determine detector resolution
15.2 Introduction:
Gamma spectroscopy is the science of identification and quantification of radionuclides by

analysis of the gamma-ray energy spectrum produced in a gamma-ray spectrometer
Gamma radiations are high‐energy photons that penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the
detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix.
The disadvantage is that it needs shielding against this radiation. In the Earth, the thorium and
uranium nuclides and others are sources for gamma and other radiation. Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation that have wavelength in range 10-7 to 10-13 m (Energy range of 0.01–
10 MeV). Gamma rays are detected through their interaction with matter.

NaI detector with accessories, Amplifier with ADC and Sources which radiate gamma rays.
15.4 Theory :
There are three main processes by which γ ray can interact are photoelectric absorption,
Compton scattering and pair production.
Photoelectric absorption: The photoelectric effect occurs when a gamma ray interacts with an
electron of an inner shell of an atom and a photoelectron is emitted. This is the most important
effect for the detection of gamma rays. The gamma ray loses all its energy to one of the inner
tightly bound atomic electrons of an atom and ionizing the atoms of matter.
Compton scattering: The effect of Compton scattering describes the interaction of a gamma ray
with matter when some of its energy is transferred to the recoil electron. The energy transmitted
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is a function of the scattering angle. Therefore, the Compton effect results in a broad range of
gamma‐ray energies, which gives a continuous background in the gamma spectrum.
Pair production: Pair production is the third effect when a gamma ray is absorbed by matter and
loses energy to produce an electron/positron pair. This effect only occurs when gamma rays have
more than 1.02 MeV energy i.e. twice the rest mass energy of an electron (0.551 MeV).
The components of apparatus are represented in figure 1. It have a source holder, detector with
window, and photomultiplier tube.
Figure 1
Scintillation Gamma Ray Spectrometer: A spectrometer is an instrument which is used to

study the energy or wavelength spectra of radiation. The working of Scintillation gamma ray
spectrometer is based on the fact that there are certain substances which emit light flashes (or
scintillation) when charged particle, X-rays and µ-rays passes through them. In a scintillation
detector these light flashes are allowed to fall on the photocathode of a photo multiplier tube and
a pulse is taken out to signal the passage of nuclear radiation in the scintillator. Thallium
activated sodium iodide crystal as a scintillator is used in scintillation detector.
Photo multiplier tube (PM tube): It is coupled to the crystal. Here the photons will cause the
emission of electrons through the photo-electric effect. The number of electrons emitted from the
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photo cathode is proportional to the energy of the gamma radiation. The electrons are accelerated
in the PM tube towards a structure of metal plates (by many dynodes). The electrons gives rise to
an electric pulse, whose amplitude is directly proportional to the amount of light collected on the
photo cathode, and thus directly proportional to the energy of the gamma radiation.
Channel: The pulses coming out from the photo-multiplier are fed to the single channel analyzer
(SCA) or multi-channel analyzer (MCA).
15.6 Procedure:
(A) Determination of gamma-Ray spectrum

1. Make connection and turn on the system.
2. Adjust high voltage to PMT about 500 to 600V.
3. Put the gamma ray source ( 137Cs ).
4. Adjust the discriminator of the preamplifier such that the Compton distribution
should not have very high counts in the initial channels.
5. Keep all the settings undisturbed throughout the experiment.
6. Collect and store the spectrum of a 137Cs source.
7. Identify photo-peak, Compton distribution and Compton edge.
(B) The relation between the channel scale and the energy of the radiation
137
1. Determine the channel position of the photo peak in the spectrum of Cs by
using the centroid routine.
2. Find the channel position of the center of mass of the photo peak.
60
3. Determine the channel position of the photo peak in the spectrum of Co
spectrum.
4. Note down the number of pulses and the number of pulses per second in the photo
peaks of 137Cs &60Co.
5. Draw a diagram of the energies of the two photo peaks as a function of the
corresponding channel position, i.e. the energy along the vertical axis and the
channel number along the horizontal axis.
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(C) Determination of the gamma-ray energies of an unknown gamma source

1. Take a unknown source
2. Determine a gamma-ray spectrum.
3. Calibrate it with known source.
4. Compare the gamma energies obtained with the decay schemes.
(D) Determination of detector resolution and its variation with energy

1. Find pulse height at the peak from spectrum
2. Find full width at half maximum (FWHM).
3. Calculate resolution as given by formula
FWHM
Resolution % = × 100
Pulse height at peak value
15.7 Observation:
Table 1: calibration of MCA, determining unknown source and resolution
Source Energy(MeV) Channel no. FWHM Max. Resolution
Intensity
15.8 Result:
(1) The gamma ray spectrum of different source are presented in graphs.
(2) Full width at half maximum (FWHM),detector resolution are calculated from gamma
ray spectrum are calculated and presented in the table 1.
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1. When the high voltage is on, do not touch the high voltage leads or connectors.
2. Do not hold the sources in your hands longer than necessary, and when not handling the
sources, keep them as far from you as practical.
3. The scintillator tube is mechanically fragile. Handle it with care.
4. Do not exceed a photomultiplier voltage of 600 V.
15.10 Summary:
1. Gamma radiation are photon of high energy.
2. Photoelectric effect is main cause of energy loss of gamma radiation with matter, so
main peak in gamma ray spectrum comes due photoelectric effect.
3. Due Compton effect the photons a part of energy transfers to electron and the electrons
scattered. This energy comes in background of gamma spectrum.
4. The detector resolution is calculated by full width at half maximum (FWHM)andpulse
height at photo-peak value.
15.11 Glossary:
PMT: Photomultiplier tube.
FWHM: The energy resolution is measured as the full width at half maximum.
SCA: Single channel analyzer.
MCA: Multi-channel analyzer.
15.12 References:
1. B.N. Srivastava, Basic Nuclear Physics, Pragati prakashan.
2. The practical manual by Nucleonix system private limited, Hydrabad
3. S.B. Patel, Nuclear physics: An introduction, New age publication.
4. S.N. Ghosal, Nuclear physics, S Chand publication.
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Question1. What are gamma radiations?

Answer: Gamma rays are the smallest wavelengths and the most energy of any wave in the
electromagnetic spectrum. They are produced by the hottest and most energetic objects in
the universe, such as neutron stars and pulsars, supernova explosions, and regions around
black holes.
Question 2. What is photo-peak.
Answer: The photo-peak refers to the region of the pulse height spectrum caused by the
complete photoelectric absorption of Gamma rays by the scintillator crystal.
Question3. Discuss the working of Scintillation Detector

Answer: A scintillation detector is one of several possible methods for detecting ionizing
radiation. Scintillation is the process by which some material emits light in response to
incident ionizing radiation. In practice, this is used in the form of a single crystal of sodium
iodide that is doped with a small amount of thallium, referred to as NaI (Tl). This crystal is
coupled to a photomultiplier tube which converts the small flash of light into an electrical
signal through the photoelectric effect. This electrical signal can then be detected by a
computer.
Question4. What is PMT and its working?
Answer: A photomultiplier tube (PMT) is device that converts light into an electrical signal
and amplifies the signal to a useful level by emission of secondary electrons.
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Experiment 16: Study of Multivibrator
Structure
16.1 Objectives
16.2 Introduction
16.3 Apparatus Used
16.4 Theory
16.6 Procedure
16.7 Observation
16.8 Result
16.10 Summary
16.11 Glossary
16.12 References
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16.1 Objective:
What are multivibrators

Types of multivibrators
Working of multivibrators
Applications of multivibrators
16.2 Introduction:
An electronic device that produces a non-sinusoidal waveform as its output is known as
a multivibrator. The generated non-sinusoidal waveforms are basically a square wave,
rectangular wave, a triangular wave, or sawtooth wave etc.
It consists of two amplifying device (transistors, vacuum tubes) in which output of one transistor
in feedback to input of second and vice versa by resistor or capacitor. There three types of
multivibrator as
1. Astable multivibrator: It is a circuit whose output is not in stable state. Its output
continually changes from one state to the other. It is used as relaxation oscillator.
2. Monostable multivibrator: This a circuit having one stable states. A trigger pulse causes
the circuit to enter the unstable state. After entering the unstable state, the circuit will return
to the stable state after a set time. Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of
fixed duration in response to some external event.
3. Bistable multivibrator: This circuit is in stable in either state. It can be flipped from one
state to the other by an external trigger pulse. This circuit is also known as a flip-flop. It can
store one bit of information, and is widely used in digital logic and computer memory.

Experimental board, cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.) & connection wires.
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16.4 Theory :
Astable multivibrator: As presented in figure 1, the two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected
such a way that output of one transistor is feedback to other and vice versa. The collector of
transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor Q2 through the capacitor C1 and vice versa.
The emitters of both the transistors are connected to the ground. The collector load resistors
R1 and R4 and the biasing resistors R2 and R3 are of equal values. The capacitors C1 and C2 are of
equal values.
Figure 1
As no transistor characteristics are alike, one of the two transistors say Q1 has its collector
current increase and thus conducts. The collector of Q1 is applied to the base of Q2 through C1.
This connection lets the increased negative voltage at the collector of Q1 to get applied at the
base of Q2 and its collector current decreases. This continuous action makes the collector current
of Q2 to decrease further. This current when applied to the base of Q1 makes it more negative and
with the cumulative actions Q1 gets into saturation and Q2 to cut off. Thus the output voltage of
Q1 will be VCE (sat) and Q2 will be equal to VCC.
The capacitor C1 charges through R1 and when the voltage across C1 reaches 0.7 V, the
transistor Q2 turn on to saturation. As this voltage is applied to the base of Q2, it gets into
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saturation, decreasing its collector current. This reduction of voltage is applied to the base of
transistor Q1 through C2 which makes the Q1 reverse bias.
A series of these actions turn the transistor Q1 to cut off and transistor Q2 to saturation (ON).
Hence the output voltage and the output waveform are formed by the alternate switching of the
transistors Q1 and Q2. The time period of these ON/OFF states depends upon the values of
biasing resistors and capacitors used, i.e. on the RC values used. As both the transistors are
operated alternately, the output is a square waveform, with the peak amplitude of VCC.
Monostable multivibrator: Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be in
OFF state and Q2 will be in ON state. This is the stable state. As Q1 is OFF, the collector
voltage will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets charged. A positive trigger pulse applied at the
base of the transistor Q1 turns the transistor ON. This decreases the collector voltage, which
turns OFF the transistor Q2. The capacitor C1 starts discharging at this point of time. As the
positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q2 gets applied to transistor Q1, it remains in
ON state. This is the quasi-stable state or Meta-stable state.
The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor C1 discharges completely. After this,
the transistor Q2 turns ON with the voltage applied through the capacitor discharge. This turn
ON the transistor Q1, which is the previous stable state.
Figure 2
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Bistable multivibrator: The circuit for bistable multivibrator is presented in figure 3. When the
circuit is switched ON, due to some circuit imbalances as in astable multivibrator, one of the
transistors let Q1 gets saturated (ON state) and the transistor Q2 gets cut off (OFF state). This is
a stable state of the Bistable Multivibrator.
When a negative pulse at the base of transistor Q1 is applied, the collector voltage increases.
This is forward biases the transistor Q2. The collector current of Q2 as applied at the base of Q1,
reverse biases Q1 and this cumulative action, makes the transistor Q1 to OFF and transistor Q2 to
ON. This is another stable state of the Multivibrator.
Now, if this stable state has to be changed again, then either a negative trigger pulse at transistor
Q2 or a positive trigger pulse at transistor Q1 is applied.
Figure 3
The 555 Timer is a highly stable integrated circuit that can produce accurate time delays and
oscillations. The 555 Timer has three operating modes, bistable, monostable and astable
mode. As represented in figure 4 (block diagram), it have of 2 comparator, flip flop and
voltage divider, a discharge transistor and an output stage. It is 8 pin integrated circuit (IC).
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Figure 4

The IC 555 timer with external time constant RC circuit is used to study the astable, monostable
and bistable multivibrator. The 555 timer is 8 pin IC. The IC 555 timer is shown in figure 5with
its pins and time constant RC circuit and pins of IC 555 timer denotes as following.
Figure 5
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1. Pin 1. – Ground, The ground pin connects the 555 timer to the negative (0v) supply
rail.
2. Pin 2. – Trigger, The negative input to comparator No 1. A negative pulse on this pin
“sets” the internal Flip-flop when the voltage drops below 1/3Vcc causing the output
to switch from a “LOW” to a “HIGH” state.
3. Pin 3. – Output, The output pin can drive any TTL circuit and is capable of sourcing
or sinking up to 200mA of current at an output voltage equal to approximately Vcc –
1.5V so small speakers, LEDs or motors can be connected directly to the output.
4. Pin 4. – Reset, This pin is used to “reset” the internal Flip-flop controlling the state of
the output, pin 3. This is an active-low input and is generally connected to a logic “1”
level when not used to prevent any unwanted resetting of the output.
5. Pin 5. – Control Voltage, This pin controls the timing of the 555 by overriding the
2/3Vcc level of the voltage divider network. By applying a voltage to this pin the
width of the output signal can be varied independently of the RC timing network.
When not used it is connected to ground via a 10nF capacitor to eliminate any noise.
6. Pin 6. – Threshold, The positive input to comparator No 2. This pin is used to reset
the Flip-flop when the voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3Vcc causing the output to
switch from “HIGH” to “LOW” state. This pin connects directly to the RC timing
circuit.
7. Pin 7. – Discharge, The discharge pin is connected directly to the Collector of an
internal NPN transistor which is used to “discharge” the timing capacitor to ground
when the output at pin 3 switches “LOW”.
8. Pin 8. – Supply +Vcc, This is the power supply pin and for general purpose TTL 555
timers is between 4.5V and 15V.
16.6 Procedure:
For Astable Multivibrator
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21. Note down the values of resistor R1, R2 and capacitor C.
22. By the values of R1, R2 and capacitor Ccalculate the frequency of output wave given
by the following formula
1.44
=
C‹
L.* + 2.@ O/
R in ohm and C in farad to get C‹ in Hz.
23. Connect CRO at output terminal (pin 3) and ground terminal (pin 1).
24. Note the experimental values of amplitudes (V0 = Vp-calibration) and frequency (fexp) of
output wave by calibrated CRO.
25. Trace the output wave.
26. Connect CRO at threshold terminal (pin 6) and ground terminal (pin 1) to record the
exponential wave.
27. Note the experimental values of threshold amplitudes (V0 = Vp-calibration) between (pin
6) and ground terminal (pin 1).
28. Trace the exponential wave.
29. Using trace of output rectangular wave determine the value of cycle time (T)
corresponding to charge and discharge of capacitor and width (W) corresponds to
charging time of capacitor.
T = ……. ms, W = ……. ms
30. Calculate the experimental value of duty cycle Dexp by following relation
ÇL ?O
£ = × 100 = ⋯ … . . %
Æ_
ˆL ?O
31. Calculate the theoretical value of duty cycle Dcal by following relation
£ Æ_
£ C‹ % = × 100 = ⋯ … . . %
.* + 2.@
32. Compare the result.
33. Repeat the experiment for another values of R1, and R2.
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For Monostable Multivibrator
2. Note down the values of resistor R and C in external time base circuit.
3. Connect CRO between pin 2 and pin 1 and measure the amplitude (Vt = Vt-calibration) of
triggering wave and its frequency (ft).
4. Trace the trigger wave.
6. Note the experimental values of amplitudes (V0 = Vp-calibration) and experimental width
(Wexp) of output wave by calibrated CRO and width of output wave (Wexp)
7. Trace the output wave.
8. Connect CRO at threshold terminal (pin 6) and ground terminal (pin 1) to record the
exponential wave and measure the threshold voltage (V0 = Vp-calibration).
9. Trace the exponential wave.
10. Calculate the width of output wave (Wcal) by the relation.
Ç C‹ = 1.1./
11. Repeat the experiment for another values of R.
For Bistable Multivibrator

3. Set the switch 1 (SW1 in experimental board) and observed the stable state on CRO.
Measure the voltage and note that it high state. It will remain in high level until it
brought to ground level by pressing switch 2 (SW2).
4. Now reset the switch 2 for the low output. It will be at low output until it is brought to
high level by switch 1 (SW1).
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16.7 Observation:
Table 1 Astable Multivibrator
.* LoΩO =
.@ LoΩO =
/LqÈO ˆL •O
C‹ L´ÉO ÇL •O
Æ_ L´ÉO £ Æ_ %
aL O £ C‹ %
aL OvÊ
Table 2 Monostable Multivibrator
PIN 2→ &L O= & L´ÉO =
PIN 3→ aL O= Ç Æ_ L ?O =
PIN 6→ QŠ L O=
Table 3 Bistable Multivibrator
Switch Connected to Output
SW 1 Low (Ground)
SW 2 High (VCC)
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16.8 Result:
(a) The experimental and theoretical values of duty cycle Dexp nearly same.
(b) The experimental and theoretical values of frequencies for astable multivibrator are
nearly same.
(c) The theoretical and experimental values of duty cycle are nearly same for astable
multivibrator.
(d) For monostable multivibrator the theoretical (Calculated) and experimental width (Wexp) of
output are nearly same.
(e) A Bistable multivibrator have two stable state.

16. All the connections should be taken carefully & verify connection before supply.
17. CRO should be calibrated.
18. Observation of wave should be taken correctly.
16.10 Summary:
1. Astable Multivibrators have no stable state, it continuously changes states from low to
high and high to low, hence can be used in relaxation oscillator.
2. Bistable multivibrator has two stable state, so it have memory of one bit information.
3. Monostable multivibrator is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in
response to some external event.
4. Timer 555 is a IC used for astable, monostable and bistable Multivibrators.
16.11 Glossary:
IC: It is a semiconductor chip on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors,
and transistors are fabricated.
IC 555: IC used for multivibrator.
Duty cycle: It is the ratio of time of high output to the time of one cycle.
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Threshold voltage: When the input voltage exceeds some voltage, the output makes the
change the opposite condition rapidly. This voltage is called "Threshold Input Voltage".
High & Low state: The output of multivibrator is either high voltage (say +5 V) or low
voltage (0 V). These voltage states are High & Low state.
16.12 References:
4. S.L.Gupta, V.Kumar, Practical Physics, Pragati prakashan, Meerut.
5. Practical manual by LMC electronics, Ramnagar Agra.

Question1. What is multivibrator?
Answer: A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-

state systems and two state systems are an oscillator, timer, flip-flop. It produces an output
when triggered.
Question2. What is use of Bistable circuit.
Answer: It is basic memory device and has the capability to store 1-bit of information. Like
Flip-flop, Bistable circuit also has 2 states.
Question3. State the application of Astable multivibrator.
Answer: Output of Astable multivibrator have no permanent state and it continually

switches from one state to the other. So, it can be used as a relaxation oscillator.
Question4. What is duty cycle
Answer: The charging and discharging time constants depends on the values of the resistors
R1 and R2. Generally, the charging time constant is more than the discharging time
constant. Hence the HIGH output remains longer than the LOW output and therefore the
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output waveform is not symmetric. Duty cycle is the mathematical parameter that forms a
relation between the high output and the low output. Duty Cycle is defined as the ratio of
time of HIGH output i.e. the ON time to the total time of a cycle. If TON is the time for high
output and T is the time period of one cycle, then the duty cycle D is given by
D = TON/ T
176

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Prof. P. D.

Department of Physics (School of Sciences)

Unit writing and Editing

Dr. Kamal Devlal 1. Dr. Anshuman Sahai

Course Title and Code : Practical Physics (MSCPH 510)

Unit Block and Unit title Page

PNP transistor, batteries, voltmeter, millivoltmeter, milli and micro ammeters

(A) In common base arrangement we draw:

(A) Common Base Arrangement:

Figure 1. Circuit diagram for common base arrangement

(viii) Draw the characteristics as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2. Output characteristics of collector current versus collector voltage

Figure 3. Characteristics of collector current versus emitter current

(B) Common Emitter Arrangement:

Figure 4. Circuit diagram for common emitterarrangement

Figure 5. Output characteristics of collector current versus base current

Figure 6. Output characteristics of collector current versus collector voltage

(A) For Common Base Arrangement:

(B) For Common Emitter Arrangement:

Sources of Error and Precautions:

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA VOCE

Q.1. What is triode transistor?

Q.2.What is PNP transistor?

Q.3. What is emitter, collector and base?

Q.4. Why is it called a transistor?

Q.5. Whatare the basic materialsused for making transistor?

Ans. Semiconductor germanium or silicon is used.

Q.6. What is peculiar about a semiconductor?

Q.7. What is the difference between a transistor and vacuum tube?

Q.8. What are the advantages of a transistor over a vacuum tube?

Ans. (i) small size, light weight,

Q.9. How the current is conducted in a PNP transistor?

Q.10. Which region in a transistor are heavily doped?

Q.11. How a PNP or NPN’ transistor is biased?

Base current is of the order of μA where Ie ≈ Ic of mA order.

Q.13. Why common emitter amplifier is most widely used?

Ans. (i) it has good current and voltage gains.

Q.14. Define static current amplification factors.

Ans. For a transistor in CB configuration

For a transistor in CE configuration

STUDY OF RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVE: To design and study amplifying characteristics of a single stage RC coupled

FORMULA USED:At a particular frequency,

Figure 1. Single stage RC coupled amplifier

RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER:An input is connected to an audio frequency oscillator. Input and

1. Wire the circuit as shown in figure 1.

Input Voltage = 1.0 Volt

Frequency c/s Output Voltage, Volt Voltage Amplification

Figure 2: Frequency response curve of RC coupled amplifier

Source of Error and Precautions:

1. Values of circuit elements should be chosen carefully.

STUDY OF RC COUPLED TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Figure 1. Circuit diagram of single stage transformer coupled amplifier.

Freq in c/s High grade transformer Low grade transformer

Output volt Voltage Output volt Voltage

For each observation find:

Voltage amplification = Output voltage/ Input voltage

Precautions and sources of errors:

1. What is voltage amplification?