Chapter 1

BACKGROUND OF SOUTH WATER WORKS

CONSTRUCTION ENTERPRISE
1.1 INTRODUCTION

South Water Works Construction Enterprise is a government owned enterprise engaged in the
construction of potable water supply projects and different scale irrigation schemes. The main
purpose of its establishment is to alleviate the region's potable water supply and food security
problems. Since its establishment our enterprise has demonstrated its competence in water works
construction in the region.

In this paper we have tried to look for and show you the overall views of the company. In
those overall views head office, house of store, material handling, products of the company,
organizational structure, and other related sectors.

Aims of internship period in addition to relate our theoretical knowledge with practical is find
out problems in the company that affect the quality, quantity, production, and health of the
workers; that means discovering problems those could directly or indirectly affects the
profitability of the company.

Finally from those problems the most and effective problem that found in the company is
selected and a proper scientific, engineering approaches, standards are developed for solving and
fixing that problem. After fixing a selected problem production, health of workers, economic
efficiency of a company is solved and increased that are related with identified problems. Due to
this a better chance of success in quality, productivity and better working atmosphere will be
obtained.

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1.2 BRIEF HISTORY

In the Derg regime, the then South Water Works Construction Enterprise (SWWCE) was under
the Ethiopian Water Works Construction Authority (EWWCA) as a southern project office. The
project office was assisted by Canadian government. After the down fall of Derg, the project
office has amalgamated with the regional bureau of water, mines and energy resource and
structured as a construction department. The idea for the establishment of the enterprise was
created in 1988E.C by the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Regional Government.
Accordingly, the regional government has decided to establish a government owned construction
firm with the aim of alleviating potable water supply to the community.

Thus, the then SWWCE was established in 1988 E.C by the regional council with proclamation
no. 7/1988 and 72/1996 with the aim of reducing the market gap in the area of water works
construction and alleviating potable water supply problem of the region. The enterprise is the
only regional government owned public Enterprise engaged in water works in the region.

Vision of the enterprise

To be Competent, trustworthy and profitable enterprise in the area of water supply, Irrigation
Development, Drainage, Building., road, Hydro Power and other constructions in Ethiopia as
well as in east Africa by 2015 E.C.

Mision of the enterprise

Taking the leading role in water supply, irrigation, Drainage, Building, road, Hydro Power and
other constructions areas in the country and in the East Africa by improving its working Capacity
and competence in order to make the enterprise profitable & empower the community to use
them.

Goal of the enterprise

To construct irrigation, water supply, drainage, building, hydro power and other construction
works in keeping their quality and timeliness through improving its construction management
and capacity.

Values

 Government policies and strategies are bases for our plans

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  Our employees are our biggest resource
 Our work starts by creating common understanding
 clients are our kings
 Clients satisfaction is an indication of our strength
 Time is money
 We make Quality, transparency, accountability, timeliness, and honesty as our integrated
property
 Our job is our boss.

Objective of the enterprise

Construct water supply, irrigation, Drainage, Building, road, Hydro Power and other projects as
per the standards set by the client with fair price and hand over it to them on time by way of
strengthening and building up the enterprise’s capacity.

Human resource
The enterprise is organized with experienced and professionals employees who are committed to
satisfy the needs of the community. Currently have 452 Permanent and 351 contract employees
working in the head office and different projects.

Machineries and vehicles

As we have mentioned above one of the major resource for construction industry is skilled and
seasonal labor forces. The second largest resource that the industry entails is machinery,
vehicles, and equipment so as to realize tasks timely and appropriately. We fulfill our gaps of
machinery and vehicles in different ways. One of the ways is to fill the gaps by own resource, the
second means is using rental services, and the third one is through capacity building from the
Regional Government. As a result, we able to possess different types of earth moving and
drilling machineries, light duty vehicles, trucks, low and high beds, crane trucks, and many more.

The enterprise possessed:

 75 Light duty vehicles
 4 Service bus
 103 Trucks, low bed and high bed
 81 earth moving machineries
 18 Drilling rigs

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 Fig 1.1 Heavy and Light Duty Vehicles

Drilling rigs
The Enterprise has been playing a significant role in water construction and water well drilling
through gradually increasing its machinery capacity since its establishment. Currently the
organization has 18 different types of drilling machinery with related capacity as shown below.

Table 1.1 Current number of drilling machineries

Drilling
No Description Model Quantity Remark
Capacity
1 Massenza MI-25 300 2
2 Fraste 400 Fs-400 300 4
3 Drill Mec G-30 400 2
4 Drill Mec G-38 600 2
5 Massenza MI-45 600 1
6 Tony Top-750 200 1
7 Fraste Fs-250 150 2
8 sankyo sankyo 250 1
9 R-50 R-50 100 1
10 China Rig Psc-300 300 1
11 Cable Tools - 100 1
Total 18

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 Fig 1.2 Drilling Machines at drilling Site

Rental facility

As a construction enterprise, we usually use rental services for different types of construction
machinery and vehicles to fulfill our gaps. Since 2003 E.C, we have been working in Omo Kuraz
large scale irrigation, road and water supply project which is a preamble for the construction of
five sugar factories in the region. The project demands high skill professionals and variety of
machinery and vehicles. Since, the project demand and our resource capacity are not
proportional; we have forced to look for rental service.

Table 1.2 Quantity and Types of Rental Machineries and Vehicles

Quantity
No Description
Omo kuraZ Other projects
1 Service vehicles 39 27
2 Dozer 40
3 Excavator 83
4 Loader 20
5 Grader 15 1
6 Compactor 9
7 Dump Track 265 14
8 Shower Track 15
9 Fuel truck 1

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1.3 MAIN PRODUCTS OR SERVICES OF THE ENTERPRISE

The enterprise has the following responsibilities

 Water well Drilling and Rehabilitation

 Development of different scale springs
 Construction of water supply and sewerage systems
 Construction of different scale Irrigation schemes
 Electro mechanical works
 Construction of water reservoirs and water dams
 Rehabilitation of water supply and Irrigation Schemes
 Installation of pumps and generators
 Construction of roads and buildings related with water works

The enterprise’s remarkable achievements in water works construction industry demonstrate the
progress of the working and performance capacity of the organization. So far we contributed a
lot to the realization of growth and transformation plan of the region and the country as well. We
have been carrying out a giant Omo Kuraz irrigation, road and water supply project located in
South Omo zone since 2003 E.C. The project offered a job opportunity for local population. As a
result the food security problems of the community reduced and the working culture of them
improved as well.

Past performance of the enterprise

Our enterprise is known for its commitment in the water sector. We deliver our services
regardless of topography of project locations. The organization has been undertaking enormous
water supply and irrigation projects all over the region since its establishment. We able to
perform small to large scale projects listed below.
 More than 1820 water well drilling projects of different depth

 more than 427 different scale water supply construction projects

 More than 61 different scale Irrigation development projects.

The above list shows only the row data of projects executed by the firm. These projects have
benefited population of the region in many ways by creating:

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  Access to potable water

 Access to fulfill food self sufficiency of the community

 Access to job opportunity for the dwellers & non dwellers of project area

 Good working culture among the society and etc.

Maintenance & modification services

 The enterprise has possessed an immense number of machinery and vehicles. To secure
the safety and improve effective service delivery of the machineries and vehicles, we use
our maintenance workshop at head office and Omo Kuraz irrigation project. The
workshops are well equipped with all necessary equipment. Using both maintenance
workshops we could deliver efficient and fast services for any impairment of the
materials at head office and at project sites as well. Furthermore, for the improvement of
service quality, the organization always upgrades its employee skill using training center
like Jaica Ethiopia and procures appropriate maintenance equipment. Regarding the
organizational set up of the workshop, there are seven different teams, which are
organized for specific tasks and have their own responsibilities. Specifically we have
been working on vehicle maintenance and machine shop garages. These include;-
1. Engine shop: - In this shop overall maintenance of engine is done. The engine
shop have branched shops that work under it. There is a maintenance shop that
operates under the motor shop. Mainly perform the maintenance of different
cars engines and in addition:
 Assembling engine
 Disassembling
 Servicing engine
2. Electrical shop: - to repairing and assembling of different electrical
components of vehicles such as:-
 Charging systems
 Starting system, lighting system
 Battery, power generating and transfer to different accessories of the
vehicle

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3. Machine shop: - in machine shop they modify, fabricate and repair different
items with the help of their lathe machine, hydraulic press machine, drills,
grinders and other useful machine for maintenance and fabrication.
4. Welding shop: - In this shop they work the broken bodies of the vehicles and
other works and weld with oxy-acetylene welding process. They also use
bench vise and hammering. In this shop our welding shop guide showed as
electrode types and we did perform some.

Fig 1.3 Welding & painting shop

5. Light duty vehicles shop: - In this shop inspection, servicing and

maintenance of light duty vehicles is done.

Fig 1.4 light duty vehicles shop

6. Heavy duty vehicles shop: - this shop team specifically does works related to
heavy duty vehicles.

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 Fig 1.5 Heavy duty shop
7. Earth moving machines shop: - the team works maintenance related to earth
moving vehicles in this shop.
 Besides, the garage has delivered modification and fabrication services for almost all
machinery and vehicles. The annual service of fabrication and modification work in
terms of money exceeds birr 1.5million per year. Maintenance service is not restricted
only on the two workshops. The enterprise delivers its services for every project
regardless of their location and distance.
1.4 MAIN CUSTOMERS OR THE END USERS OF ITS PRODUCTS OR
SERVICES

The main end users of the enterprise products are peoples of the south nation and nationalities;
since this governmental organization is established and organized to meet the interests of south
region.

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 1.5 OVERALL ORGANIZATION AND WORK FLOW
Engineering and
Cont/Admin/ Deputy
Manager
Internal Audit &
inspection Support
Process Process
Planning, Com/ &
Change Program
Support Process Finance
ministrationion
Legal Affairs’ Case Team Support process

Proc/Mat/Adm/Suppor
t process
Administration Human
Deputy Manager Res/Mgmt/Support
process

Mach/Ve/Mai/ Higher
Case Team
Mach/Ve/Op/Main
t/ Deputy Manager
Mach/Veh/operation and
Board of Directors

Inspection Case Team

General
Manager Irrigation Construction
Sub Process
Irrigation
construction
Deputy Large scale Irrigation
project Construction Case Projects
Manager

Small & Medium Scale

Irrigation project Projects
Construction Case Team

Water supply
project
Construction case
Water supply team Projects
Water Well Construction
Drilling & and Pipe lying
Construction Sub Process Pipe lying and
Deputy Electro-Mechanical Projects
Manager works Case Team
Water well
Drilling Case Projects
Water well
Drilling & Team
Ethical and Anti Pumping Test Pumping Test &
Corruption Sub Process Top work
Projects
Officer Construction
case Team

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 Chapter 2
EXPERIENCE GAINED FROM INTERNSHIP
2.1HOW I GET INTO THE COMPANY
Among different companies visited during the selection of internship hosting company, there were
several criteria’s that had been put in place. Such as; Knowing about the company and find out if it
interests us to stay there for the internship period, if there is internship vacancy, and convenience of
the company’s location.

2.2THE SECTION OF THE COMPANY I HAVE BEEN WORKING IN

As I am assigned for internship program for the purpose of increasing my technical and practical
skills, I was spending most of my time in the technical sections that are related to most of my
courses.
Some of the company sections I have been working in are…..
 Machine shop

 Electrical shop

 Heavy duty and Light duty vehicles shop

 Welding and painting shop

2.2.1 MACHINE SHOP

In my first day the machine shop employer shows us the machines available in the shop and their
uses and the main parts of each machine.
From these machines lathe, grinder and presses machines are listed.
Lathe machine; the lathe machine is the most useful machine in the shop which is used for
making different mechanical tools. Lathe is considered as one of the oldest machine tools and is
widely used in industries. It is called as mother of machine tools.
Main parts of lathe machine are;
1. Headstock

2. Tailstock

3. Carriage

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 4. Bed

5 Headstock; Headstock is mounted permanently on the inner guide ways at the left hand side
of the leg bed. The headstock houses a hollow spindle and the mechanism for driving the
spindle at multiple speeds
6 Tailstock; Tailstock is located on the inner guide ways at the right side of the bed opposite to
the headstock. The body of the tailstock is bored and houses the tailstock spindle or ram.
7 Carriage; Carriage is positioned in between the headstock and tailstock and slides on the bed
guide ways. It can be moved along the bed either towards or away from the headstock.
8 Bed; Bed is mounted on the legs of the lathe which are bolted to the floor. It forms the base
of the machine. It is made of cast iron and its top surface is machined accurately and
precisely.
In this shop I have seen how to make threads. To make threads there are different operations to
be done based on what type thread we want to do.
Some of Good safety principles to follow when using lathe
 Wear appropriate safety glasses

 Make sure that entanglement hazards are removed

 Keep the floor free from obstructions

 Make sure the lathe has an emergency stop button

Some things we should avoid during operating lathe machine
 Do not wear rings, watches, or loosing clothes

 Do not lean on machine

 Do not make adjustments while the machine is operating

 Do not use calipers or gauges on work piece while the machine is performing
Hydraulic press machine

This is the machine used for press and disassembles different cylindrical attached parts like
piston line.
Drilling machine

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It is a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. It is one of the most important and
versatile machine tools in a workshop in drilling machine the drill is rotated and feed along its
axis of rotation in the stationary work piece.
Welding machine
a machine used for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. There are two kinds of welding in this section. These are:
I. Oxygen welding method

II. Electrical welding method

Grinder machine: used to make good surface, smooth, or fit metal parts after welding.

Brake Shoe Lining Riveting Machine: Brake Shoe Lining Riveting Machine is used to riveting
brake shoe liner by using pneumatic pressing system.

Fig 2.1 lath machine, hydraulic pressing machine, Brake Shoe Lining Riveting Machine and drill
machine in machine shop

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 2.2.2 ELECTRICAL SHOP

Main automotive electrical systems

1. Cranking systems
2. Lighting/ignition system
3. Charging system
1. Cranking system

The cranking system in any vehicle is designed to turn the engine over until it can operate under
its own power. A cranking system can be divided into two sub circuits known as the control
circuit and the starter circuit. The objective of the cranking system is to energize a starter
motor using energy from the vehicle batteries. The control circuit is activated either directly
from the vehicle ignition key or by a dedicated starter button. The control circuit uses low
current to switch the starter circuit. The switch used to bridge the control circuit and the starter
circuit is a magnetic switch. The magnetic switch receives a low-current command signal that
switches the high-current starter circuit. Once energized, the starter circuit uses full battery
power to energize the starter motor. The arrangement of a typical truck electrical system is
shown in Figure. Note how the battery connects with the starter motor and identify the cranking
system control circuit.
Starting circuit components
There are five basic components and two distinct electrical circuits (Figure) in a typical cranking
system. The components are:
• Battery
• Key switch (or starter button)
• Battery cables
• Magnetic switch
• Starter motor

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 Fig 2.2 Typical truck cranking system.

Starter motor
The starter motor (Figure) converts electrical energy from the battery into mechanical energy for
cranking the engine. The starter is an electric motor designed to operate under great electrical
loads and produce high torque.

Fig 2.3 starter motor

Batteries
A battery is a galvanic device-that is, a device that produces a charge differential by chemical
action.

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 Fig 2.4 Battery construction and terminology.

2. Ignition system
The combustion of fuel air mixture in carburetor engines is initiated by a high voltage spark
across the spark plug.
Function:-Distribute the high voltage surges from the ignition coil to the spark plug according to
the firing order.
Ignition coil: -is used to step up the battery voltage to 20000 & above.
High tension cable: -It connects the secondary voltage or the step up voltage to the distributor &
spark plug.
Distributor; It distributed the high voltage to each spark plug & time the spark.
Spark plug: - Convert the electrical volt/current to spark by making the high Voltage jumped
between to gap.

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 Fig 2.5 Ignition system

3. Charging system
A truck charging system consists of the batteries, alternator, voltage regulator, associated
wiring, and the electrical loads of the truck. The purpose of the system is to recharge the
batteries whenever necessary and to provide the current required to power the electrical
components of the truck. It does this by converting a portion of the mechanical energy of the
engine into electricity by using alternator.

Fig 2.6 charging flow system.

Electron pump
The alternator acts as an electron pump. It sends electrical current into the battery to restore the
voltage level.

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 Fig 2.7 Cutaway view of an alternator.

2.2.3 HEAVY AND LIGHT DUTY VEHICLES SHOP

Suspension System
The main purpose of suspension system is to support the weight of the vehicle. Suspension
system includes spring, shock absorber and axle.
The suspension system is located between the frame and axles, it is designed to mitigate and
reduce impact and vibration from the ground, at the same time to transfer different kinds of
forces and torques acting on the wheels and frame.
Component of suspension system
 Spring: It absorbs road shocks or impacts due to bump in road by oscillating.

 Coil spring

 Leaf spring

 Damper: They reduce the tendency of the carriage unit to continue to “bounce up”
and down on its springs.
 Rigid (solid) axle suspension
 Independent suspension system

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Brake system
Air brake system
Air brake operation is similar in some ways to hydraulic brake operation, except that compressed
air is used to actuate the brakes. The potential energy of an air brake system is in the compressed
air itself. The retarding effort delivered to the wheels has nothing to do with mechanical force
applied to the brake pedal. The source of the potential energy of an air brake system is the
vehicle engine, which drives an air compressor. The compressor discharges compressed air to
the vehicle air tanks.
The brake pedal, actuated by the driver, meters (precisely measures) some of this compressed air
out to the brake chambers. Brake chambers are used to convert air pressure into mechanical
force to actuate foundation brakes. Foundation brakes consist of shoes and drums or rotors and
calipers that convert the mechanical force applied to them into friction. In other words, in an air
brake system, braking effort at the wheel is achieved in the same way as in a hydraulic brake
system. The force that actuates the foundation brakes is converted to friction, which retards
movement. The friction is converted to heat energy, which then must be dissipated (transferred)
to the atmosphere.

Fig 2.8 a heavy duty truck air brake system with ABS

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Hydraulic brake systems use liquid confined in a circuit to transfer mechanical force from the
driver’s foot to the brake shoes. Depressing the brake pedal creates a mechanical force that is
transmitted through a pushrod to a piston in the master cylinder. This piston forces the brake

19
fluid through the brake lines to slave pistons in calipers or cylinders located at each wheel
assembly. The hydraulic pressure actuating these pistons forces brake pads or shoes against a
disc or drum that rotates with the wheel assembly.

Fig 2.9 hydraulic brake system

The master cylinder

The master cylinder increases the pressure & moves hydraulic fluid in the brake system. It does
thus by changing the mechanical force exerted on the brake pedal to hydraulic pressure.
Tandem master cylinder
A tandem master cylinder operates a divided or split hydraulic system. It is designed in such a
way that if one circuit fails, the other is still operative
Brake booster

How brake booster works; it contains a diaphragm that separates its interior into two parts,
with both in a partial vacuum .as the brake pedal is depressed, it causes a valve inside a booster
to open, which intern allows air into one side of the booster.

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 Fig 2.10 brake booster

Mechanical brake system;

The mechanical brake system use cable to transmit force. Example; hand brake
The hand brake is used to keep a vehicle in a stationary position and as an emergency brake
when the service break fails.
Types of brake depending on the materials which is hold
1. Disk type brake

2. Drum type brake

Replacing brake pad /shoe: - After recommended kilometers the vehicles must service
depending on required inspection because most of the components are exposed to wear and
corrosion the brake pad also work with high friction area so it will wear out after some
kilometers.

The steps in which I follow to replace the brake pad are listed below:-
- Stop the vehicle on leveled area and insert support under the tires

- Lift with jack

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 - Disassemble the wheel

- Disassemble the calipers push out the pad

- Clean surfaces and the components around there

- Collect and inspect disassembled components

- Replace the new pads

- Assemble the components in correct paces

Servicing break piston

When the brake piston is dried and can’t play freely the vehicle can’t stop as we need so we must
service it by cleaning and greasing.

Power train system

When a truck is operated, engine torque is transmitted through the clutch to the input shaft of the
transmission. Gears in the transmission are used to alter this input torque and speed to suit the
driving requirements of the vehicle. The transmission output shaft turns the vehicle drivetrain
downstream from the transmission, typically consisting of a propeller shaft, drive axle carrier,
drive axle shafts, and drive wheel assemblies. The different gear ratios used in a truck
transmission give the truck the ability to handle driving conditions that range from a full load
stationary start to highway cruise speeds. A transmission also has to provide a reverse capability.
Engines always rotate in one direction only, so the transmission must be capable of reversing
input rotation at the output. If this were not possible, a vehicle would only be capable of moving
in one direction.

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 Fig 2.11 power train system

Clutch
The function of a clutch is to transfer torque from engine flywheel to the transmission. At the
moment of clutch engagement, the transmission input shaft may either be stationary, as when the
truck is stationary, or rotating at a different speed than the flywheel, as in the case of upshifting
or downshifting. At the moment the clutch fully engages, however, the flywheel and the
transmission input shaft must rotate at the same speed.

Fig 2.12 clutch components

Steering system
Steering system is an assembly of linkages which provide the directional control to the vehicle. It
is a non-power train component in which the assemblies of linkages are designed by means of
steering geometry. It includes steering wheel, steering gear box, steering shaft and idler.

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 Fig 2.13 manual steering components

2.2.4 ENGINE SHOP

IC engines
Is an engine burns its fuel inside the engine in the combustion chamber. Burning of fuel
charge is not seen but its product is emitted in the form of smoke. They are rotary and
reciprocating engines. The reciprocating engines are classified as: -
 Diesel engine
 Gasoline engine
Diesel engine is classified as internal-combustion engine in which heat caused by air
compression ignites the fuel. It injects instant fuel into the combustion chambers, the air
inside is hot enough to ignite the fuel on contact. Diesel engines, therefore, do not need spark
plugs, which are required to ignite the air-fuel mixture in gasoline engines.
Major components of engine

Cylinder head it is the top most part of the engine, which covers the cylinder block. This
will also carries the valves, rocker arms and springs for the opening and closing of the
Valves. It has also inlet and chamber and camshaft in some engine, likewise nozzle if diesel
engine.

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 Fig 2.14 cylinder head

Cylinder block: An engine block is the structure which contains the cylinders, and other
parts, of an internal combustion engine. Their design and manufacture takes up different
structure based on the cylinder arrangement and the type of cooling system.

Fig 2.15 cylinder block

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A piston

A piston is a moving disk enclosed in a cylinder which is made gas-tight by piston rings.
The disk moves inside the cylinder as a liquid or gas inside the cylinder expands and
contracts. A piston aids in the transformation of heat energy into mechanical work and vice
versa.

Fig 2.16 piston structure

Connecting road

The connecting rod provides the mechanical linkage between piston and crankshaft and must
exhibit properties of high strength, low inertial mass, and uniformity of mass with the
other connecting rods attached to the crankshaft.

Crank shaft

The crankshaft is a moving part of the internal combustion engine (ICE). Its main function
is to transform the linear motion of the piston into rotational motion. The pistons are
connected to the crankshaft through the connecting rods. The crankshaft is mounted within
the engine block.

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 Fig 2.17 crank shaft components

Cam shaft

Camshaft, in internal-combustion engines, rotating shaft with attached disks of irregular

shape (the cams), which actuate the intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders.

Fig 2.18 cam shaft construction

Flywheel

A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to use the conservation of angular

momentum so as to efficiently store rotational energy; a form of kinetic energy proportional
to the product of its moment of inertia and the square of its rotational speed.

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 Common uses of a flywheel include:

 Smoothing the power output of an energy source. For example, flywheels are used
in reciprocating engines because the active torque from the individual pistons is
intermittent.
 Energy storage systems
 Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source. This is achieved by
collecting energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that
exceed the abilities of the energy source.
 Controlling the orientation of a mechanical system, gyroscope and reaction wheel

Fig 2.19 flywheel construction

COOLING SYSTEM

A system which controls the engine temperature is known as a cooling system.

When the engine started the heat is produced due to combustion process and friction between
two movable bodies, therefore the coolant (cooling system) is very important to decrease this
heat.
Method of Cooling System

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  Direct Cooling System
Engines with this type of cooling system are also called air-cold engines. During operation, air is
drawn by a blower leading to air metal Fins. In this type of cooling system the heat which is
conducted to the cuter parts of engine is radiated & conducted away by the stream of air which is
obtained from the atmospheres
Air cooling is mostly used in motor cycles scooters small cars & small aircraft engines, where
the forward motion of the machine gives good velocity to cool the engine.
 Indirect Cooling System
 Engines with this type of cooling system are also called water-cooled engines. In
this type, water serves as the coolant or the cooling Medium which circulates in
the water jackets to absorb the heat of the engine.
 It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and saves it from over
heating
 It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient & economical working.

Basic component of cooling system in automotive

1. Water Jackets: - It is a water passages on the cylinder head. It provided a way for the
coolant to circulate & take off the heat from the engine component.
2. Water Pump: - Is a centrifugal type pump, it increases the flow rate of the water. It
pushes the hot coolant out of the water jackets and to the radiator.
3. Thermostat: - It is a kind of check valve which opens & closes with the effect of
temperature. The normal operating temperature of an engine is 80-900c.
4. Radiator: - is a heat exchanging device with two set of passages. The purpose of the
radiator is to cool down the water received from the engine.
5. Fan: - it pulls or pushes outside air through the radiator. To quickly increase cold
engine coolant temperature for smooth engine operation, the coolant is circulated by
the water pump. The thermostat will be fully open when the coolant temperature
reaches specified valve. All of the coolant is now circulating through the radiator for
effective engine cooling.

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 Fig 2.20 cooling system
Lubrication system
Engine lubrication is obtained with a gear pump driven by the crankshaft via gears. A heat
exchanger governs the temperature of the lubricating oil. The oil filter, signaling sensors and
safety valves are installed in the intercooler. Lubricating oil is used to prevent wearing to the
moving parts of engine due to continuous rubbing of parts one by the other.
Functions of lubrication oil
 Minimizes wear
 Minimizes power loss
 Removes heat
 Absorbs shocks
 Seals
 Clean

Main components of lubricating system

Oil sump or oil pan; it is the lower part of the engine which contains lubricating oil.
Oil Pump: - Which supplies the oil to the moving parts under pressure.

Oil Filters: - Which traps particles of foreign material such as carbon deposits, dust dirt & metal
rubbings out of the oil.
Dipstick: - Is placed on the engine to check the oil level in the engine sump. The dipstick is
marked to read as “full" & “half ".

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 Fig 2.21 lubrication system of an engine
Fuel system
The fuel system is made up of the fuel tank, pump, filter, and injectors or carburetor, and is
responsible for delivering fuel to the engine as needed. Each component must perform flawlessly
to achieve expected vehicle performance and reliability.
Fuel pump: - Which feeds the fuel from the tank to the carburetor through the filter.
Carburetor: it is a device to mix air with fuel in the proper ratio for the purpose of combustion
Diesel Fuel System
Fuel tank:-It is a reservoir of fuel which is made of sheet metal of sufficient capacity
Feed pump; It maintains the fuel pressure in the system at a sufficient high level to circulate the
fuel through the filters.
Injection Pump; The pump supplies fuel to the injectors according to the firing order at the
constant stroke correct time in the cycle.
Nozzle:-A single unit used to meter, atomize & inject the required amount of fuel into the
combustion chamber of the cylinder.

31
 2.3 HOW DOES THE FLOW IN THE SECTION LOOK LIKE

Machanical • machine shop team

Vehicles • electrical shop team
operation and
Inspection • light and heavy duty shop team
Case Team • welding and painting shop team

2.4 WORK PIECE USED AND TASKS I HAVE BEEN EXECUTING

At the start day of the internship program, we visited south water works enterprise with the help
of our supervisor and since there are few shops and many students, our supervisor makes us with
a group of five students to able us to cover and see every shop in the enterprise. So that, on the
second day of work we were a part of heavy duty vehicles shop team. Before we start executing
jobs the team told us there must be safety in shop; both for us and materials.

Safety in the shop

Shop safety is a concern for all technicians, forepersons, managers, and shop and fleet owners.
Safety rules and regulations should be adhered to, to prevent injuries in the workplace. We have
to keep personnel, work area and shop tool safety.
Personnel safety includes
 Eye protection
 Clothing
 Footwear
 Gloves
 Ear protection
Work area safety: It is important that the work area be kept safe. All surfaces should be kept
clean, dry, and orderly. Any oil, coolant, or grease on the floor can cause slips that could result in
serious injuries.
Shop safety:

32
Understanding the proper use of non-power-driven hand tools, portable electric power tools,
pneumatic power tools, and stationary equipment will help eliminate accidents. Observe the
following:
 Select the proper size and type of tool for the job.
 Use tools only for the purpose for which they are designed.
 Keep tools in safe working condition.
 Store tools safely when not in use.
 Report any breakage or malfunctions to your instructor or service manager.
 Make sure that cutting tools are properly sharpened and in good condition.
 Do not use tools with loose or cracked handles.
 Never use tools unless you know how to operate them.
There are also many work pieces we have been using during working with vehicles and in
machine shop. We can classify them as: -
 Hand tools
 Power tools
 Measuring tools
Hand tools: our hand supplies the energy to operate them. Hand tools includes:-
 Hammers: Hammers are identified by the material and weight of the head. There are two
groups of hammer heads: steel and soft face.

Fig 2.22 (A) Steel hammer (B) soft face hammer

 Chisels and punches
Chisels are used to cut metal by driving them with a hammer.
Punches are used for driving out pins, rivets, or shafts; aligning holes in mating
components during assembly; and scribing the starting point for drilling a hole.

33
 Fig 2.23 chisels and punches
 Screwdrivers
A variety of threaded fasteners used in the trucking industry are driven by a screwdriver.
Each fastener requires a specific kind of screwdriver.

Fig 2.24 screwdrivers

 Wrenches: are to turn screws, nuts and bolts with hexagonal heads. They are different
types of wrenches.
These are: -
o Box-End Wrenches (offset Wrench); Used for tightening and loosening nuts and
bolts. Unlike the open-end wrench, the box-end wrench grips the nut or bolt on
six sides to turn it securely without slipping when strong tightening or loosing
force required.
o Socket wrench: The socket wrench is used in combination with different types of
handles and extension bars for safe and speedy loosening and tightening in
difficult positions
o Combination wrench: -It used to remove bolts from different part of the vehicle
based on part number.

34
 o Adjustable Wrench; the jaw opening can be adjusted to properly fit nuts and
bolts to loosen or tighten them.
o Open-End Wrenches (Spanners); Used for loosening and tightening nuts and
bolts.

Fig 2.25 A wrench assortment

 Pullers: - Is used to remove gears and hubs from shaft, bushing from blind holes and
cylinder liners from the engine block.

Fig 2.26 puller

 Pliers:-There are various types of pliers for use in gripping and turning and cutting wire

a b c d e
fig 2.27 (a) Slip-joint (b) Adjustable pliers (c) Needle nose pliers (d) Locking pliers, or Vise
Grips (e) Diagonal cutting plier
Measuring tools: measuring tool that is found in our shop includes calipers, screw gages
…etc.
 Calipers: -used to measuring thickness and length of spare parts.

35
 Fig 2.28 caliper

 Feeler gages: - are strips or bleeds of metal of various thicknesses used to measure
clearance between two parts.
E.g. Rocker arm, Valve stems, Thickness of cultch.

Fig 2.29 feeler gage

2.5 HOW GOOD I HAVE BEEN IN PERFORMING WORK TASKS
Our time there was challenging because of the corona pandemic. There were a few maintenance
works we have been doing; because of that, most of the time we did the same job. Together with
senior engineers and my class mates I have done a great job there because I got practical skill
and knowledge about vehicles and how to use work tool in work place.
2.6 CHALLENGES I HAVE BEEN FACING
There are some challenges that encountered during our stay in the enterprise.
 Lack of sufficient safety tools in work shop
 Getting the trust of workers
 Understanding executed working procedure

36
  The numbers of intern students were many, so it is difficult to do works for every
one of us.
2.7 MEASURES I HAVE TAKEN TO OVERCOME THE CHALLENGES
 Buying safety tools like clothes and shoes personally.
 Getting familiar with workers there.
 Reading some references to understand how things do.
 We perform our job at morning and afternoon by shift.

37
 CHAPTER 3

THE OVERALL BENEFITS OF THE INTERNSHIP

3.1 IN TERMS OF IMPROVING PRACTICAL SKILL

In terms of practical skill I have seen that learning theoretically more difficult than learning
in practically, but I realize learning is use full, for every work, and that make me to
understand thing easily. Moreover I learn simply how to change theoretical knowledge to
practical knowledge. In this internship I gain the:

 Ability to identify and select proper material tools, equipment‘s and machines
 Ability to set tools, work piece and machine for desired operations.
 Ability to use safety equipment‘s and follow safety procedures during
operations
3.2 IN TERMS UPGRADING THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE

Theoretical knowledge with practical skill make us fully knowledgeable man because
theoretical knowledge in its self cannot make you expert on your work. So practical skill is
essential to develop and master theoretical knowledge. The internship has helped me to
upgrade and remember theoretical knowledge that I have learned in class.

3.3 IN TERMS OF IMPROVING INTER PERSONAL

COMMUNICATION SKILL

The internship period helps me to alleviate my personal skill to have:

 A positive outlook towards others.

 Well communicate with others.
 Control my emotions.
 Acknowledge others' expertise.
 Show a real interest in my colleagues.
 Find one good trait in every co-worker.
 Practice active listening.

38
  Practice empathy
 Conflict management skills
3.4 IN TERMS OF IMPROVING TEAM PLAYING SKILL

When we are doing jobs, teamwork is essential. So to achieve a sated goal every team
member must have good team playing skill. I develop team playing skills during doing works
together. These include:

 Understanding my role in a team

 Collaboration with other team members
 Accountable for everything I have done
 Be flexible during work and
 Optimistic
3.5 IN TERMS OF IMPROVING LEADERSHIP SKILLS

The leader ship skills which I developed are by observing the senior mechanics, managers
and super visors. Good leadership skills I have learned includes:

 Good planning and delivery skill

 Management skill
 Persuasion and Influencing Skills
3.6 IN TERMS OF IMPROVING WORK ETHICS

I understand that a person at work should be serious at work, well-disciplined, have to know
about rules and regulations of company, start work on time, do works honestly and tolerate
all society of the company. We have developed how to keep certain information confidential,
how to maintaining cordial relation with the clients and agencies that a company has and how
to being prepared to take up new tasks. We understood the effects of ethical problem related
to work like impolite behavior, lack of punctuality, disregard of rules and procedures and
disrespect for the job.

3.7 IN TERMS OF ENTREPRENEUR SKILLS

A great entrepreneur must be able to effectively communicate, sell, focus, learn, and
strategize. An ability to continuously learn is not just a key entrepreneurial skill, but also a

39
very valuable life skill. Growing a business requires a sound strategy based on inherent
business sense and skills.

40
 CHAPTER 4
DESIGN PROJECT
4.1 Problem Statement

When I am discussing with the mechanics in the working company and as I saw it is found
that they have been facing problems regarding pulling brake drum from heavy duty vehicle.
Technicians and our company supervisor have been complaining that they have a problem
about it. As this operation is very repeatedly worked in the company to change brake shoe
lining, performing these tasks without machine helping is tiresome and slows the speed of
maintenance. So, because of these reasons I am initiated to focus on these areas.

4.2 OBJECTIVE

4.1.1 General objective

 Design of brake drum puller machine.
4.1.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objective of the design process is to meet the following conditions and justify
specifications;
 The device will pull a load up to 100 kg
 The device will have a maximum pull length of 4 cm
 This objective is desirable to be achieved through the hydraulic pulling process
 Safely pull a heavy vehicle brake drum
4.3 GOAL OF THE STUDY
The goal of this project is to simplify workers work by using this puller machine.
4.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
 Study of present design of drum puller machines using Hydraulic lift.
 Identification and problem finding.
 Collection of input data from research work.
 Study of weight-dimensional parameters
 Study of stresses, deformations
 Study of impact resistance.

41
  Study of Keeping of service life at loading
 Study of Reliable operation
4.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
 The developed hydraulic brake drum puller can only withstand below 100kg of load. It
cannot lift greater than 100kg
 The developed puller is only for normal person.
 The developed hydraulic puller must be operated by wearing safety tools.
 The design is done by considering the lever force that a normal person can apply at a
normal condition.
4.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The importance of designing this combined machine is to simplify the work. And the
machine is designed to minimize the damage or deformation of brake drum due to
hammering.

4.7 APPLICATION AREA

The application areas are:

 Local garage
 Vehicle industry
4.8 SPECIFICATION
 (AISI 1020) steel, plain carbon steel and cast iron are used to produce this machine.
 The device will pull a load up to 100 kg
 The device will have a pull length of 4 cm
4.9 LITERATURE REVIEW

In the routine or corrective maintenance of hydraulic systems, a fast, reliable and

nondestructive approach needs to be adopted. Use of hammer to remove brake drums and
other components stuck can damage the drum or other component. Furthermore, such method
of removing stuck components can be unsafe and is a form of occupational hazard. While
occupational hazards have been a concern for long, harmful habits have reportedly led to

42
injuries and other work related health issues in the automobile industry. A puller, also called
an extractor, can sufficiently be used to safely remove components stuck.

Development of puller for removal of components from parts like shaft started almost a
century ago [1]. There are two types of pullers namely; the hydraulic and the mechanical
types. The hydraulic pullers work base on hydraulic principle. They are easier and quicker to
use, also they are suitably used when very large extraction forces are required [2]. This
project deals with removal of brake drum with the hydraulic effort and how the hydraulic
jack is installed for the effective pulling process.

4.10 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Material selection

An investigation of the design requirement preceded the selection of materials for the project.
The major design considerations were; high yield Strength, low mass, resistance to abrasive
wear, resistance to buckling, availability, low cost and ease of manufacture.

Material selection was based on their characteristics, properties and suitability for the
operational condition. The approach was to identify the connection between functional
requirements and the material properties. The main parts of the puller, their respective
materials selected are presented as follows:

A. Piston: Base on the operating condition, steel AISI1020 Hot rolled with σy = 207
Mpa is selected.
B. Cylinder: Base on operating condition, steel AISI1144 Hot rolled, with σT = 640
MPa is selected.
C. Linkage (arm): the linkages work together to ensure that the hydraulic linear motion
to pull the drum. The purpose of the arms is to support the puller and enable it to
withstand compressive load exerted on it. The link is a bit complex and thus requires
casting as a manufacturing process. For this reason, gray cast iron as a material is
selected for the frame. Additionally, cast iron is cheap, has high compressive strength
and can be used to manufacture any complex shape without involving costly
machining operations.

43
4.11 DESIGN ANALYSIS
 design of main piston which pushes the hub
 design of minor piston that supplies power to the main piston cylinder
 design minor or plunger cylinder
 design main or ram cylinder
4.12 DESIGN CALCULATION

Hydraulic jack is a fluid processed device which is used to lift heavy load(s) by the
application of much smaller force. This device works on the principle of “Pascal law of
pressure” which states that “intensity of pressure is transmitted equally in all directions
through a mass of fluid at rest. The working mechanism of a hydraulic jack may be explained
with the help of diagram below:

Fig. 4.1 Schematic Diagram of Hydraulic jack

In the diagram above, the system comprises of a main piston and minor piston operating in
two cylinders of different diameters that are inter-connected at the base, through a chamber
which is filled with incompressible fluid. As force is supplied externally, on the minor piston,
pressure P1 is exerted at the minor cylinder. Based on the principle of Pascal’s law of
pressure, the pressure P1 is transmitted through the channel to the main cylinder which has a
bigger cross sectional area. Here, the pressure P2 is exerted on the bigger piston to produce
the work which could be used to overcome the load.

44
Design analysis (main piston)

The element is taken as a column because of the operating condition. To reduce failure due to
buckling and ensure convenience lift to carry out minor repair or maintenance on the part of
automobile, a lift of distance 100mm is selected. Base on the operating condition, steel
AISI1020 Hot rolled with σy = 207 Mpa is selected. By virtue of the operating condition,
“fixed – free” fixity ends with stress factor k = 2 are selected.

Fig. 4.2 a fixed – free ends column

Load on the major piston is

Actual heavy duty brake drums have a mass of 77.7 kg. So approximately with some
allowance we take 80 kg.

Load = mg + allowance (like friction between brake drum and wheel rim)
= 80 kg * 9.81 m/ s2 + 20 kg * 9.81 m/ s2
= 784.8 + 196.2 = 981 N ~ 1 kN
 The column diameter becomes
(𝑘𝑙)2
D = (64𝑛𝑝 )
Π3 𝐸

Let n =4(shock and impact energy is required on the column)

1
64∗4∗1000∗(2∗0.04)2 4
Then 𝐷 = [ ]
𝜋3 ∗207∗109

𝐷 = 4𝑚𝑚

45
 𝐷 4𝑚𝑚
Radius of gyration 𝑟 = = = 1𝑚𝑚
4 4

Slenderness ratio S.R becomes

𝐾𝐿 2∗0.04𝑚
𝑆. 𝑅 = = = 80
𝑟 0.001𝑚

Transmission ratio:-

1/2 0.5
2𝜋 2 𝐸 2𝜋 2 ∗ 207 ∗ 109
𝑇. 𝑅 = ( ) =( ) = 140.5
𝜎𝑦 207 ∗ 106

Note: slender ratio (S.R) is less than transition ratio (T.R) and then the column is short.
Therefore the column is re-designed as short column using J.B Johnson equation

0.5
4𝑁𝑃 4𝜎𝑦(𝑘𝑙)2
𝐷=( + )
𝜎𝜋𝑦 𝜋2𝐸

0.5
4 ∗ 4 ∗ 1000𝑁 4 ∗ 207 ∗ 106 (2 ∗ 0.04)2
𝐷=( + )
𝜋 ∗ 207 ∗ 106 𝜋 2 ∗ 207 ∗ 109

𝐷 = (2.46036 + 2.593822 ∗ 10−6 )0.5

𝐷 = 0.00521 ≈ 5 𝑚𝑚

Main piston length becomes:

Piston (main) length

𝐷1 𝐷2
=
𝐿1 𝐿2
Where D1 and L1 = Diameter and length of minor piston
D2 and L2 = Diameter and length of major piston
To get the piston main length 1st we have to calculate the diameter of minor piston
Minor piston design
Consider that the material selected is having same properties with material selected for main
piston. Take the design factor N to be same i.e. 4. Assume that there is no pressure loss.
From Pascal’s law of pressure

46
𝐹1 𝐹2
= 𝐴2 , F1 = input force = 5 kg *9.81 m/s2 = 49.1N ≈ 49 N
𝐴1

A1 = area of minor piston

F2 = load and A2 = major piston area
𝐹1 𝐹2 1000𝑁
= = = 50929581.79 𝑝𝑎
𝐴1 𝐴2 0.005 𝑚 2
𝜋∗( 4 )
𝐹1
= 50.9 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎
𝐴1
49𝑁
= 50.9 ∗ 106
𝜋(𝑑12 )
4
𝐴1 = 9.626 ∗ 10−7 𝑚2
1 0.5
4𝐴1 2 4 ∗ 9.626 ∗ 10−7
𝑑1 = ( ) =( ) = (1.2256 ∗ 10−6 )0.5 = 0.0011 ≈ 1.1 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝜋

So from minor diameter we can get the diameter of major piston but before that we have
to calculate the length of minor piston
𝐿1 = 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶
To get minor cylinder length (Cl)
Minor Piston length

Fig 4.3 Linkage Point of Minor Piston

47
However, note that the piston conveniently fills the cylinder at the downward stroke. The
length of the piston is considered to be length of cylinder plus linkage clearance (10mm)
with lever system to ensure adequate movement of the minor piston.
𝐿1 = 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶
To get Cl (Minor cylinder length) we have to design minor cylinder
Minor cylinder (plunger)
Based on the operating condition, thick wall cylindrical shell is assumed. Because the
piston reciprocates up and down in the cylinder, only internal pressure is considered to be
exerted. Based on the working condition, steel AISI1020 Hot rolled with 𝜎𝑇= 392mpa is
selected.

Fig 4.4 a Thick Cylindrical Shell Subjected to Internal Pressure

Applying lame’s equation
𝑏
𝑃= − 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
(𝑟2)2
P = Intenisty of internal pressure = 50.9 ∗ 106 pa
r2 = Radiusof internal wall of the cylinder
a and b are constant
Taking d2 = diameter of minor piston + clearance 0.3
d2 = 1.1 mm + 0.3 mm = 1.4 mm
r2 = d2/2 = 0.7 mm
Then from the lame’s equation above

𝑏
50.9 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎 = − 𝑎
(0.7 ∗ 10−3 𝑚)2

48
 𝑏
𝑎= − 50.9 ∗ 10−6 … … … … … … (1)
0.49 ∗ 10−6
From design factor equation

𝜎𝑇
𝑛= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝜎𝑇(𝑎𝑙𝑙)
106 𝑁
𝜎𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 392 ∗
𝑚3
𝜎𝑇(𝑎𝑙𝑙) = 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑛 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 4(𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑)
106 𝑁
𝜎𝑇 392 ∗
4= = 𝑚2
𝜎𝑇(𝑎𝑙𝑙) 𝜎𝑇(𝑎𝑙𝑙)
𝜎𝑇(𝑎𝑙𝑙) = 98 ∗ 106 𝑁/𝑚2
(𝑏)
𝜎𝑇(𝑎𝑙𝑙) = + 𝑎
𝑟22

𝑏
98 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎 = + 𝑎
(0.7 ∗ 10−3 )2
𝑏
98 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎 = + 𝑎
0.49 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
𝑏
𝑎 = 98 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎 − … … … … … . (2)
0.49 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
Equalizing equation 1 and 2

𝑏 6 6
𝑏
− 50.9 ∗ 10 𝑝𝑎 = 98 ∗ 10 𝑝𝑎 −
0.49 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2 0.49 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
𝑏 𝑏
−6 2
+ = 98 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎 + 50.9 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎
0.49 ∗ 10 𝑚 0.49 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
2𝑏
= 148.9 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎
0.49 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
𝑏 = 36.48 𝑁
Substitute b = 36.48 N in equation 1
36.48𝑁
𝑎= − 50.9 ∗ 106 𝑝𝑎 = 23.55 ∗ 106
0.49 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2

49
Assume that external pressure is zero

(𝑏)
𝑝2 = − 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑟12

𝑟1 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝑝2 = 0

Then

𝑏 36.48
0= 2
−𝑎 = − 23.55 ∗ 106
𝑟1 𝑟12

23.55 ∗ 106 𝑟12 = 36.48

0.5
36.48
𝑟1 = ( ) = 1.2 𝑚𝑚
23.55 ∗ 106

Therefore thickness of the wall becomes

𝑡 = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = 1.2𝑚𝑚 − 0.7𝑚𝑚 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚

𝑡 0.5 𝑚𝑚
Note that 𝑑 = 1.4 𝑚𝑚 = 0.35

The value of 0.38 is greater than 1/10th; therefore the thick wall shell selected earlier is
appropriate.

Fig 4.5 Schematic Diagram of Hydraulic Jack Operation System

50
The volume of fluid displaced in the minor cylinder equals the volume of fluid that raised the
main piston in the main cylinder

𝑣1 = 𝑣2

Let v1 = volume of fluid displaced in minor cylinder

v2 = volume of fluid displaced in main cylinder

S1 = Fluid displacement in minor cylinder

S2 = Fluid displacement in main cylinder

𝑣1 = 𝑣2

𝐴1𝑆1 = 𝐴2𝑆2

Based on experiments of international organization of scientific research, total number of strokes

to conveniently raise the load 100 mm is averagely 50, in my case to lift 40mm is averagely 20
strokes

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 40𝑚𝑚

= = 2𝑚𝑚 = 𝑠2
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 20

𝐴1𝑆1 = 𝐴2𝑆2

2
9.626 ∗ 10−7 𝑚2 ∗ 𝑆1 = 𝜋 ∗ (0.005𝑚)2 ∗
4

𝑆1 = 40.79 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 41 𝑚𝑚

At the return stroke of the piston when the inlet is opened to release another set of fluid into the

chamber, a factor 2 is selected to conveniently trap the fluid in the system thus avoid pressure
loss and fluid loss. Therefore minor cylinder is taken to be twice the distance of fluid displaced.

𝑐𝑙 = 2𝑠1

𝑐𝑙 = 2(41 𝑚𝑚)

𝑐𝑙 = 82 𝑚𝑚

Therefore minor piston length becomes

51
 𝐿1 = 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶 = 82 𝑚𝑚 + 10 𝑚𝑚

𝐿1 = 92 𝑚𝑚

Then the main piston length

𝐷1 𝐷2
=
𝐿1 𝐿2

1.1 𝑚𝑚 5𝑚𝑚
=
92 𝑚𝑚 𝐿2

5𝑚𝑚 ∗ 92
𝐿2 = = 418.18 𝑚𝑚
1.1

Pressure exacted by the main piston

We calculate the pressure exerted by the main piston in the above steps. Because design
factor (n) is 4 in the design of main piston diameter, the pressure is considered as the working
pressure and not maximum pressure.

However, to determine the maximum pressure

𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝, Where: Pmax= Maximum pressure (N/m2)

𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 ∗ 50.93 ∗ 106 = 203.7𝑀𝑝𝑎

Main cylinder design

 Base on the operating condition of the element, a thin cylindrical shell is assumed.
 Because the piston reciprocates up and down in the cylinder, only internal pressure is
taken to be exerted.
 Because the element in thin cylindrical shell, circumferential stress is adapted.
 Based on operating condition, steel AISI(1144) Hot rolled, with σT = 640 MPa is
selected

52
 Fig 4.6 A Thin Cylindrical Shell Subjected to Internal Pressure.
𝜎𝑇
𝜎𝑐 =
𝑛

Where: σC = Circumferential stress (N/m2)

σT= Tensile strength (N/m2)

n = Design factor 3 (material and load ascertained)

640
𝜎𝑐 = = 213.3 ∗ 106 𝑁/𝑚2
3

Take internal diameter of cylinder to be diameter of the piston + clearance 0.5 is

recommended

𝑑 = 5𝑚𝑚 + 0.5 = 5.5𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = 𝑝𝑑/2𝜎𝑐

Where: t = Thickness of the wall of thin cylindrical shell (m)

P = Intensity of internal pressure= 50.9 x 106 N/m2 i.e. working pressure calculated.

50.9 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.0055𝑚

𝑡= = 0.0013𝑚 ≈ 1𝑚𝑚
213.3 ∗ 106

When the value of t/d is less than 1/10th then it is assumed a thin cylindrical shell. Therefore,
1mm/5.5mm=1.1. This value is around 1/10th; therefore thin cylindrical shell adapted earlier
is appropriate.

Caster wheel selection

53
 Load calculation per caster or wheel

The first step is to determine properly the load on each wheel or caster, according to project
and utilization conditions of the equipment where they will be mounted. Avoiding exceed
load bearing capacity limits of casters and wheels shown in the catalog is important to get the
best product performance. The formula below enables load calculation over each caster or
wheel, considering some of the most important factors.

𝑐𝑤=(𝑃𝐸+𝑃𝑀𝐶 )∗𝑆
𝑁

20kg + 100kg
𝐶𝑊 = ( ) ∗ 1.5 = 45kg
4

𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐶w = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑤h𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑃𝐸 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖p𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑃𝑀𝐶 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑤h𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛t

The value of safety coefficient S must be between 1.0 and 2.0, depending on application
conditions

Table 4.1 Safety coefficients of caster for different usage conditions

Wheel bearings

54
We jump now to the third step which is to select the ideal wheel bearing. Wheels can be
delivered with five different wheel bearings, which exert a great influence in their performance.
They are: plain bearing, nylon socket, bronze socket, roller bearing and ball bearing. For light
duty loads and low handling requirements, the plain bearing or nylon socket wheels are the most
suitable, providing an excellent cost-benefit ratio. Those with bronze socket must be used in very
wet conditions or extreme temperatures. Roller bearings are indicated for medium and light duty
loads, they make handling of manual traction equipment easier with a low cost. Ball bearings
provide easier handling for all load ranges, higher resistance and durability. They must be always
used in equipment subject to severe utilization, with mechanical traction and higher speeds.
Supplied with a guard with grease nipple, or two guards with permanent lubrication. In case of
highly severe applications, high loads and speeds, where radial and axial efforts are present, we
can supply wheels with tapered rollers upon request.

Taking into consideration the above information a caster with the following specification has
been chosen.

 Wheel diameter, 𝟔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉

 Wheel width, 𝟐𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
 Wheel composition, 𝑹𝒖𝒃𝒃𝒆𝒓
 Bearing type, 𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓
 Load capacity, 𝟒𝟏𝟎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
 Bearing bore, 𝟑/𝟒𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
 Hub length, 𝟐 𝟑⁄𝟏𝟔 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
 Part number, 𝑹𝑨𝑹 – 𝟔𝟐𝟎

55
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 CONCLUSION

In conclusion we benefited a lot in the field attachment in a way that we managed to apply the
theoretical knowledge from the university into practice through many activities and tasks the
intern was instructed to do. The intern improved the skills like interpersonal, listening, personal
skills, work ethics , conflict resolution, organizational skills to mention but a few. Learnt many
lessons which included; how to be a good engineer in work, how the working environment runs,
etc. and got different ideas from the different people (employees) at the Organization and this
contributed a lot on the knowledge and experience. Finally, internship was fun and therefore we
would encourage the South water works enterprise to continue giving students this opportunity to
do their academic requirement of internship from their organization.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
As internship program gave an opportunity to change the student to change theoretical
knowledge into practical or real world and exposes the student to exercise the real world life, we
strongly recommended to be continue in a manner that it achieves its goal.
Furthermore we recommended south road authority the following points

 More opportunities to students to do intern in their organization; The intern would also
recommend the Organization to continue giving internship placements to as many
students as they can because some miss this experience which is also important
requirement of the University due to the fact that they failed to get placements.
 Using older machines does not make competent, so the company has to use latest
machines such as CNC machines to become successful company regardless of time
management and upgrading its production capacity.
 Finally, the project design of hydraulic brake drum puller has to be implemented to solve
problem that the company facing and increase productivity by reducing accident and
labor.

56
APPENDIX
 PART DRAWINGS

Fig. arm of puller

57
Fig. collar

58
Fig. carrier arm wheel

59
Fig. rivet

60
REFERENCES
[1] IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) (www.iosrjen.org)

[2] R. C. Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials, Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2011

[3] International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

[4] R.S. Khurmi and J.K. Gupta, A text book of machine design, New Delhi: Eurasia
Publishing House, 2005.

[5] www.wikipedia.com

[6] Ferdinand P. Beer, E.Russell Johnston, John T. Dewolf, David F. Mazurek, Mechanics of
Materials, New York: McGraw Hill, 2012.

[7] A Text Book Of Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics And Hydraulic Machines, R.S. Khurmi, -
Edn.18, S.Chand & Co., Ram Nagar, New Delhi – 110 055, Ram Nagar, New Delhi –
2002
[8] South Water Works Construction Enterprise Documents

61