Chapter-1

1. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

The superposition theorem is unquestionably one of the most powerful in this field. It
has such widespread application that people often apply it without recognizing that their
maneu-vers are valid only because of this theorem.

In general, the theorem can be used to do the following:

• Analyze networks such as introduced in the last chapter that have two or more
sources that are not in series or parallel.
• Reveal the effect of each source on a particular quantity of interest.
• For sources of different types (such as dc and ac, which affect the parameters of the
network in a different manner) and apply a separate analysis for each type, with the
total result simply the algebraic sum of the results.

The superposition theorem states the following:

The current through, or voltage across, any element of a network is equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each source.
In other words, this theorem allows us to find a solution for a current or voltage
using only one source at a time. Once we have the solution for each source, we can
combine the results to obtain the total solution. The term algebraic appears in the
above theorem statement because the cur-rents resulting from the sources of the
network can have different directions, just as the resulting voltages can have opposite
polarities.
 If we are to consider the effects of each source, the other sources obviously must be
removed. Setting a voltage source to zero volts is like placing a short circuit across its
terminals. Therefore, when removing a voltage source from a network schematic,
replace it with a direct connection (short circuit) of zero ohms. Any internal resistance
associated with the source must remain in the network. Setting a current source to
zero amperes is like replacing it with an open circuit. Therefore, when removing a
current source from a network schematic, replace it by an open circuit of infinite
ohms. Any internal resistance associated with the source must remain in the network.

The above statements are illustrated in Fig.

Superposition cannot be applied to power effects because the power is related to the
square of the voltage across a resistor or the current through a resistor. The squared
term results in a nonlinear (a curve, not a straight line) relationship between the power
and the determining current or voltage. For example, doubling the current through a
resistor does not double the power to the resistor (as defined by a linear relationship)
but, in fact, increases it by a factor of 4 (due to the squared term). Tripling the current
increases the power level by a factor of 9.

2.THÉVENIN’S THEOREM

The next theorem to be introduced, Thévenin’s theorem, is probably one of the

In general, the theorem can be used to do the following:

Thévenin’s theorem states the following:

Any two-terminal dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting solely

Thévenin’s Theorem Procedure

Preliminary:

1. Remove that portion of the network where the Thévenin equivalent circuit is found.
In Fig. this requires that the load resistor RL be temporarily removed from the network.

2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (The importance of this
step will become obvious as we progress through some complex networks.)
RTh:

3. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by
short circuits and current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant
resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the
voltage and/or current sources is included in the original network, it must remain
when the sources are set to zero.)

ETh:

4. Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding
the open-circuit voltage between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably
the one that causes most confusion and errors. In all cases, keep in mind that it
is the open-circuit potential between the two terminals marked in step 2.)

Conclusion:

5. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously
removed replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is
indicated by the placement of the resistor RL between the terminals of the
Thévenin equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.
3.NORTON’S THEOREM
The current source equivalent can be determined by Norton’s theorem. The
theorem states the following:
Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source and a parallel resistor, as shown in Fig.

The discussion of Thévenin’s theorem with respect to the equivalent circuit can also be
applied to the Norton equivalent circuit. The steps leading to the proper values of I N and
RN are now listed.

Norton’s Theorem Procedure

Preliminary:

1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit is found.

2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.

RN:
3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short circuits and
current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked
terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is included in the original
network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.) Since R N RTh, the procedure and value
obtained using the approach described for Thévenin’s theorem will determine the proper value of R N.
IN:

4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then finding the short-circuit
current between the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be measured by an ammeter
placed between the marked terminals.

Conclusion:

5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed replaced
between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.

4. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Fortunately, the process of finding the load that will receive maxi-mum power from a particular system is
quite straightforward due to the maximum power transfer theorem, which states the following:

A load will receive maximum power from a network when its resistance is exactly equal to the Thévenin
resistance of the network applied to the load. That is,

RL = RTh

In other words, for the Thévenin equivalent circuit in Fig. when the load is set equal to the Thévenin
resistance, the load will receive maxi-mum power from the network.
we can determine the maximum power delivered to the load by first finding the current:
 To demonstrate that maximum power is indeed transferred to the load under the conditions defined
above, consider the Thévenin equivalent circuit in Fig.

Before getting into detail, however, if you were to guess what value of R L would result in maximum
power transfer to RL, you might think that the smaller the value of R L, the better it is because the current
reaches a maximum when it is squared in the power equation. The prob-lem is, however, that in the
equation PL = IL2RL, the load resistance is a multiplier. As it gets smaller, it forms a smaller product. Then
again, you might suggest larger values of R L because the output voltage increases, and power is
determined by PL = VL2/RL. This time, however, the load resistance is in the denominator of the equation
and causes the resulting power to decrease. A balance must obviously be made between the load
resistance and the resulting current or voltage. The following discussion shows that maximum power
transfer occurs when the load voltage and current are one-half their maximum possible values.

5. RECIPROCITY THEOREM

The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to single-source networks. It is, therefore, not a theorem used
in the analysis of multisource net-works described thus far. The theorem states the following:

The current I in any branch of a network due to a single voltage source E anywhere else in the
network will equal the current through the branch in which the source was originally located if the
source is placed in the branch in which the current I was originally measured.

In other words, the location of the voltage source and the resulting current may be interchanged without a
change in current. The theorem requires that the polarity of the voltage source have the same
correspondence with the direction of the branch current in each position
SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS:

• 2nd-order circuits have 2 independent energy storage elements (inductors and/or

capacitors)
• Since 2nd-order circuits have two energy-storage types, the circuits can have the

following forms:

1) Two capacitors

2) Two inductors

3) One capacitor and one inductor

A) Series RLC circuit

B) Parallel RLC circuit

C) Others