CHAPTER

1
The Nature of Mathematics

1.1 Mathematics in

our World

1.2 Fibonacci Numbers

1.3 The Golden Ratio

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the student is

expected to:

1. identify patterns
in nature and

regularities in the
world;
KEYWORDS

Mathematics

What?

2. explain the
Where?
importance of
Who?
mathematics in
How?
one's life; and
Why?
3. express
appreciation for
Fibonacci Numbers

mathematics as a human endeavor.

Golden Ratio
Mathematics in the Modern World
1.1 Mathematics in our World
Have you ever wondered how well jeepney drivers give you your change when you hand them your
fare? How about when you buy street food? Most food vendors do not make a mistake in giving you your
change after buying a grilled hotdog on a stick for example, without even using calculators. Routine
transactions like these, knowingly or unknowingly, are mathematics at work because they involve
computing numbers most of the time. How much time do you allot for travelling to avoid getting late for
class? Before that, do you track every second you spend taking the shower, eating breakfast,
changing into school clothes, or preparing your things for school? Most importantly, do you check
if you still have enough money for fare, food, and other expenses for school? Just like budgeting
allowance, time is also mathematics at work. Are you watching your weight and your food caloric
intake? Do you read the nutrition information from the packages of chocolates, cookies, candies, and
drinks you buy? Consciously or unconsciously, all of these activities engage some form of mathematics.

The heart of mathematics is more than just numbers, numbers which many suppose to be meaningless
and uninteresting. Have you gone for beach trips or did mountain climbing perhaps and noticed in
awe the beautiful world around you? The different shapes you see around you, the changing hues of the
sky from sunrise to sunset, the clouds transforming from stratus to cumulus, the contour of the rainbow in the
horizon are all beautiful because of harmony. The degree of changing hues of color has to be of exact
measurement to appear pleasing and harmonious to the human eye. "And it is mathematics that reveals the
simplicities of nature, and permits us to generalize from simple examples to the complexities of the real
world. It took many people from many different areas of human activity to turn a mathematical insight into
a useful product" (Stewart, 1995, pp. 71-72).
The Nature of Mathematics

If you count the number of petals of most flowers, notice that they are either of one petal, two petals,
three petals, five, or eight. This sequence of numbers form the set {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...) whose pattern
was discovered by Fibonacci, a great European mathematician of the Middle Ages. His full name in
Italian is Leonardo Pisano, which means Leonardo of Pisa, because he was born in Pisa, Italy around 1175.
Fibonacci is the shortened word for the Latin term "filius Bonacci," which stands for "son of Bonaccic." His father's name
was Guglielmo Bonaccio.

The German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (known for his laws of planetary motion) observed that
dividing a Fibonacci number by the number immediately before it in the ordered sequence yields a
quotient approximately equal to 1.618. This amazing ratio is denoted by the symbol called the Golden
Ratio. Kepler once claimed that "[g]eometry has two great treasures; one is the Theorem of Pythagoras;
the other, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The first we may compare to a measure of
gold, the second we may name a precious jewel" (Stakhov and Olsen, 2009).
The Golden Ratio is so fascinating that proportions of the human body such as the face follows the so called
Divine Proportion. The closer the proportion of the body parts to the Golden Ratio, the more aesthetically
pleasing and beautiful the body is. Many painters, including the famous Leonardo da Vinci were so fascinated
with the Golden Ratio that they used it in their works of art.

mathematics. "The Pythagoreans believed that the nature of the

The world and the whole universe is imbued with
universe was directly related to mathematics and that the whole numbers and the ratios formed by whole numbers
could be used to describe and represent all natural events" (Aufmann, 2014). Can the course of natural
events such as winning in a contest or in a game of chance be actually explained? What is your chance
of winning the lottery?

2
3
Mathematics in the Modern World

Have you ever heard of probabilities? Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) was a remarkable
mathematician who made many contributions to the mathematics of probabilities. An important aspect of
studying probabilities is the SO called combinatorics, a mathematical field pioneered by Blaise Pascal,
the mathematician whose famous Pascal's triangle finds useful applications in algebra and statistics.

Nature has its laws. These laws, such as the law of freely falling bodies, were laid down by Isaac Newton.
Newton and Gottfried Leibniz developed modern calculus in the 17th century. This development would not
have been possible without the Cartesian coordinate system-the fusion of geometry and algebra by Rene
Descartes (1596-1650). Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who made a name for his mass and energy equation, E =
mc2, would not have gone farther in his theory of relativity without mathematics. Marie Skłodowska Curie
(1867-1934) a Polish chemist and mathematician received the 1911 Nobel Prize in chemistry for developing techniques
and discovering two radioactive elements. Biological scientists have
of isolating radioactive isotopes.
also recently used mathematics extensively to theoretically investigate treatment procedures by
modeling and simulating biological processes. Without mathematics, all these inventions and discoveries
are not possible.

The 20th century saw many breakthroughs in the fields of sciences and engineering which creatively and
critically employed mathematics. From the first personal computer named Programma 101 that was released
in 1965, to the first landing of man on the moon on July 20, 1969, and to the first Global Positioning
System (GPS) satellite launched in 1989 for military use, all of these show that Mathematics plays a vital role
in the affairs of humanity. Today, there are 24 GPS satellites in orbit helping people locate their travel
destinations via applications such as Google Maps or Waze on personal computers, tablets, or cell
phones.
The Nature of Mathematics

Despite all these scientific achievements, many "millennials" are hesitant in taking science courses partly
because they feel anxious of anything intimately connected with mathematics. The interests of millenials
in gadgets, games, and technologies that appeal to their senses have also interfered with the study of
mathematics and the sciences. Unknowingly however, these technologies employ mathematics: from the
transactions of purchasing new gadgets, to the instructions one places on the newly bought device which
operate based on mathematical logic.
Finally, Ian Stewart (1995) explains in his book Nature's Numbers that mathematics is a systematic way of
digging out the rules and structures that lie behind some observed pattern or regularity, and using these rules and
structures to explain what is going on. Now, think of one of the most loved animation characters Dora the
Explorer. When Dora gets lost in the jungle, what does she need? A map. Thanks to Rene Descartes, who
made the Cartesian map for without. it, Dora will never find her way.
Mathematics is everywhere because it finds many practical applications in daily life. God, the
Mathematician Architect, designs everything in this universe to follow rules. or formulas. Whether following
regular or irregular patterns, His creation benefits humankind, His greatest masterpiece. As Johannes Kepler
wrote, "Those laws [of nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize
them by creating us after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts" (Stewart, 2010).

1.2 Fibonacci Numbers

Fibonacci observed numbers in nature. His most popular contribution perhaps is the number that is seen in the
petals of flowers. A calla lily flower has only 1 petal, trillium has 3, hibiscus has 5, cosmos flower has
8, corn marigold has 13, some asters have 21, and a daisy can have 34, 55 or 89 petals. Surprisingly,
these petal counts represent the first eleven numbers of the

4
5

Mathematics in the Modern World

Calla Lily
Trillium
Hibiscus
The Nature of Mathematics

These numbers arranged in increasing order can be written as the sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
55, 89,...}.

20

Fibonacci Spirals in Sunflowers

Cosmos
Corn Marigold

Fibonacci sequence. Not all petal numbers of flowers, however, follow this pattern discovered by
Fibonacci. Some examples include the Brassicaceae family having four petals. Astoundingly,
many of the flowers abide by the pattern observed by Fibonacci.

The principle behind the Fibonacci numbers is as follows:

0
n

Let x be the nth integer in the Fibonacci sequence, the next (n+1)th term X is determined by adding nth and
the (n - 1)th integers.
n+1

= 1 be the
Consider the first few terms below: Let x1 first term, and x2 = 1 be the second term, the third term x, is
found by x3 = x + x2 = 1+1=2.
• The fourth term x4 is
X2

X1 is 2+1=3, the sum of the third and the second term.

To find the new nth Fibonacci number, simply add the two numbers immediately preceding this nth number.

n = 3x3 = 1+1=2

:
n = 4 x1 = 1+2=3

n = 5:x=2+3=5

n = 6 x6 = 3 +5=8
n = 7:x=5+8=13

n = 8: x2 = 8+13=21
Xg
1=

n=9:x=13+21=34
Pineapples Grow in a Numerical Sequence
 8 parallel rows of scales spiraling gradually
13 parallel rows
of scales spiraling
at a medium slope
21 parallel rows of scales spiraling slooply

1-2-3-5-8-13-21-34-55-89...

you
count
the
clockwise and
Similarly, when counterclockwise spirals in the sunflower seed head, it is interesting to note that the
numbers 34 and 55 occur- which are consecutive Fibonacci numbers. Pineapples also have spirals
formed by their hexagonal nubs. The nubs on many pineapples form eight spirals that rotate
diagonally upward to the left and 13 that rotate diagonally upward to the right, again these are
consecutive Fibonacci numbers (Aufmann, 2015). The same is also observed in the clockwise and
counterclockwise spirals of a pine cone.

7
Mathematics in the Modern World

Another interesting pattern in nature is the honeycomb. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, "a
honeycomb is a mass of hexagonal wax cells built by honeybees in their nest to contain their brood and
stores of honey." But why build hexagonal cells? Why not squares? Jin Akiyama, a Japanese
mathematician, explains it well in an experiment made on his regular TV show Jinjin Math. In the
experiment, a student is asked to step on one mass made up of hexagonal cells and another mass
made up of square cells and the result is unbelievable! The mass with hexagonal cells resisted the
weight of the student while the mass with square cells was completely destroyed. It is amazing to know
that the mass made up of hexagonal cells is stronger than the one made up of square cells. Moreover,
these patterns exist naturally in the world.
The Nature of Mathematics

Another interesting observation is the rabbit population beginning from a baby pair of the first
generation. Since it takes the first generation to mature before giving birth to an offspring, there is
an adult pair for the second generation, which is ready for reproduction. So, there are two rabbit pairs,
the parents and baby pairs, of the third generation. Next, the adult pair begets a baby pair but the
previous baby pair simply matures, so a family of three rabbit pairs. for the fourth generation exists, and so
on. The number of total rabbit pairs at each generation constitutes a Fibonacci sequence. Denoting by F
the Fibonacci sequence of n generations is the set of Fibonacci numbers {F}, that is:

{F}={1,1,2,3,5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144,...).

In particular, denote F1 = 1 for the 1st generation,

F1 for the 2nd generation, F = 2 for the 3rd generation, F3 for the 4th generation, and so on. It is
interesting to
4

point out that the Fibonacci numbers F, obey the following relationship:

F1 = F2 = 1
F
=

F + Fn-2, n ≥ 3
n-1

That is, F is given by the sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers, F, and F2, n≥3.

For example: F3 = F2+ F

2

F1 = 1+1

Start
2
5
13
34
89
F3
F1 = 2

It
is
also seen that
F2
F1 = F3 + F2 =2+1=3
and

8
F10 = F + F = 34 +21=55.

3
8
21
55
∞0
a
Start of the Pairs of
rith month

N=1

11 = 2

#1 = 3

n =4

#2 = 5

#=6
rabbits

Mathematics in the Modern World

Newbom rabbits

Mature rabbits

Let us investigate the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers as n becomes large.
F

The following table gives values of the ratio approaches ∞.

n

Fn-
n-1
21
F

F
n-1

as n
The Nature of Mathematics
It is interesting to note that the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers approaches the golden ratio; that
is,
F
n

F-1
n-1
=

1.6180339887... as n becomes large. This is indeed a

mystery. What does the golden ratio have to do with a rabbit population model?

1.3 The Golden Ratio

The ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers as n becomes large, approaches the golden ratio; that

1.6180339887... This can be verified by

F
n

is, lim
n→ F Fn-1
==

measuring some parts of the human body: the length of the arm, height, the distance of the fingertips to
the elbow. According to Markowsky (1992), "the ratio of a person's height to the height of his or her
navel is roughly the golden ratio. We are not told why this is significant; the navel is a scar of no great
importance in an adult human being." You may verify this for yourself. Did you get a value close to
1.6180339887...?

The ratio between the forearm and the hand also yields a value close to the golden ratio!
F
n

n
F
n-1

211
312
55
= 2
10
= 1.617647059
34

89
1.5.
11
-

= 1.618181818
55

1013
5
144
= 1.666666667
12
= 1.617977528
89

7
00/50 47100
233
= 1.6
13
= 1.61805556
144

13
1.625
377
14
1.618025751
233

21
610
8
1.615384615
15
= 1.618037135
13
377

34
987
9
1.619047619
16
= 1.618032787
21
610

10
Another name for golden ratio is divine proportion. This must be so because human beauty is based on
the divine proportion. The photo on the next page illustrates the following golden ratio proportions in the
human face:

⚫ center of pupil : bottom of teeth: bottom of chin

⚫ outer and inner edge of eye center of nose
⚫ outer edges of lips: upper ridges of lips

11
Mathematics in the Modern World

⚫ width of center tooth: width of second tooth

• width of eye width of iris
The Nature of Mathematics

Simplifying the right side of equation (1), we get

b
a

b
1+
•

Denoting the ratio by, we end up with

a

1
9=1+
(2)

On the other hand, dividing in both the numerator and denominator of the right side of equation (1) by b,
we get

ab
a
1
b

ab
(3)

The golden ratio denoted here by is sometimes called the golden mean or golden section:

1+

√5
=

= 1.6180339887...

This can come about in two ways. One is by an algebraic relation. Suppose that a line segment is cut into
two pieces of length: a and b. Below it is shown that a is longer than b. Clearly, the length of the original line
segment is a + b.

a
b
which by writing
b
becomes
9+1
1
or = 1 +
as

in (2). Now, by multiplying both sides of equation (2) by o we get a quadratic equation

2-p-1=0
-

(4)

Using the quadratic root formula, we find two roots of equation (4); the first root is 1.6180339887..., and the
second root is = -0.6180339887.... The first root is the ratio 1.618 that we are looking for, and we ignore the
second root because it is a negative number. Hence, the value we are looking for is

Now, two ratios are formed: and

a

b
a+b

a
The first is
C

1+ √5

2
= 1.6180339887...

the ratio of the longer piece a to the shorter piece b, and the second ratio is the whole length to the longer
piece a. It is now ideal to ask, when are the two ratios equal? This is an algebraic question that can be
solved by equating the two
ratios:

The golden ratio =1.6180339887... is a strange number. It is the only number that if you subtract one
from it, -1=0.6180339887..., you end up with its own
1
reciprocal -0.6180339887...
Q

a-b
a+b

12
(1)

13
Mathematics in the Modern World

Golden Rectangle
What is a golden rectangle? A rectangle can be drawn of such a shape that if it is cut into a square and a
rectangle, the smaller rectangle will be similar in shape to the larger rectangle.
1
X
1 +x
X

1
1
The Nature of Mathematics

Continuing the process, we will arrive at the following equation after eight iterations:

1
f(... f(x)) = 1 +
1
1+
1
1 +
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
+x

This is the golden rectangle whose sides are in the "golden ratio" of 1+x: 1, where x is a non-ending
decimal whose value can be calculated in a number of ways, including the construction of a simple continued
fraction. Since the two rectangles are similar, their sides are in the same ratio as follows:

x +1

1
1
1
==

or
= X
X
x +1

Or simply x can be replaced on the right-hand side by

1
x =
1+x

(1)
Hence, by repeated iterations the multi-layer fraction is build up as shown above. Iteration means
repeating a process over and over again. In mathematics, it means the repeated application of an operation
on a given function over and over again.

The golden ratio is also given by the ratio of the two sides of the golden rectangle. The principle of the
golden rectangle is simple. After the largest square is cut off, the leftover piece is again a golden
rectangle. The largest square is cut off again from the leftover rectangle, and so on. In this way, the
original golden rectangle is cut up into ever-decreasing squares. Since the squares get smaller by
scaling factor, they are self-similar golden squares.
or

1
*
x
1
1 +
1+x

If we continue replacing x by (1), we will get,

(2)

1
x =
1
1+
1
1+
1 +x

14
(3)

15
+

Mathematics in the Modern World

EXERCISES SET 1

1. What is mathematics for you?

2. Where do you apply the principles of mathematics?

3. Do you need mathematics every day? Why?

4. What have you learned from school on mathematics so
far?

5. Do you appreciate mathematics? Why or why not?

6. Did you ever perform well in mathematics? Why or why

not?

7. Who is Fibonacci and what did he do?

8. Why did Fibonacci become famous?

9. Around

invented?

what year was the Fibonacci sequence

10. The following rules give a simple model for the

population growth of rabbits.

(a) The rabbits are always in pairs for reproduction.

(b) A rabbit pair must grow one generation to maturity and then begets one baby pair at every generation
thereafter.

(c) No rabbit pairs die off.

Under these rules,

Let

F
1
C

In particular,
The Nature of Mathematics

F =1 for the 1st generation,

F = 1 for the 2nd generation,

F2 for the 3rd generation,

F3 for the 4th generation, and so on.
4

Find a formula for the number of rabbits (including

offspring) in the (m + n)th generation. Use the figure on page 10.
11. For any positive integers m and n, use the results in no.
10 to find a formula for Fmin+l"
m+n+1*

12. Find the greatest common divisor, gcd (F, F-1)

13. Find the golden ratio o up to eight decimal places by
iterating the function f(x)=1+
1

(1) First, we replace x in the function f(x)=1+ -

with f(x) to obtain the two-layer fraction of the

X

1
first iteration. That is, f(f(x))=1+
In each
1
1+
X

iteration, let x = 1. For example, in the first iteration.

2. For the second iteration, we get

1

f(1) = 1 +
=

f(f(1))=1+
-

1
1+
1

3/2
be the baby pair of the 1st generation.

F Since it takes one generation to maturity, there

2

is an adult pair for the 2nd generation, which is ready for reproduction.

F So, there are two rabbit pairs, the parent and

baby pairs, of the 3rd generation.

F Next, the adult pair begets a baby pair but the

4

baby pair simply matures, so a family of three. rabbit pairs for the 4th generation, and so on.
(2) Continue the process until you reach the ninth iteration. Complete the table on the next page and
check if the ninth entry is indeed the golden ratio.
16
17
Mathematics in the Modern World

No. of iterations

0
Function value

1
2

513
-
33-1.5
2
=

= 1.66666...
The Nature of Mathematics

15. The golden ratio (shoulder to waist) is the most important ratio for achieving the body proportions
like that of a Greek god. Now, measure your shoulder circumference s and then your waist size w. Then
divide s by w. Is the result roughly the golden ratio? If not, then what must be your ideal waist size to get
the golden ratio?

16. Cut out the golden rectangle of different dimensions and show that a considerable number of cutouts
give out the golden ratio. An example is the figure below:
A
16.2 cm E
B
7
6
5
4

89
9
= 1.61818...
55

14. Dr. Kendra Schmidt, an

assistant professor of biostatistics, uses the golden ratio to study the facial sex appeal. She
conjectures that beauty or sex appeal is related to the proportions of facial features which happen to
follow the golden ratio. Based on this conjecture, check how close your facial proportions are to the
golden ratio. Measure the length and width of your face. Then divide the length by the width. Is the result
roughly the golden ratio? If yes, then you are beautiful by Dr. Schmidt's conjecture.

18
3.8 cm
3.8 cm x
K
10 cm

H
J
1.4 cm
F
C

H
E
6.2 cm
B

(V)

K 2.4 cm L

(IV)

F 2.4 cm I
10 cm
H
G
H
G

FI 6.2 cm
C
F
C

19