ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TRUSS

BRIDGE

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

DR. AKIL AHMED

COURSE : BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
ABHISHEK KUMAR 17BCE062
ABHINAV SINGH 17BCE028
ANKIT YADAV 17BCE031
MAHESH KUMAR 17BCE013
BHARAT SHARMA 17BCE073

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA
NEW DELHI
2020-2021
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to extend our gratitude to DR. AKIL AHMED for having provided us
with able guidance and support in completing the minor project. It was indeed a pleasure to be a
part of esteemed Civil Engineering Department.
We are also grateful to the other professors and Head of the department for their kind co-
operation and spontaneous response. Last but not the least, we express our gratitude toward
family members, teachers and college friends for their kind co-operation and encouragement
which help me in completion of this project.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Certificate

This is to certify that the project entitled “Analysis and design of bridge truss” submitted
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Civil)at Jamia
Millia Islamia (Central University), New Delhi (110025) is a record of Bonafide work
carried out by Abhishek kumar, Ankit yadav, Abhinav singh, Mahesh kumar , and
Bharat sharma under my supervision and guidance.

To the best of my knowledge the matter embodied in this project has not been submitted in
part or full to any other University/institution for the award of any degree.

DR. AKIL AHMED

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CONTENT
Chapter 1: Introduction
● Definition & History
● Bridge Truss
● Component of Bridge

Chapter 2: Design Philosophy and Design Analogy

● Design Philosophy
● Design Analogy

Chapter 3: Loading
● Dead Load
● Live Load
● Class A-A wheel load

Chapter 4: Data Given

Chapter 5: Bridge Configuration

● Geometric Layout

Chapter 6: Manual Calculation

Chapter 7: Data Obtained, Software STAAD PRO v8i

Chapter 8: Comparison of Result of Manual Calculation & STAAD PRO Results

Chapter 9: Design of lacing and batten

Chapter10: Design of pier

Chapter11: Design of abutment

Chapter12: Conclusion

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

PROBLEM INTRODUCTION

In this project we have analysis a bridge truss using class AA loading manually as well as in stad
pro. We preferred used of steel member as compare to concrete section, because steel is easily
recyclable and is environment friendly. The strength per unit weight of steel is higher as compare
to concrete steel is strong in both tension as well as compression. And also, steel can be use in
compression as well as in tension, it is very light as compare to concrete structure and give enough
strength.

STAAD PRO has the capability to calculate the reinforcement needed for any concrete section.
The program contains a number of parameters which are designed as per IS: 456(2000). Beams
are designed for flexure, shear and torsion.

Design for Flexure: Maximum sagging (creating tensile stress at the bottom face of the beam) and
hogging (creating tensile stress at the top face) moments are calculated for all active load cases at
each of the above-mentioned sections. Each of these sections are designed to resist bothof these
critical sagging and hogging moments. Where ever the rectangular section is inadequateas singly
reinforced section, doubly reinforced section is tried.

Design for Shear: Shear reinforcement is calculated to resist both shear forces and torsional
moments. Shear capacity calculation at different sections without the shear reinforcement is based
on the actual tensile reinforcement provided by STAAD program. Two-legged stirrups are
provided to take care of the balance shear forces acting on these sections.

Beam Design Output: The default design output of the beam contains flexural and shear
reinforcement provided along the length of the beam.

Desk slab Design: Desk slab are designed for axial forces and biaxial moments at the ends. All
active load cases are tested to calculate reinforcement. The loading which yields maximum
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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

reinforcement is called the critical load. Desk slab is done for square section. Square columns are
designed with reinforcement distributed on each side equally for the sections under biaxial
moments and with reinforcement distributed equally in two faces for sections under uni-axial
moment. All major criteria for selecting longitudinal and transverse reinforcement as stipulated
by IS: 456 have been taken care of in the Desk slab design of STAAD.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION AND HISTORY

Truss bridges are the bridges with its load-bearing structures composed of a series of wooden or
metal triangles, known as trusses. Given that a triangle cannot be distorted by stress, a truss gives
a stable form capable of supporting considerable external loads over a large span. Trusses are
popular for bridge building because they use a relatively small amount of material for the amount
of weight they can support. They commonly are used in covered bridges, railroad bridges, and
military bridge.

There is no evidence of truss bridges in the ancient world, but the 13th-century sketchbook of the
French architect Villard de Honnecourt depicts a species of truss bridge, and the Italian Andrea
Palladio’s “Treatise on Architecture” (1570) describes four designs. Several notable covered
bridges, which are enclosed truss bridges, were constructed in Switzerland. The Kappel Bridge
(1333) of Luzern has been decorated since 1599 with 112 paintings in the triangular spaces
between the roof and the crossbeams, depicting the history of the town and the lives of its two
patron saints.

In North America the covered truss bridges underwent further evolution. From simple king-post
trusses, in which the roadway was supported by a pair of heavy timber triangles, American
carpenters in the 18th and 19th centuries developed bridges combining simplicity of construction
with their other economic advantages. The first long covered bridge in America, with a 55-metre
(180-foot) Centre span, was built by Timothy Palmer, a Massachusetts millwright, over the
Schuylkill River at Philadelphia in 1806. A New Haven architect named Ithiel Town patented the
Town lattice, in which a number of relatively light pieces, diagonally crisscrossed, took the place
of the heavy timbers of Palmer’s design and of the arch. Another highly successful type was
designed by Theodore Burr, of Torrington, Connecticut, combining a Palladio truss with an arch.
Burr’s McCall’s Ferry Bridge 1815; on the Susquehanna River near Lancaster, Pennsylvania) had
a record-breaking span of 108 meters (360 feet). Numerous Town and Burr designs remained
standing throughout North America into the early 21st century, some dating back to the early 19th
century.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Truss bridges have been used in military operations, particularly where riverbanks are steep or
navigation must be kept open. They are usually made up in panels that can be readily transported
and quickly bolted together. Such military truss bridges were pioneered in World War II by the
highly successful British-invented Bailey bridge, which played an especially important role in the
Allied campaign in Italy.

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Bridge Truss – Mechanics and Types

Individual pieces of a truss bridge intersect at truss joints, or panel points. The connected pieces
forming the top and bottom of the truss are referred to respectively as the top and bottom chords.
The sloping and vertical pieces connecting the chords are collectively referred to as the web of
the truss.

The component parts of a truss bridge are stressed primarily in axial tension or compression. A
single-span truss bridge is like a simply supported beam because it carries vertical loads by
bending. Bending leads to compression, in the top chords (or horizontal members), tension in the
bottom chords, and either tension or compression in the vertical and diagonal members,
depending on their orientation.
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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Types of Truss Structures

Pratt Truss - A Pratt Truss has been used over the past two centuries as an effective truss method.
The vertical members are in compression, whilst the diagonal members are in tension. This
simplifies and produces a more efficient design since the steel in the diagonal members (in
tension) can be reduced. This type of truss is most appropriate for horizontal spans, where the
force is predominantly in the vertical direction.

Warren Truss - The Warren Truss is another very popular truss structure system and is easily
identified by its construction from equilateral triangles. One of the main advantages of a Warren
Truss is its ability to spread the load evenly across a number of different members; this is however
generally for cases when the structure is undergoing a spanned load (a distributed load). Its main
advantage is also the cause of its disadvantage – the truss structure will undergo concentrated
force under a point load. Under these concentrated load scenarios, the structure is not as good at
distributing the load evenly across its members. Therefore, the Warren truss type is more
advantageous for spanned loads, but not suitable where the load is concentrated at a single point
or node

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

K Truss - The K Truss is a slightly more complicated version of the Pratt Truss. Its main
difference is that the vertical members have become shortened – improving its resistance against
buckling. It does, however, have similar pros and cons to the Pratt Truss and although it is not
widely used, it is a strong design. One of its main disadvantages is that the members don’t always
behave as expected. A member may be in compression under one load scenario and in tension
under another.

Howe Truss - Howe trusses are essentially the opposite of Pratt trusses in terms of geometry. In
fact, looking at a Pratt truss upside-down will visualize a Howe truss of sorts. The entire structure
is still relatively the same, but the diagonal braces are now occupying the opposite or the
unoccupied joints. This switch in position of the diagonal members has a very important effect
structurally.

Fink Truss - The Fink truss in its most basic form has web members that follow a V-pattern
which can be repeated several times. As the top chords are sloping downward from the center,
the V pattern becomes noticeably smaller. As Fink trusses rely more on diagonal members, they
can be very efficient at transmitting loads to the support.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Gambrel Truss - In the exterior, a gambrel truss have two different slopes, where the slope gets
steeper from the center. Due to outward-protruding shape, gambrel trusses can be effective to be
fitted with a hollow center, which can be used as a storage area. As such, the upper section of a
barn is usually shaped in a gambrel. In the case of a barn, as the members are usually constructed
with wood, the structure acts more like a frame than a truss. Derivatives of the gambrel include
the Mansard roof, which is also called a French roof, hence its popularity in France.

Component of Bridge

1. Portal strut and bracing

2. Sway Bracing
3. Struts
4. Lateral (wind) Bracing
5. Deck
6. Floor Beams
7. Stringers

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 2
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND DESIGN ANALOGY

Design Philosophy

The nature of a truss allows the analysis of its structure using a few assumptions and the
application of Newton's laws of motion according to the branch of physics known as statics. For
purposes of analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin jointed where the straight components meet,
meaning that taken alone, every joint on the structure is functionally considered to be a flexible
joint as opposed to a rigid joint with strength to maintain its own shape, and the resulting shape
and strength of the structure is only maintained by the interlocking of the components. This
assumption means that members of the truss (chords, verticals and diagonals) will act only in
tension or compression. A more complex analysis is required where rigid joints impose significant
bending loads upon the elements.

Structures are designed according to a standardized code that have properties (or specific criteria) that need
to be met during the design procedure. The limit state of a structure is when the structure goes beyondthe
specified criteria and its ‘break’. Limit state design can therefore be defined as the process of designinga
structure so that it doesn’t break and remains fit for its designed use.

The three most prominent design philosophies are:

1. Working Stress Method (WSM)
2. Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
3. Limit State Method (LSM).

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

The Working Stress Method assumes that all material used in the design behaves in a linear
elastic manner and calculations are based on service conditions. The expected working loads on
the structure are induced as stresses on the structure during the design and these are restricted (to
be below the permissible stresses) to ensure adequate safety. The factor of safety is the ratio of
the strength of the material to the permissible stress. However, as working loads cannot be kept
within the permissible stresses this method is not always viable.
The assumption in the Ultimate Load Method is that the material is not linear-elastic meaning
that different loads can have different safety factors. Calculations are based on ultimate load
conditions and the stress conditions at the site of failure or impending collapse is analyzed. This
results in more slender (therefore more economic!) sections. However, this method can result in
cracks and deflections that are excessive due to the serviceability properties not being met.

In the Limit State Method (Limit State Design), the design of the structure is considered for both
the serviceability and ultimate load state. This is therefore the better design philosophy to employ.
The two different limit states are the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and the Serviceability Limit
State (SLS). These states each have their own minimum level of reliability - which is colloquially
known as the Safety Index.
Ultimate Limit State deals with states just before the structure collapses. This relates to the safety
of people and the safety of the structure (strength, fatigue, bucking, sliding and overturning).
Serviceability Limit State deals with functioning of the structure, acceptability of safety and
appearance of the structure (deflections, crack width, malfunction and loss of durability).
Calculations concerning the effect of an applied load and the strength or resistance of the structure
must fall within the Safety Index. This is done by means Partial Safety Factors.

Conclusion
Design can be seen as the process of creating something that does not currently exist. It is of
utmost importance that engineers understand the intricate steps used in the design process and the
impact that it will have on the final product. Therefore, engineers need to make use of their
knowledge of material properties along with their ability to analyze, predict and assume the future
behavior of their design to meet a previously specified need. The success of the design depends
on the thoroughness of the engineer’s knowledge and a clear understanding of the expected
behavior of the final product.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 3
LOADING
Different types of loading to be considered in the designing of truss bridge. Determining the
potential loads that are anticipated to act on a bridge is related to the bridge location and purpose.
Engineers generally consider three main types of loads: dead loads, live loads and
environmental loads.
Values for these loads are dependent on the use and location of the bridge. Examples: The
columns and beams of a multi-level bridge designed for trains, vehicles and pedestrians should
be able to withstand the combined load all three bridge uses at the same time. The snow load
anticipated for a bridge in Kashmir would be much higher than that one in Mussoorie.

DEAD LOAD
Dead loads include the weight of the bridge itself plus any other permanent object affixed to the
bridge, such as toll booths, highway signs, guardrails, gates or a concrete road surface.
It consists of permanent gravity forces due to structural Elements. It is simply calculated as the
product of volume and material density. Usually, self-weight is applied in the analysis model
using the self-weight option of the analysis software. This simplifies this calculation step.

LIVE LOAD
Live loads are temporary loads that act on a bridge, such as cars, trucks, trains or pedestrians. The
live load on the bridge, is moving load on the bridge throughout its length. The moving loads are
vehicles, Pedestrians etc. but it is difficult to select one vehicle or a group of vehicles to design a
safe bridge. So, IRC recommended some imaginary vehicles as live loads which will give safe
results against the any type of vehicle moving on the bridge.
Class A-A Wheel Load
This loading is to be adopted within certain municipal limits, in certain existing or contemplated
industrial areas, in other specified areas, and along certain specified highways. Bridge designed
for Class AA Loading should be checked for Class A Loading also as under certain conditions,
heavier stresses may occur under Class A Loading.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

IMPACT LOAD
The Impact load on bridge is due to sudden loads which are caused when the vehicle is moving
on the bridge. When the wheel is in movement, the live load will change periodically from one
wheel to another which results the impact load on bridge. To consider impact loads on bridges,
an impact factor is used. Impact factor is a multiplying factor which depends upon many factors
such as weight of vehicle, span of bridge, velocity of vehicle etc.

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

WIND LOAD
Wind load also an important factor in the bridge design. For short span bridges, wind load can be
negligible. But for medium span bridges, wind load should be considered for substructure design.
For long span bridges, wind load is considered in the design of super structure.

LONGITUDNAL FORCES
The longitudinal forces are caused by braking or accelerating of vehicle on the bridge. When the
vehicle stops suddenly or accelerates suddenly it induces longitudinal forces on the bridge
structure especially on the substructure. So, IRC recommends 20% of live load should be
considered as longitudinal force on the bridges.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
If bridge is to be built on horizontal curves, then the movement of vehicle along curves will cause
centrifugal force on to the super structure. Hence, in this case design should be done for
centrifugal forces also.

SEISMIC LOADS
When the bridge is to be built in seismic zone or earthquake zone, earthquake loads must be
considered. They induce both vertical and horizontal forces during earthquake. For seismic loads
analysis the provisions are mentioned in IRC 6 Section II – Loads & Stresses and also in a
separate code IS-1893 Part 3 – Bridges and Retaining Walls.
The provisions mentioned in IRC refers to several combinations of loads as mentioned in the code
Clause 219 in IRC 6.
Clause 219.4 mentions combinations to be used for analysis which is
a) +- r1 +- 0.3r2
b) +- 0.3r1 +- r2
R1 - Force resultant due to full design seismic force along X direction
R2 - Force resultant due to full design seismic force along Z direction
the design moment due to seismic force resultants at any cross-section of a bridge component
resulting from the analysis in the 2 orthogonal horizontal directions shall be as in below figure

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER
21
DATA GIVEN

● EFFECTIVE LENGTH = 20 m
● ROAD WAY = 7.5 m (TWO LANE)
● KERB = 600 mm
● LOADING TYPE = I.R.C. CLASS A-A TRACKED VEHICLE
● MATERIALS USED = Fe 415 HYSD STEEL BARS, M25 CONCRETE

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 5
BRIDGE CONFIGURATION

GEOMETRIC LAYOUT
Designers must consider the ramifications of the overall geometric road design on any
incorporated bridge. Design of the road geometry must not be carried out in isolation
from the bridge design, nor vice versa. Any opinion that road geometry is a ‘civil design’
matter, divorced from the ‘structural design’ involved in the configuration of any
incorporated bridges shall be resisted. The relationship between bridges and associated
roadways, both integral and traversed, should be viewed as symbiotic.
Geometric Design, including those regarding:
● cross section
● stopping sight distances
● horizontal geometry
● vertical geometry
Designers shall ensure that due cognizance is given to geotechnical, environmental and hydraulic
conditions pertaining to any bridge site and ensure that bridge configurations are appropriate to
the situation.

Cross Section: -
Showing the carriageway, Camber, Super elevation, Side Slope, median, footpath, structural
arrangement, type of super structure, substructure and foundation, abutment detail, protection
works, detail of return wall, retaining walls etc.

Width of Roadway: -
The width of a culvert and small bridge (along the direction of flow) should be such that the
distance between the outer faces of the parapets will equal the full designed width of the formation
of the road. Any proposed widening of the road formation in the near future should also be taken
into account in fixing the width of the structure. In case of high banks, the length of culvert should
be judiciously decided to avoid high face walls.
In small bridges, the width (parallel to the flow of the stream) should be sufficient to give a
minimum clear carriageway of4.25 m for a single-lane bridge and 7.5 m for a two-lane bridge
between the inner faces of the kerbs or wheel guards. Extra provision should be made for
footpaths, etc., if any are required.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

SPAN: -
A bridge spanning a major roadway shall provide full clearance and shoulder widths on the road
beneath. Allowance for the longitudinal drainage, services and maintenance operations shall be
considered and provided where necessary. Allowance for future widening of the road beneath
shall be included if this is planned, or likely, in the next 100 years.

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 6
MANUAL CALCULATION
Design a steel truss bridge to suit the following data :
a. Data
Effective span = 20 m
Road way : 7.5 m (two lane )
Kerb : 600 mm
Leading I.R.C class AA tracked vehicle.
Material : M-25 Grade concrete and Fe 415 HYDS bars for deck slab

b. Arrangement of member
For a span of 20 m . It is purposed to provide warren truss with 4 panel of 5m each. Cross girder
are provide at
5m interval joining the nodal point . The stringer are spaced at 1.875m centre . The
configuration of warren truss
and arrangement of cross girder and stringer

4m

4 panel of 5m
500
500

600
600
7500
WC 100 MM

200 mm Deck slab

Stringer beam
1875 1875 1875 1875 1875
Cross section of Deck
c. Loads
Self wait of deck slab = 0.2×24 =4.8 KN/m²
Weight of wearing coat = 0.1×22 = 2.2 KN/ m²
Total dead load = 7 KN/ m²
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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Live load of IRC class AA tracked vehicle with two tracks of 3.6m long and 0.85m wide carrying
load of 350KN. Impact factor is 25% for span less than 9m.

3.6 m Load = 350 KN

0.85m

d. Design of deck slab

Class AA tracked vehicle one wheel placed at centre of panel. Assume load distribution at 45° with
horizontal
W

45° 45°
U = 0.85 + 2(0.1) = 1.05m
V = 3.6 + 2 (0.1) =3.8m

V =3.8m L =
5m

U= 1.05m
B=1.87m

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

L = 5m , B = 1.87m
U/B =1.05/1.875 = 0.56
V/L = 3.8/5 = 0.76
K = B/L = 1.875/5 = 0.375

Reffering to pigeraud ‘s curve with K = 0.4

M₁ = 8.5 ×10¯² , M₂ = 1.8 ₂ ×10¯² Mᵦ = w
(M₁ + M₂ )Assume Poisson’s ratio U = 0.15
Mᵦ = 350 ( 8.5 ×10¯² + 0.15 × 1.8 ₂ ×10¯² )

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

= 30.7 KNm
As the slab is continuous , applying impact and continuity factor
Mᵦ = 1.25 × 0.8 × 30.7 KNm
M₂ = W (M₂ +U M₁ )
= 350 (8.5 ×10¯² + 0.15 × 1.8 ₂ ×10¯² )
= 10.76 KNm
Design , M₂ = 1.25 × 0.8 × 10.76 = 10.76 KNm
(a) Dead load bending moment
Total load on panel = 5 × 1.875 × 7
= 65.62 KN
U/B= 1 , V/ L = 1
K = B/ L = 0.375 ≈ 0.4 , 1/K = 2.5, M₁ = 0.045 , M₂ = 0.004 , Mᵦ = 65.62(0.045 +
0.15 ×0.004)
= 3KNm
Taking continuity into effect
Mᵦ = 3 × 0.8 = 2.4 KNm
M₂ = 65.62 (0.004+ 0.15 ×0.045) = 0.7KNm
Taking continuity into effect
M₂ =0.8 × 0.7 = 0.56 KNm

e. Design of slab section

The total design ultimate load moment are
Short span moment = Muᵦ =1.35 M₁ +1.5
M₂
= 1.35 × +1.5× 30.7
= 49.3 KNm
Long span ultimate moment Mw
= 0.35 ×0.56 + 1.50× 10.76
= 16.9 KNm
Effective deputy slab :
Mor = 0.138 Mubd²

d= √ 49.3×10⁷ /0.138 ×25×10⁴ = 119.6 mm

from practical condensation , adopt effective depth , d = 200 mm and overall depth of 250mm
using 12 mm diameter bars

Mor = 0.87 fy Ast ( d = fy Ast / kb )

= 49.3×10⁶ = 0.87 × 415 (200 Ast - 0.0166 Ast² )
Ast = 726.5 mm ²
For short span , provide 12mm diameter bar at 150 mm centre (Ast provide = 754 mm²)
For long span
Mor =n0.87 fy Ast ( d = fy Ast / kb )
16.9×10⁶ = 0.87 × 415 (200 Ast -0.0166 Ast
²)
Ast = 240 mm ²
Using 10mm diameter bar at 180 mm
Centre to centre (Ast provide = 436.33 mm ² )
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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

f. Design of stringer beam

Dead load due to self weight of slab and wearing coat = 7× 1.875 = 13.125 KN/m
Self weight of stringer (assumed) =1 KN/m
Total dead load on stringer = 14.125 KN/m
Maximum bending moment due to dead load = wl² /8
= 14.125 × 5² /8
= 44.14 KNm
Maximum shear force due to dead load = wl/2
= 14.125 ×5/2
= 35.3 KN
The stringer is subject to maximum bending when one of track is directly on it as shown

3.6 m 350KN

175KN
175 KN
5m

Maximum bending moment location

Maximum bending moment due to live load = 175×2.5 -175 ×0.9
= 280 KNm
Maximum shear force due to live load

3.6m 1.4m

Location of VA =350(5-1.8)/5 VB
=126 KN
Maximum shear force
Maximum shear force due to live load = 350 × 3.2 /5
= 224 KN
Bending moment including impact at 25% = 125 × 280
= 350 KNm
Design bending moment = (350+44.14) = 394.14 KNm
Design shear force = 1.25×224 + 35.3
= 315.3 KN
Section modulus z = M/σb = 395 ×10⁶ /150
= 2.63 × 10⁶ mm⁴

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

VSP ISWB -550

250 mm
IYY = 3740.6 cm⁴

IXX =7490 550 mm

.1
cm⁴

Sectional area = 143.34 cm⁴

Thickness of havge = 17.6mm
Thickness of slab = 10.5mm
Modulus of section Zxx = 2.7239 ×10⁶ mm
₃ Weight per meter = 1.11 KN/m
Zxx > 2.63×10⁶
Shear stress= 315.3 ×10⁶ /10.5×55 ×10⁴
= 54.6 N/mm² < 85N/ mm²
7. Design of cross grinder
a) Bending moment and shear forces
Span of cross grinder = 7.5 +2 (0.6 )
= 8.7m
Impact factor for steel bridges (for span of 9 m) = 40%
Total dead load due to slab and W.C = 7 ×5 =35 KN/m
Dead load due to stringer beams = 1.11×5 = 5.55KN
Add load due to connection = 0.45 KN
Total load = (5.55+ 0.45) KN = 6.00KN
Self weight of cross grinder = 0.22 +1
= 0.2 ×8.7 +1
= 2.8 KN/m
Total uniformly distribution load = 35 +2.8
= 37.8 KN/m
≈ 38 KN/m

6KN 6KN 6 KN 6KN 6KN

38KN/m
A C
B

0.6 m 1.875m 1.87m 1.875m 1.875m 0.6m

VA = 180.3 KN VB =
180.3 KN
DEAD LOAD
The dead load bending moment and shear force act computed as

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

MC =180.3× (1.875 + 1.875 +1.875 ) -6×1.875 ×2 -6×1.875 -38(0.6+ 1.875 +1.875 )/2

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 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

= 391 KNm

VA = 180.3 KN 350 KN 350 KN

2.05 m

8.7 m
350 KN 350 KN
LIVE LOAD
The maximum live load bending moment including impact occurs when two track are spaced
symmetrically from centre
of cross grider .

Mq = 1.4 (350×8.7/2 – 350× 2.05/2 )

= 1630 KNm

The maximum clearance between the road face of kerb and outside edge of track shall be 1.2m
350 KN 350KN
0.6 m
2.05m

0.85m

The maximum live load bending moment including impact occurs when two tracks are spaced
symmetrically from centre of plate girder.

Mq = 1.4( (350×8.7)÷2 - (350×2.05) ÷2)

Mq = 1630KN-m

Maximum shear force including impact factors calculate as

Vq = 1.4( 350(8.7-0.6-1.2-0.85/2) ÷8.7) + 350(6.475-2.05) ÷ 8.7. Vq

= 613.9 KN

Total design bending moment = 391 + 1630

31
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

= 2021 KN-m

Total design shear force = 180.3 + 613.9

= 794.2 KN

b) Trial section of plate girders

Economical depth of plate girder = d d
= ( MK/fy) ^⅓
d = ( (2021×10^6 × 180)÷250 )^⅓
d = 1130 mm.

K = d/tw = 180 for thin web

Web depth based on shear consideration assuming 10mm thick plate and spacing of Stiffness
as equal to depth of web plate as per IRC 24, C = 100 mpa.

d = 794.2 × 10^3 ÷ 1000

d = 794.2 mm

Adopted a web plate of size 1000mm and depth and thickness of 10mm.

Hange width

Approximate area of hange plate is equal to AR

= ( M) ÷ σb×d as per IRC 24 - 2011.

σb = 0.62fy = 0.62×250 = 155N/mm^2.

Af = 2021 × 10^6 ÷ 155×10^3

= 13033 mm^2
Adopted flange width = 500 mm Thickness of
plate required = 13033÷500
= 26 mm

32
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

33
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

(d) Check for maximum Bending Stress

Ixx = (500×1052^3) ÷12 - (490×1000^3) ÷12

= 77.77 × 10^8 mm^4

Iyy = (2×26×500^3)÷12 + (1000×10^3) ÷12

= 5.41 × 10^8 mm^4

A = 2×26×500 + 1000×10
= 36000mm^2

Minimum radius of Gyration = ry

= √(Iyy ÷ A)
= 122.5 mm
fcd = (X + Y) mpa

The value of X and Y which involved the compensation of two parameters. D/T =

1052÷ 26 = 40.5

L/ry = 5000÷122.5 = 40.81

34
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Using the value X and Y can be interpolation from table 8.5 of the IRC 24-2001. X =

1696 and Y = 1600.

fcd = 1696+1600
= 3296N/mm^2

For fy = 250 mpa

35
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Table 8.2 ( IRC 24 - 2001).

fcd = 3000, σcbc = 161N/mm^2. fcd =

3500, σcbc = 162N/mm^2. For fcd

3296, σcbc = 161.6N/mm^2.

σcbc = [MY] ÷ [I]

= (2021×10^6×526 ) ÷ 77.77×10^8
= 137N/mm^2 < 161.6 N/mm^2. { ok }

(e) check for maximum shear stress

Shear stress depends upon the ratio of { d/t } = 100.

Adopting Stiffener spacing = C = 1000mm

From table 8.6 of IRC 24:2001. Tvq(

shear stress) = 100N/mm^2.

Actually average shear stress = V/d×t

= 794.2 × 10^3 ÷ 10^3 × 10

36
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

37
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

38
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

(f) connection between flange and web

Maximum shear force at junction of web and flange

T(shear stress) = VAy÷ I

={ 794.2 × 10^3 × 500 × 26 × 5/3 } ÷ 77.77×10^8

= 683.62 N/mm^2

Refer table 9.4 and read out size of weld required at 6 mm with strength of 793N/mm^2

(g) intermediate sufferers

Since the ratio of ( d/t) = 1000÷10

= 100 > 8.5
Vertical stiffness are required

Adopting the spacing of stiffeners C

= 1000 mm

Greater unsupported panel dimension of web

= 1000 mm < 270 tw < 2700.
Greater unsupported panel dimension of web = 1000 mm < 270 tw < 2700. The
intermediate stiffness are designed to have a Maximum moment of inertia. I = 1.5 d^3
× t^3 ÷ C^2
= 1.5×1000^3×10^3 ÷ (10^3) ^2
= 150×10^4 mm^2

Using 10 mm thick plate, outstanding of stiffness should not be greater than 12t = 120mm.

Adopt a plate 10mm by 80 mm having moment of inertia equal to (10×80^3 ÷ 12 ) +

10×80×(40) ^2.

39
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

= 170.6×10^4 mm^4 > 150×10^4 hence ok

(h) Connection of vertical stiffness to web = 126t^2/h = 157.5 N/mm t
web thickness ( mm) = 10 mm
h = outstanding of stiffness (mm) = 80mm

Size of weld = 1.42 mm

Force ( site welding) = 158 mpa.

Effective length of weld shall not be less than 10 times thickness. = 100 mm

Providing 100 mm long, 5 mm filet weld alternatively an either side.

(H) Design of steel truss

A Warren truss with upanel of 5m each is used

Span of truss = 20m
Height of truss 4m.

Design load

Dead load due to deck slab, wearing out stiffness beam and cross girder acting at each node
= 181KN.

Self weight of truss = 0.15L + 5.5

= 8.5 KN/m

Self weight at end point = 5×8.5

= 42.5 KN

Total dead load = 181+42.5

= 223.5 KN.
Maximum load transfer when one track is 1.625m from edge of kerb.

= 350×(18.7-0.6-1.2-0.425)÷8.7 + 350×(6.475-2.05) ÷8.7

= 438.6 KN

Impact factor = 10 %

Live loading including impact = 1.1×438.6

= 482.5 KN
Average udl = 482.5÷3.6 = 134 KN/m

Force in member of Truss is determined when rolling load of length 3.6 metre shorter than span
rolls on Bridge.

40
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

1. Member LoL1
Using the influence line diagram,
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (0.468+0.3125+0.15625)
= 209.4 kN (Tension)

Force due to live load

For maximum force y1= y2

y1= 0.468 (5- x) / 5 , y2 = 0.3125 + 0.1555 (1.4 + x) / 5
0.468 (5 – x) / 5 = 0.3125 + 0.1555 (1.4 + x) / 5
0.468 – 0.096 x = 0.35604 + 0.0311 x
x = 0.89
y1 = 0.384

Force due to live load

= (0.384 + 0.468) x 3.6 x 134 / 2
= 205.5 kN (tension)

2. Member L1L2
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (0.781 + 0.9375 + 0.468)
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

= 488.7 kN (Tension)

2. Member L1L2
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (0.781 + 0.9375 + 0.468)
= 488.7 kN (Tension)

Force due to live load

For maximum force, y1 = y2

y1 = 0.781 + 0.0313 (5- x)
y2 = 0.468 + 0.0939 (1.4 + x)
x = 2.7, y1 = 0.853
Force due to live load
= (0.853+ 0.6375) x 3.6 x 134 / 2
= 431.86 kN (Tension)

3. Member VoV1
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (- 0.9375 – 0.625 – 0.3125)
= 419 kN (Compression)
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Force due to live load

For maximum force, y1 = y2

y1 = 0.9375 (5 - x) / 5, y2 = 0.625 + (1.4 + x) / 16
x = 0.9, y1 = 0.768
Force due to live load = (0.768 + 0.9375) x 3.6 x 134 / 2
= 411.37 kN (Compression)

4. Member V1Vo
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (- 0.625 – 1.25 – 0.625)
= 558.75 kN (Compression)

Force due to live load

 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Force due to live load,

= (1.025 + 1.25) x 3.6 x 134 / 2
= 548.625 kN (Compression)

5. Member LoVo
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (-0.884 -0.59 – 0.294)
= 395.148 kN (Compression)

Force due to live load

For maximum force, y1 = y2

y1 = 0.884 (5-x) / 5 , y2 = 0.59 + 0.0588 (1.4+x)
x = 0.817 m , y1 = 0.72
Force due to live load
= (0.72 + 0.884) x 3.6 x 134 / 2
= 386.88 kN (Compression)

6. Member VoL1
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (0.884 + 0.59 + 0.294)
= 395.148 kN (Tension)
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Force due to live load = 386.88 kN (Tension)

7. Member L1 V1
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (0.294 + 0.59 + 0.294)
= 263.3 kN (Tension)

Force due to live load

Force due to live load

= (0.482 + 0.59) x 3.6 x 134 / 2
= 258.6 kN (Tension)

8. Member V1 L2
Force due to dead load
= 223.5 (0.59)
= 131.8685 kN (Tension)
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Force due to live load

Force due to live load

Case (i) Maximum compressive force
y1 = 0.294 (5- x) / 5, y2 = 0.294 (x- 1.94) / 1.66
1 – x/5 = x/1.66 – 1.168, x = 2.7
y1 = 0.318
Force due to love load
= (0.135 + 0.294) x 3.6 x 134
= 103.5 kN (Compression)

Case (ii) Maximum tensile force

y3 = 0.59 (3.34- x) / 3.34
y4 = 0.294 + 0.0592 (1.4 + x)
x = 0.9, y3 = 0.43
Force due to live load
= (0.43 + 0.59) x 3.6 x 134 / 2
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

= 246 kN (Tension)

Member Due to LL Due to DL Design

Tension Compression Tension Compression
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN )
Lo L1 205.5 - 209.4 - 415

L1 L2 431.86 - 488.7 - 920.6

Vo V1 - 411.37 - 419 -830.4
V1 V2 - 548.62 - 558.75 -1107.4
Lo Vo - 386.88 - 395.148 -782
Vo L1 386.88 - 395.148 - 782
L1 V1 258.6 - 263.3 - 522
L2 V1 246 103.5 131.86 - 377

11. Design of member

Maximum tensile force, L1 L2 = 920.6 kN
Maximum compressive force, V1 V2 = 1107.4 kN

(a) Member L1 L2

Design force = 920.6 kN

Try a section with 1angle 200 x 200x 20 mm with sectional area = 7500 mm2
Permissible tensile stress of 150 N/ mm2
Safe load on section = 150 x 7500 / 103 kN
= 1126 kN > 920.6 kN

(b) Member V1 V2

Design force = 1107.4 kN

Try a section 2 ISMC 350
Properties of ISMC 350
Area = 5366 mm2
Depth of section = 350 mm
Width of Hange = 100 mm
CYY = 24.4 mm
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

r xx = 136.6 mm, ryy = 28.3 mm

For rxx = ryy

rxx = ryy2 + (S/2 + 75.6)2 (root under)
136.62 = 28.32 + (S/2 + 75.6)2
S= 116 mm, Adopt S= 120 mm

Rmin = 136.6 mm
ƛ = lest / rmin
= 0.85 x 500 / 136.6
= 31.11
As per the table 11.1 of IRC 24- 2001
6 ƛc = 144.33 N/mm2
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

(Table 11.1 of IRC : 24-2001)

Yield stress (fy) MPa

ƛ= L/r 250 340 400

10 150 204 239
20 148 201 235
30 145 194 225
40 139 183 210
50 132 168 190
60 122 152 168
70 112 135 147
80 101 118 127
90 90 103 109
100 80 90 94
110 72 79 82
120 64 69 71
130 57 61 62
140 51 54 55
120 45 48 49
160 41 43 43
170 37 38 39
180 33 34 35
190 30 31 32
200 28 218 28
210 25 26 26
220 23 24 24
230 21 22 22
240 20 20 20
250 18 18 19
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

The load carrying capacity of section

= 144.33 x 10732 / 103
= 1545 kN > 1107.4 kN

Overhead bracing

Lacing
0.6 m Clear roadway 0.6 m
7.5 m

Kerb Kerb

W.C 100 mm

RC Desk Slab
200 mm

18751875 1875
1875

500 mm Plate grides 500 x 1000

 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 7
DATA OBTAINED, SOFTWARE STAAD PRO v8i
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Fx
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Fy

Fz
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 8
COMPARISION OF RESULT OF MANUAL CALCULATION & STAAD
PRO RESULT

Member Manual Staad % error

calculation Proanalysis
VoV1 830.4 kN 839.9 kN 1.2 %
L1V1 522 kN 516.57 kN 1%
LoV2 782 kN 761 kN 2.75 %

Maximum force used in design purpose

= 1107.4 kN
Maximum force used in Staad Pro analysis is = 1131.65 kN
% error = 2.14 %
All error are less than 3 %
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 9
Design of lacing and batten

S+ 2g

Q
l
.

Assume inclination of lacing with longitudinal axis of column is 450.

Assume gauge, g = 50 mm
l sin = s + 2g = 120 + 2 * 50
l = 211 mm

Minimum width of lacing plate = 3 * dia of bolt

Adopt M20 bolt , Property class 4.6
fub = MPa , fyb = 240 MPa
b = 3 * 20 = 60 mm
Adopt single lacing t = l / 40 = 311 / 40
t = 8 mm
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

Check for local buckling

C > 50
( rmin )one > 0.7 ƛwhole
ƛwhole = 1.05 * 31.11 = 32

C = 2l cos = 2 * 311 cos 45 = 440 mm

( rmin )one = r * t = 28.3

C / ( rmin )one = 15 > 50

> 22.4

Hence sole in local buckling

Check for lacing plate

Left = l (single lacing)

Left = 311 mm
Maximum selenderness ratio for lacing plate is 145

311 / t / √12 = S. R = 134.6 > 145

For ƛ = 134.6, Buckling Class C

µ0 = 70.25 MPa

Maximum compressive force that can be safety applied = 70.25 * 60 * 8

= 33.72 kN

Maximum tensile load carrying capacity = Min ( 0.9 fu / ƛm1 Au , fy / ƛ m0 Ag )

= Min ( 0.9 * 410 * (60 – 21) * 8 / 1.25 , 250* 0.479 / 1.1 )

= Min ( 89.74 kN , 109.09 kN )

= 89.74 kN

Force in lacing plate = V / 2 sin

= 2.5 * 1107.4 / 100 * 2 * sin 45

= 19.57 kN > 33.72 kN

> 89.74 kN

Hence safe in tension and compression.

 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS
The design shear force for design of connection

F = v cot
= 2.5 * 1107.4 / 100
= 27.685 kN
In this case bolt will be in single shear and bolt value shall be govern by shearing capacity. Hence for 20
mm bolt with property class 4.6 bolt value is 45.27 kN
No. of bolt required = 27.68 / 45.27
=1
Y
End pattern
120

X X

Cyy =23.4 Cyy =23.4

Y

S + 2 Cyy = 120 + 2 * 23.4

= 166.8 mm
de < 2b < 2 * 100
< ∞ < 166.8
de = 200
De = de + 2e = 200 + 3.4 * 22
= 275
Adopt overall depth of end pattern = 280 mm
And thickness = l / 50 = 311 / 50 = 6.22
Adopt thickness = 8 mm
 CHAPTER 10
Design of pier
DESIGN OF PEIR :-
Total dead load for each span = 223.5 × 4 = 894 KN
Braking Force = 140 KN
Wind Pressure on Pier = 2.4 KN/m²
Use M20 Grade of Concrete
Density of concrete =24 KN/m²
The Stress develop at the base of Pier due to following cases:-

1. DL and self weight of the Pier

DL from Super-structure = 894 KN
Self weight of Pier = Yc × Volume of Pier
= 24× 212.5
= 5100 KN
Total Load of Pier = 894 + 5100
= 5994 KN
Compressive Stress @ base = P/A
= 5994/8.5×3
= 235 KN/m²
2. Effect due to buoyancy
Summerged Volume of Pier =191.25
Reduction in weight of Pier due to Buoyancy = 9.81×191.25
=1876.1 KN
Tensile stress @ base = 1876.1/8.5×3
= 73.5
3. Due to eccentricity of LL

Moment @ base = 350×1.025

= 358.75 KN-m

Section Modulus = bd²/6

= 8.5×3²/6

= 12.75 m³

Stress at base of Pier = P/A +/- M/Z

= 27.5+/- 28.13

= 55.63 KN/m² (Compressive)

= -0.63 KN/m² ( Tensile )

4. Due to longitudinal Braking Force

Moment at Base = 140 × 10

= 1400 KN-m

Stress at Base = +/- M/Z

= +/- 1400/12.75
 = 109.8 KN/m²

5. Due to Wind Pressure

Total Wind Pressure on Pier = Area × Intensity of wind
= 25 × 2.4
= 60 KN

Assuming Wind Intensity acting at mid of Pier = 2.4

M = 60 ×5 = 300 KN-m

Z = 3×8.5²/6

= 36.125 m³

Stress at Base= 300/ 36.125

= 8.3 KN/m²

Final Stress on Pier = 235-73 + 55.63 + 109.8 + 8.3

= 335.3 KN/m² ( Compressive)

Maximum Tensile stress on Pier = -235 + 73.5 + 0.63 + 109.8 + 83

= -42.77 KN/ m²

It means that there is only is compressive stress developed only.

Maximum Permissible stress in M20 concrete = 7000

which is greater than 335.3KN/m² (OK).

 CHAPTER 11
Design of abutment

Design of Abutment
Material of abutment is concrete and density of soil is 18 KN/m3
Coefficient of friction is 0.6 and angle of repose of soil Ø = 300
Live load on bridge as per IRC of class AA that is called tracked
loadingand taking span of bridge is 20m.

Self-weight of Abutment = ( 2.4 × 5 + 2 × 5 +1.6 × 4 + )×24×1

0.8×4

2 2

= 576 KN

1.) Reaction at support from Staad pro analysis = 348.8 KN

2.) Total vertical load coming on abutment w = 576 + 348.8 = 942.8

KN

3.) Earth pressure

1−sin(Ø) 1
4.) Ka = = where Ø is equal to 300
1+sin(Ø) 3
 × × × 2
Horizontal force due to earth pressure
=
1 × 18 × 5 × 5
=
2×3

= 75 KN
Check for overturning
H
The earth pressure is assume to act at height of
3

hence the moment due to earth pressure = 75 × 5/3 = 125KN.

W1 = 2.4×5×24 ÷ 2 = 144KN.
W2 = 2×5×24 = 240KN.
W3 = 153.6 KN
W4 = 38.4KN
X1 = 4.4 + 2.4÷3 = 5.2m
X2 = 2.4 + 2/2 = 3.4m
X3 = 1.6m
X4 = 0.8×2/3 = 0.533m.

Moment due to self-weight = w1 × x1 + w2 × x2

+ w 3 × x3 + w 4 × x4
= 1856 KN-m

FOS against overturning = 1856/125 = 14.

Check for sliding

4∑ 0.6×924.8
FOS = ∑ = = 7.39
75

Abutment is safe against sliding

Base pressure

x = distance of resultant from toe

∑ −∑ 0
=
∑
1856−125
=
924

= 2.19m

e = b/2 – x

e = 6.8/2 – 2.19 = 1.2

e < b/6 hence there is no tension developed at base.

∑ 6
Base pressure = (1 ± )

Pmax = 272KN/m2
Pmin = 0
2
The soil should have bearing capacity greater than 272KN/m .

Written by Mahesh Kumar

 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS

CHAPTER 12

CONCLUSION
This project discussed the analysis and design of steel truss bridge, the bridge is 20m long and
7.5m width with two lanes and 4m high. In this project design the steel truss bridges for Class
A-A loading by using the equations to design and analysis and solving. So that this project takes
a long time for solving the equation of design. But to save time by using a computer software
programs to design and analysis process of these types of bridges and these programstakes the
inputs of bridge design and carried out the calculations easily and quickly so that we saved time
and ensure that the design was correct. All of the design joint nearly about the minimum limit
according the specification, Straight members were used in the beginning and the end connected
by welding point formed triangles, and this member affected by compressionor tensile force,
about the moment the same mean of torque is excluded in the trusses, Moreover, by assuming
all the joint in the trusses is pin. This project deals with two design criteria (a. by Manual
calculation, b. by staad pro program) in staad pro two design were usedfirst by checking the
adequate of the section chosen and second, by least weight design. Therewas a difference
between all design criteria which depend of the area of the section that gives differently another
section.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGE TRUSS