1

Elements of Vibration

1.1
( iibration is the motion of a particle or a body or a system of concentrated bodies having been
displaced from a position of equilibrium, appearing as an oscillation. Vibrations in structural
systems may result from a wide variety of sources. Some typical examples of the forces that set
off dynamic waves on the structure are environmental sources such as wind, earthquakes and
waterways)Out of these environmental sources, earthquakes are the most important in terms of
their enot'fuous potential for damage to structures and loss of life. Every year approximately ten
thousand people die on an average worldwide due to earthquakes. In addition to this staggering
loss of life, earthquakes are responsible for billions of rupees of property damage annually.
Therefore the interest in the study of structural dynamics has been increasing steadily over the
years.
Vibration is the study of repetitive motion of objects relative to a stationary frame of
reference or equilibrium position. The system tends to return to its original equilibrium position
under the action of restoring forces (like mass attached to a spring or gravitational forces).
Generally, vibrations are undesirable for structures because they produce increased stresses and
energy losses. Hence vibrations can be harmful and should be avoided. They can occur in many
directions and can be the result of interaction of many objects.
The motion of vibrating system is governed by the laws of mechanics, and in particular by
Newton's second law of motion (F = ma).

1.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION

GJ1 bodies having mass and elasticity are capable to vibrate. The mass is inherent in the body
and elasticity causes relative motion among its parts. When body particles are displaced by the
1
 2 Basics of Structural Dyrlamic.s and Aseismic Design

application of external force, the internal forces in the fonn of elastic energy present in the body,
try to bring it to its original position. At equilibrium position, the whole of the elastic energy
is converted into kinetic energy and the body continuous to move in the opposite direction
because of it. The whole of the kinetic energy is again converted into elastic or strain energy
due to which the body returns to the equilibrium position. In this way, vibratory motion is
repeated continuously and interchange of energy takes place. Thus, any motion which repeats
itself after an interval of time is called vibration or oscillation)

DYNAMIC LOADING
~ cs is concern~ i t _f! study o(_forces....and motions, which are time dependent.
y amic is simply def'!!l~ as time-varyJ!!g. A dynamic load is any load whose magmtude,
direction and position v with respect to time. Hence, the structural response to a dynamic load
is also time-varying. ctural response to a dynamic loading is expressed in terms of
dis~acements of the structure.)
When a structure is subjected to dynamic load, it starts vibrating. During vibration, the
struc ure develops significant number of inertia forces and also significant amount of mechanical
energy is stored as kinetic energy.)
Analysis of structural response to a dynamic loading can be done by the following two
different approaches:
(i) Deterministic Analysis
(ii) Non-Detenninistic Analysis
(i) Deterministic Analysis: In this method, the structural response i.e. displacement,
acceleration, velocity, stress, etc., are completely known precisely as a function of time. Hence,
this method requires perfect control over all the variables that influence the properties and

---
loadings. This method is also called prescribed dynamic loading.
(ii) Non-Deterministic Analysis: In this method; the time variation of vibration is not
completely known. It provides only statistical infonnation about the response from the
statistically defined loading. This method is also known as ~ dom loading 0

/ 3.1 Types of Prescribed or Deterministic Loading

The prescribed or detenninistic loadings are classified into two categories, 'Periodic' and
'Aperiodic or Non-Periodic'.
Periodic loading: In which, ~ els which exhibit the same time-variation successively for
a large number of cycles. The simplestfumiof ~ dmg isasfousoidafvarfailonwruch
~ h annonic'. By means of Fourier series, any periodic loading can i,;
represented as the sum of a series of simple harmonic components. Hence the analysis of
response to any periodic loading follows the same general procedure. Figure 1.1 shows the
examples for periodic loading.
 Elements of Vibration 3

r=1 Rotating
machinery in
building ,

Propeller forces at
stem of ship

Figure 1.1 Examples for periodic loading.

Non-Periodic loading or Aperiodic loading: In which, the loading does not exhibit the same
time variation successively, i.e. it may be either short-duration or long duration impulsive
loadings. A blast or explosion is a typical source of impulsive load: for such short-duration,
special simplified forms of analysis may be employed, i.e. Duhamel's integral may be used. On
the otherhand, a general, long-duration loading might result from an earthquake and can be
treated only by complete general dynamic-analysis procedures. Figure 1.2 shows the examples
for Non-Periodic loading.

WJ} Bomb blast

loading
D

Earthquake
load on
water tank

Loading
history

Figure 1.2 Example for non-periodic loading.

~MPARISON OF STATIC LOADING ANO DYNAMIC LOADING

A structural dynamic problem differs from its static loading by the following aspects:
(i) In a static problem, load is constant with respect to time as shown in
Figure J .3(a). On the otherhand, the dynamic problem is the time-varying in nature.
Because both loading and its responses varies with respect to time as shown in
Figure l.3(b).
4 Basics of Structural Dynamics and Aseismic Design

r P(~

Ji.

(a)
.A,

+ (b)
Figur_e 1.3 Basic difference between static and dynamic loads: (a) Static Loading, and (b) Dynamic Loading.

(ii) Static problem has only one response, i.e. displacement. But the dynamic problem has
mainly three responses, such as displacement, velocity and acceleration.
(iii) Static problem has only one solution whereas a dynamic problem has an infinite
number of solutions which are time dependent in nature. Thus dynamic analysis is
more complex and time-consuming than static analysis.
(iv) In static problem, the response can be calculated by the principles of force or static
equilibrium whereas in case of dynamic problem the responses depend not only upon
the load but also upon inertial forces which oppose the accelerations producing them.
Thus the total responses are calculated by including inertia forces along with the static
equilibrium. Hence, inertial forces are the most important distinguishing
characteristics of a structural dynamic problem.

/5 CAUSES OF DYNAMIC
Various natural and manmade sources may influence the dynamic effect in structure. The most
common types of causes are
(a) Initial conditions
(b) Applied forces
(c) Support motions

(a) Initial conditions: Initial conditions such as velocity and displacement produce dynamic
effect in the system.
Example: Consider a lift moving up or down with an initial velocity. When the lift is suddenly
stopped, the cabin begins to vibrate up and down since it possesses initial velocity.
(b) Applied forces: Sometimes vibration in the system is produced due to the application of
external forces.
Example:
(i) A building subjected to a bomb blast or wind forces
(ii) Machine foundation
(c) Support motions: @,tru~ture~ ften subjected to vibration due to the influence of
sip~ !J!Otions) .
Example: ~quake motion
 \ . --:, \ ), <

Elements of Vibration 5

~ 6 BASIC

~ass: Dynamically, it is the property that describes how an unrestricted body resists the
application of an external force. Mass is obtained by dividing the weight of body by the
acceleration of gravity. Unit of massis given in kilograms (kgs).
--stiffness: It is defined as the force required to produce unit deformation. It is an elastic
property that describes the level of resisting force that results when a body undergoes a change
in length. The unit for stiffness is Nim.
vNatural period (T): It is defined as the time required to complete one cycle of free vibra!!Q_n.
It is expressed in seconds. /
:::J<- \Jihllural frequency: Generally frequency is the number of cycles per unit time. w~ '
external force acts on the system after gl'!ing it an initial dis{!lacem1mt, the body vibrates. These
vffiral!ons are called free vibrations and their frequency is called natural freguen':}', It is
expressed iii rad/s or hertz. --·
I---Al'nplitude: '1!1e maximum displacement p r d~formation of a vibrating system from its mean
pos!!i~ is called as amplitude. -
vibration: The vibration which persists in a structure after the force causing the motion
~ has been removed is known as free vibration. No external forces act on them. It takes place
when a system oscillates under the action of forces inherent in the system itself.
Example: Oscillation of a simple pendulum.
~reed vibration: Th_~_Yi!miti@,whic;h is ip.aintained,in a structure by steady periodic force
acting on the structure is known...as. forced vibration. When the excitation is oscillatory, the
system is forced to vibrate at the excitation frequency. Forced vibration may be either
deterministic or random. The behaviour of a system under forced vibration depends on the type
Of excitation. I.:;. Y (_ ~ l r"'-
: -., I ),,i}J
Fundamental mode of vibration: The fundamental mode of vibration of a sthicture is the
mode having the lowest natural frequency.
cJ>afuping: Damping is the resistance to the motion of a vibrating body. The vibrations
ass~ i~te~ wilh this resistance are ~own as damped vibrations. !! is n~me,¥.on_in which
i e vtbral!onal_~ gy_of _the ~ystel1!.E..gradually reduced or~ am~ d eLo vtbrl!_, on is slowly _,-:-,
. ru

decreased. ~ mt of dampmg 1s N!mls. \ - \ -- -

Resonance: When the frequency of external force is equal to or matches with one of the
natural frequencies of the vibrating system, the ampljtude of vibration becomes excessively
large. This phendmenon is called resonance. The failure of major struc ture-ssucnas6ndges and
buildings is an awesome possibility under resonance.

1.7 TYPES OF
The following are the different types of vibrations in a structural dynamic problem.
 6 Basics of Stn.tctura/ Dynamics and Aseismic Design

,v(iJFree and Forced vibration: The vibration which persists in a structure after the force
· causing the motion has be~Q re~ ¥ free vibra_tion. .
The vibration which is maintained in a structure by steady periodic force actmg on the
structure is known as forced vibration-:- - - - · -
. . -
~ i~ear and Non-linear vibration: ~_!lie basic components of a vibr_atiE_g _syst~ , namely
the spnng,...th~ mass and the damper behave in a linear manner, the result.mg v1brat10Qs caused
are kn~~ as linear~ ibrations-:-rhese are g o~ med bylinear differential equations. They should
obey the law of superposition.
On the otherhand, if any of the basic components of a vibratory.2ystem behave in a n~n-
linear manner, the resulting__yibration is called non-linear vibration. In this case, the governing
differential equahn is also non-linear. It does not follow the law of superposition.
,.,JiiiJDamped am, Undamped vibrations: When a damper or_dame!!l_g element is attached to
the vibratory system, the motion of the system will be .2.PPlJSed by it and the energ)'._J).f..the
system will be- disajp~ ed in fric~ n. This !YPe of vibration~ d~ ped_ vibra_Y.on.
On· the otherhand, the vibration generated by the system having no damping element is
known as un~amped vi~!.ation. - - --- - -· - ---

(iv) Deterministic and Random vibrations: If the amount of e11citatiov (force or motion)
acting on a vibratory system is completely known precisely, the resulting vibrations are called
as deterministic vibratjons:-Contrary to it, when the amount of ex'citatio~ is not completely
known, the resulting vibrations are known as non-deterministic vibrations or random vibrations.
Random vibration analysis is used to anaE,se. the earthquake excitation of buildings and
structures. (

(v) Longitudinal, Transverse and Torsional vibration: When the particles of the body or
shaft move perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, the vibrations created are known as transverse
vibrations as shown in Figure l.4(a).
If the mass of the vibratory system moves up and down parallel to the axis of the shaft, the
vibrations created known as longitudinal vibrations as shown in Figure l.4(b).
If the shaft gets alternately twisted and untwisted on account of vibratory motion of the
suspended disc, such vibrations are called torsional vibrations as shown in Figure 1.4(c).

(~ Ti -1--
..........
motion
w
r_::!_-_:J motion .
motion

Figure 1.4 Example for (a) Transverse, (b) Longitudinal, and (c) Torsional vibrations.

In ideal systems, the free vibrations continue indefinitely as thtere is no damping. The
amplitude of vibration decays contmuously because of damping (in a real system) and vanishes
ultimately. Such vibration in a real system is called transient vibration.
 Elements of Vibration 7
/lf.8 .RESPONSE OF THE SYSTEM

In general, when any structure is subjected to an externally applied force, definit~ it will
respond to that~ If the dynamic loac!Tsapji[iecfto the structure, it roducesdisplacement
velocity, acc~lerauon an also eve ops s resses, strams, reaction, ~- Hence, t e respons~
~ system md1cates any of the above effects produced by the dynamic load. More commonly,
however, tl:e__?ynamic__i:~se denotes the displacement time histol}'._ of the structure.
The motion due to initial condition is generally known as free response. When the motion
is due to applied forces, it is known as forced response.
Response is defined as the magnitude and distribution· of the resulting forces and
displacements in a system due to vibration.

1.9 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

It is important to study the concept of 'degrees of freedom ' . The number of degrees of freedom
that a vibrating system has will greatly affect how it vibrates. In every structure, mass is
continuously distributed throughout in a complex manner. It is necessary to define the position
of every mass point during vibration.
(1 simp~ grees of freedom is the~ ber _of ~ rdinates necessary to
spec""ify the position or geometry· ofn iass point at any instant during its vibrati9n. All real
structures _po!i.5ess infinite number .QU!ynamlc _QEg~<;_s of fr~dom. Hence, infinite number of
coordinates are necessary to specify the position of the stru',!ure compJetely at any instant of
tim~. &~h degree of freedom is having-corresponding natural frequency. Therefore;-astruciure
possesses as many natural frequencies as it has the degrees of freedom. For each natural
frequency, the structure has its own way of vibration. The vibrating shape is known as
characteristic shape or mode of vibratio~ ·
Consider a rigid block as shown in Figure 1.5 that is free to move in 3-dimensional space,
which may move without rotation in each of the three directions X, Y and Z. These are called
the three degrees of translation.
The block may also rotate about its own axes, these are called the three degrees of rotation.
z

X y

Figure 1.5 Rigid block.

8 Basics of Structural Dynamics and Aseismic Design

Thus to uniquely define the position of the block in space, we need to define six coordinates,
tha~ three for translation and three for rotation.
lJ)epending on the independent coordinates required to describe the motion, the vibratory
system is divided into the following categories.
(a) Single Degree of Freedom system ·(SDOF system)
(b) Multiple Degrees of Freedom system (MDOF system)
(c) Continuous syste§:}

lli
a single coordinate is sufficient to ~ me the J?OSition or geometry of the mass of the
a
system at any instant of time, it is known as single or one degree of freedom system.
Example for the SDOF system are given in Figure I~

.(a) Slider-crank (b) Spring-mass

spring mechanism

(c) Torsional system (d) Building frame/

Figure 1.6 Example for SDOF system.

{Jf more than one independent coordinate is required to completely specify the position or
geometry of different masses of the system at any instant of time, it is called multiple degrees
of freedom system. Examples for MDOF system are given in Figure 1~

f-+
1
1

'
k,
m1

(a)
m2
'
(c)
&"\
t
Figure 1.7 Examples for MDOF system.