Surveying and Geomatics

SURVEYING AND
GEOMATICS
Module 2
Module 2
• Area and Volume: computation of area by offsets to
base line, by dividing area into number of triangles;
volume of level section by prismoidal and trapezoidal
formulae.
• Mass diagram: Construction, Characteristics and uses
• Theodolite survey: Instruments, Measurement of
horizontal and vertical angle, principles of stadia and
tangential tacheometry (introduction only)
• Triangulation: Triangulation figures, Triangulation
stations, Inter visibility of stations, Satellite Stations
and reduction to centre.
Computation of Area
 By computations based directly on field measurements:
a.By dividing area into number of triangles
b.By offsets to base line
c.By latitudes and departures:
i. By double meridian distance (D.M.D method)
ii.By double parallel distance (D.P.D method)
By computation based on measurements scaled from a map.
By mechanical method: Usually by means of a planimeter.

Computation by sub-division into
triangles
• In this method, the area is divided
into a number of triangles, and the
area of each triangle is calculated. The
total area of the tract will then be
equal to the sum of areas of individual
triangles.
• If two sides and one included angle of

a triangle is measured, the area of the
triangle is given by
• If length of 3 sides are measured,

By Offsets to a Base Line: Offsets at
Regular Intervals
 Mid-Ordinate rule
 Average ordinate rule
 Trapezoidal rule
 Simpson’s one-third rule

MID-ORDINATE RULE
Assumption: The boundaries between the extremities of the
ordinates (or offsets) are straight lines
• The offsets are measured from the boundary to the base line or a
survey line at regular intervals.
• The base line is divided into a number of divisions and the

ordinates are measured at the midpoints of each division
MID-ORDINATE RULE
The area is calculated by the formula:-

Area=∆=Average ordinate * length of base
=(O₁+O₂+O₃+……+On)L/n = (O₁+O₂+O₃ +…..+On)d
=d ∑ O
Where, O₁, O₂…=The ordinates at the mid points of each division
∑ O=Sum of the mid ordinate ;
n= Number of divisions ;
L=Length of base line=nd
d= Distance of each division
Average Ordinate Rule
Assumption: This rule also assumes that the boundaries between the
extremities of the ordinates are straight line.
The offset are measured to each of the points of the divisions of the
base line.
Average Ordinate Rule
Area is given by ∆=Average ordinate * Length of the base

=(O +O +O +O +……+On)L/(n+1) =(L/(n+1)) ∑ O
Where, O = Ordinate at one end of the base.
On=Ordinate at the other end of the base divided into n equal
divisions.
O ,O …=Ordinate at the end of each division
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
• This rule is based on the assumption that the figures are trapezoids.
• The rule is more accurate than the previous two rules which are
approximate versions of the trapezoidal rule.
The area of the first trapezoid is given by, ∆1 =(O0+ O1)/2 * d
Area of the second trapezoid is given by ∆₂ =(O + O )/2 * d
Area of the last trapezoid (nth) is given by, ∆n= (On-1 + On)/2 *d
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
Hence the total area of the figure is given by,
∆= ∆₁ + ∆₂ +…..+ ∆n
= (O +O )*d/2 + (O + O )*d/2 +…..+ (On-1 + On)*d/2
= [(O +On )/2 + O + O +….+ On-1 ]* d

The above equation gives the trapezoidal rule which may be expressed
as below:
• Add the average of the end offsets to the sum of the intermediate
offsets.
• Multiply the total sum thus obtained by the common distance

between the ordinates to get the required area.
Simpson’s One – Third Rule
• Assumption: Short lengths of boundary b/w the ordinates
are parabolic arcs
• Useful when boundary line departs considerably from the

straight line
Area of trapezoid ABCD= [(O0+O2)/2]*2d
Area of segment DFC = 2/3 {[O1-(O0+O2)/2]*2d}
Area ∆₁,2= d/3(O0+4O1+O2)
///ly ∆3,4= d/3(O2+4O3+O4) and so on.
Adding all to get total area

Δ= d/3[(Oo + On)+4 (O1+O3+….+On-1) +2(O2+O4…..+On-2)
• Applicable when no of divisions of the area is even (i.e.

odd no. of ordinates)
• Thus, the area is equal to the sum of the two end ordinates
plus four times the sum of the even intermediate ordinates
+twice the sum of odd intermediate ordinates, the whole
multiplied by one third the common interval between them.
Q1)The following perpendicular offsets were taken
at 10 m intervals from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line:
3.25, 5.60, 4.20, 6.65, 8.75, 6.20, 3.25, 4.20, 5.65
Calculate the area enclosed between the survey
line, the irregular boundary line and the first and
last offsets, by the application of
(a) Average ordinate rule,
(b) Trapezoidal rule and
(c) Simpson’s rule.
(a) By average ordinate rule
Δ= ΣO/(n+1) . L
n = no. of divisions = 8; n+1 =8+1 = 9
L = length of base = 10* 8 =80m
ΣO = 3.25+5.60+6.65+8.75+6.20+3.25+4.20+5.65=
47.75m
Δ= (47.75/9)* 80= 424.44 sq.m.
(b) By trapezoidal rule
Δ=[(Oo + On)/2 + O1 + O2+……+On-1 ]*d
d= 10 m; (Oo + On)/2 =(3.25+5.65)/2 =4.45m
O1+O2…+On-1= 38.85m
Δ= (4.45+ 38.85)*10 =433 sq. m
(c) By Simpson’s rule
Δ= d/3[(Oo + On)+4 (O1+O2+….+On-1) +2(O2+O4…..+On-2)
d= 10m ;
Oo + On = 3.25 +5.65 =8.9 m
4 (O1+O2+….+On-1) =4*(5.60 +6.65+ 6.20+4.20) = 90.60 m

2(O2+O4…..+ On-2) = 2*(4.20+8.75+3.25) = 32.40m
Δ = 10/3(8.9 +90.60+32.40) =439.67sq.m

Q2)A Series of offsets were taken from a
chain line to a curved boundary line at
intervals of 15 m in the following order.
0, 2.65, 3.80, 3.75,4.65, 3.60, 4.95, 5.85 m
Compute the area between the chain line ,
the curved boundary and the offsets by
(a)average ordinate rule,
(b) trapezoidal rule
(c)Simpson’s rule.
(a) By average ordinate rule
Δ={ΣO/(n+1)} L
Δ= (29.25/8)* 105 =383.91 sq.m
(b) By trapezoidal rule
Δ= [(Oo + On)/2 + O1 + O2+……+On-1 ]*d
Δ =(2.925+23.40)*15 =394.87sq.m
(c) Δ= d/3[(Oo + On)+4 (O1+O2+….+On-1)
+2(O2+O4…..+On-2)] 0
2.65
3.80
Requires odd no. of ordinates, so take even and leave 3.75
one to calculate separately 4.65
3.60
d/3 =15/3 =5m 4.95
5.85
Oo + On =0+ 4.95= 4.95 m
4 (O1+O2+….+On-1) =4*(2.65+3.75+3.6) = 40m
2(O2+O4…..+ On-2) = 2*(3.8+ 4.65) =16.90m
Δ = 5(4.95+40+16.90)= 309.25 sq.m
Area of the last trapezoid = (4.95+5.85)*(15/2)=81 sq.m

Total area =309.25 +81 =390.25 sq.m
Comparison of Rules
• Simpson’s rule more accurate
• Results from Simpson’s rule is greater or
smaller than trapezoidal rule depending upon
the curvature of boundary
• Degree of precision of methods can be
increased by increasing number of ordinates

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SURVEYING AND

a.By dividing area into number of triangles

b.By offsets to base line

c.By latitudes and departures:

i. By double meridian distance (D.M.D method)

ii.By double parallel distance (D.P.D method)

By computation based on measurements scaled from a map.

By mechanical method: Usually by means of a planimeter.

• If two sides and one included angle of

• If length of 3 sides are measured,

 Average ordinate rule

 Simpson’s one-third rule

• The base line is divided into a number of divisions and the

The area is calculated by the formula:-

Area is given by ∆=Average ordinate * Length of the base

The area of the first trapezoid is given by, ∆1 =(O0+ O1)/2 * d

Area of the second trapezoid is given by ∆₂ =(O + O )/2 * d

= [(O +On )/2 + O + O +….+ On-1 ]* d

• Multiply the total sum thus obtained by the common distance

• Useful when boundary line departs considerably from the

Adding all to get total area

• Applicable when no of divisions of the area is even (i.e.

4 (O1+O2+….+On-1) =4*(5.60 +6.65+ 6.20+4.20) = 90.60 m

Δ = 10/3(8.9 +90.60+32.40) =439.67sq.m

Area of the last trapezoid = (4.95+5.85)*(15/2)=81 sq.m

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