CE023 LABORATORY MANUAL 2nd Revision

CIVIL
ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
FLUID
Mechanics
LAB MANUAL
EDITED BY: ENGR.

ANCHETA (2017)
1
FLUID
Mechanics
LAB MANUAL
EDITED BY: ENGR.

ANCHETA (2017)
2
Preface
The course Fluid Mechanics offered by Civil Engineering programs usually incorporates laboratory unit. For
that reason, this manual is prepared to serve not only as a guide book for experiment tasks, but also a useful
tool to reinforced concepts being taught during lecture classes. Majority of the given activities attempts to
justify the validity of certain law/principle/theory.
The equipments required in this manual are common except for Activity 3, 7, and 8 which uses specially
designed equipments which are not readily accessible for some colleges and universities. In such a case,
the authors suggest the adoption of the remaining activities.
We hope that this manual will not only be a time-saving tool for Instructors but a medium to motivate and
inform students as they seek understanding/justification of different principles/laws/theories incorporated in
the study of Fluid Mechanics.
Finally suggestions, and feedbacks will be warmly welcomed by the authors to further improve this tool.
ENGR. ANCHETA
2017
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................... 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................ 3
ACTIVITY 1: SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION..................................................................................................... 4
ACTIVITY 2: MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE USING MANOMETER.......................................................................... 12
ACTIVITY 3: CENTER OF PRESSURE OF A SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACE ................................................................ 20
ACTIVITY 4: FLUID VISCOSITY DETERMINATION .................................................................................................... 29
ACTIVITY 5: DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY USING HYDROMETER .......................................................... 37
ACTIVITY 6: DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF A FLUID USING ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE ....................................... 45
ACTIVITY 7: FORCE AND FORCED VORTEX APPARATUS ......................................................................................... 53
ACTIVITY 8: BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE DEMONSTRATOR ......................................................................................... 62

4
Activity 1: Specific Gravity Determination
1.1. Student Outcomes (SOs) Addressed by the Activity

SO d, Design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze, and interpret data, and synthesize
information to provide valid conclusions for investigating complex problems.
SO i, Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader in diverse teams and in
multidisciplinary setting.
1.2 Activity’s Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):

At the end of this activity the students shall be able to:
a) Explain the concept of specific gravity as one of the fundamental properties of fluid.
b) Demonstrate the needed techniques in determination of heights of different fluids inside the U-
tube manometer.
c) Calculate the specific gravity of fluids using the principle given.
1.3 Objective/s of the Activity

The activity aims to demonstrate the validity of determining the specific gravity of a fluid using a U–tube
manometer. Furthermore, it aims to illustrate the effect of specific gravity on pressure variation on a multiple
column of fluids.
1.4 Principle of the Activity
Specific gravity of a fluid is the dimensionless ratio of the specific weight gfluid or density p of a fluid
to the specific weight gwater or density ρwater of the standard substance,
𝛾𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆= = (eq. 1.1)
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ( 4ºC) 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (4ºC)
𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑆= = (eq. 1.2)
𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 (0ºC) 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 (0ºC)
For liquids and solids, the standard substance is pure water at 4ºC at which temperature, its specific
weight, gwater = 9.81 KN/m3 and density ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 are at their maximum values. With these
constants, equation 1.1 may be used to compute the specific weight and density of a fluid given its specific
gravity S. For gases, the standard substance is either hydrogen or air at 0ºC and under a pressure of 101.3
KPa. Air at this temperature and pressure has gair = 12.7 N/m3 and ρair = 1.29 kg/m3.
The specific gravity should not be confused with the density since these are two different properties
of a substance, the first one being dimensionless and the second having the dimensions kg/m 3 or gm/cm3.
In the SI units, however, these two are numerically equal if the density is expressed in gm/cm3. For example,
water has specific gravity of unity and a density of 1 gm/cm 3.
Since specific gravity of fluids vary with temperature, ρ water can be computed using:
5
(𝑇−4)2
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 − (eq. 1.3)
180
Where T is in ºC, and the resulting unit of the density is kg/m3.
1.5 Resources/Instruments Required:

• U – tube manometer • Graduated Cylinder
• Scale / Ruler • Beaker
• Liquids whose specific gravity are to be • Thermometer
determined (water, soy sauce, oil, • Weighing Scale
vinegar, and diesel)
• Fluid Dropper
1.6 Procedure:
With the use of manometer
1. To let water as the reference fluid, measure its temperature using thermometer then determine the
corresponding density and specific gravity using eq. 1.3 and eq. 1.1
2. Pour an amount of 1st fluid (specific gravity S1) in the U – tube glass manometer
3. Add an amount of 2nd fluid (specific gravity S2) in the U – tube glass manometer until it stands
4. Measure the difference in elevation between the interface and surface for each fluid (designate it as
h1 and h2; where h1 is the difference in elevation between interface and surface of 1st fluid and h2 is
the difference in elevation between interface and surface of 2 nd fluid)
5. Evaluate the unknown specific gravity of the fluid using the derived formula below
S1 h1 = S2 h2
6. Perform steps 2 to 5 with other liquids. For heavy fluids, use mercury as standard fluid.
With the use of mass-volume-density relationship
1. Using weighing scale, determine the mass of an empty graduated cylinder
2. Pour out some amount of fluid on the graduated cylinder then measure the combined mass of the
fluid and the graduated cylinder. Also, determine the volume of fluid being poured on the graduated
cylinder.
3. Using the data from procedure 1 and 2 determine the mass of fluid being poured on the graduated
cylinder
4. Determine the density by dividing the calculated mass of fluid to the corresponding volume.
Consequently, the Specific gravity of the fluid can now be determined.
5. Repeat procedure 1 to 4 for other liquids.
6
Activity Report:
Section: Date Performed:
Group No.: Date Submitted:
Group Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
1.7.1 Data Results:
Table 1.1: With the use of manometer

1st and 2nd Fluid h1 (1st fluid) h2 (2nd fluid) S (2nd fluid) using
manometer
Unit: Unit:
1st Fluid:
2nd Fluid:
1 Fluid:
st
2nd Fluid:
1st Fluid:
2nd Fluid:
1st Fluid:
2nd Fluid:
Table1.2: With the use of mass-volume-density relationship

Fluid Mass Volume S using mass-volume-
Unit: Unit: density relation
Table 1.3: Summary

Fluid S from Table S from Table % error
1.1 1.2
7
1.7.1 Analysis / Computations:

8
1.7.2 Source/s of Error
1.7.1 Technique/s and recommendations to minimize error/s

9
1.7.2 Conclusion/s:
10
Questions and Problems
1. A certain gas weighs 7 N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure. What are the values of its density,
specific volume, and specific gravity relative to air weighing 12 N/m 3?
2. If 5.30 m3 of certain oil weighs 43,860 N, calculate the specific weight, density and specific volume.
3. The density of alcohol is 790 kg/m3. Calculate its specific weight, specific gravity and specific volume.
4. A cubic meter of air at 101.3 kPa and 15ºC weighs 12 N, what is its specific volume?
5. What is the standard fluid used in hydraulics and what are its standard properties?
11
TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

RUBRIC FOR CONDUCT OF EXPERIMENTS
(Engineering Programs)
Program : Course & section: ________ Semester & School Year:
Activity No.: Date Performed: ____________ Faculty:
Group No.: Date Submitted: ____________
Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
Need Improvement Fair Good Very Good Excellent
Criteria Member Member Member Member Member
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Members does not follow Member follows good and safe
Member follows good and safe Member follows good and safe Member follows good and
good and safe laboratory laboratory practice at all times in the
laboratory practice 30% of the laboratory practice 60% of the safe laboratory practice all the
Conducting of Activity practice in the conduct of conduct of activity and encourage
time in the conduct of activity time in the conduct of activity times in the conduct of activity
activity others to do the same
Members is unable to Member is able to operate Member is able to operate Member is able to operate
Member is able to operate equipment
Equipment and/or operate the equipment and equipment and instrument with equipment and instrument with equipment and instrument
and instrument with ease even if not
Instrument Operation instruments and needs being supervised thrice during being supervised twice during with being supervised ones supervised
and Material Handling supervision all the time the activity the activity during the activity
The group presents relevant,
The group presents more complete, and accurate data in an
The group presents relevant The group presents minimum
Data Collection The group presents mostly than the minimum required organized and coherent manner with
but partial and inaccurate required data that are relevant
irrelevant data data that are relevant and visual representations such as tables,
data and accurate
accurate graphs, etc.
The group uses appropriate tools and
The group uses appropriate
techniques and arrives at correct
Data Analysis and The group makes no The group attempts to analyze The group uses appropriate tools and techniques and
results; and validates results with
attempt to analyze the the data but uses inappropriate tools and/or techniques and arrives at correct results; and
theories. Consequently, relates results
Evaluation tools and/techniques arrives at correct results. validates results with theories
data to other knowledge
The group presents clear and The group presents clear and logical
The group presents clear and
The group presents no The group presents no logical interpretation of results
Interpretation and logical interpretation of results interpretation of results and arrives at
interpretation of results interpretation of results and and arrives at correct
and arrives at correct correct conclusion and partially relates
Conclusion and conclusions arrives at incorrect conclusions conclusion and partially
conclusion these to all the objectives
relates these to the objectives
Total Score
Mean Score = (Total Score/5)
Percentage Score = (Total Score/%) x 100%
Other Comments/Observations:
Evaluated by:
Signature of Faculty Date

12
Activity 2: Measurement of Pressure using Manometer

2.2. Activity’s Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):

At the end of the activity the students shall be able to:
a) Define the basic principle of pressure variation.
b) Demonstrate pressure measurement using U–tube manometer.
c) Describe pressure and elevation relationships of fluids.
d) Identify pressure of liquid at a certain point.
e) Use the principle of pressure to solve common problems characterized by multiple columns of
fluid.
2.3. Objective/s of the Activity

The objective of this activity is to illustrate the measurement of pressure using manometer
2.4. Principle of the Activity

The intensity of pressure, at any point in a fluid, is the amount of pressure per unit area.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒,𝐹
𝛲 = eq. 2.1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎,𝐴
• Pascals Law states:
At any point in a fluid at rest, the magnitude of pressure is the same in all directions.
• Variations in Pressures:
Consider any two points (1 & 2), whose difference in elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an
elementary prism having a cross sectional area dA and a length of L (Figure 2.1). Since this prism is at rest,
all forces acting upon it must be in equilibrium.
Figure 2.1
13
P2 – P1 = gh eq. 2.2
Therefore, the difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the
product of the unit weight of the fluid (g) to the vertical distance (h) between the points.
Rearranging eq. 2.2 yields,
P2 = P1 + gh eq. 2.3
Meaning any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change at point 2. Therefore, a pressure
applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the
liquid.
Consider that point 1 lies at the FLS (P1 = 0), then;
P = gh
A free liquid surface (FLS) is the surface which is subject to the atmospheric pressure (no gage pressure).
Consider that points 1 and 2 lies on the same elevation so that h = 0, then;
P1 = P 2
Therefore, the pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal.
Note: g = unit weight of the liquid

h = height of the fluid
2.5. Resources/Instruments Required:
• U – Tube manometer • Water, soy sauce, oil, vinegar, and diesel

• Rubber tubing • Dropper
• Funnel • Graduated Cylinder
• Prophylactic or thin sheet of rubber • Beaker
2.6. Procedures
1. Cover the large end of the thistle tube/funnel with a piece of thin sheet of rubber.
2. Attach one end of the rubber tubing over the smaller end of the funnel while the other end of the
rubber tubing to the U – tube manometer that is filled a certain amount of 1st fluid.
3. Pour out some amount of 2nd fluid to the manometer.
4. Measure the difference in elevation between the interface and surface of each fluid (that is h1 and
h2) in the U tube manometer.
5. Tabulate the gathered data.
6. Using equation 2.3 determine the pressure acting inside the funnel. Note: Assume that no pressure
variation is acting on the air inside the funnel.
7. Repeat step 2 to 4 with other liquids.
2.7. Activity Report:
14
Section: Date Performed:

Group No.: Date Submitted:
Group Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
2.7.1. Data and Results

2.7.1.1. Table
Trials (Fluid/s) h1 (1st fluid) h2 (2nd fluid) Pressure inside the funnel
Unit: Unit: Unit:
1st Fluid:
2nd Fluid:
1st Fluid:
2nd Fluid:
1st Fluid:
2nd Fluid:
1st Fluid:
2nd Fluid:
2.7.2. Analysis/Computation/s:
15
16
2.7.3. Source/s of Error
2.7.4. Technique/s and recommendations to minimize error/s

17
2.7.5. Conclusion/s
18
Questions and Problems:
1. If the pressure 3m below the free surface of a liquid is 140 Kpa, calculate its specific weight and
specific gravity.
2. An open vessel contains carbon tetrachloride (s=1.50) to a depth of 2 m and water to a depth of 1.30
m. what is the pressure at the bottom?
3. How many meters of water are equivalent to a pressure of 100 Kpa? How many cm of mercury?
4. What is the equivalent pressure in Kpa corresponding to one meter of air at 15ºC under standard
atmospheric conditions?
5. What are other methods/instruments used in measuring pressure?

19

Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
but partially and inaccurate required data that are relevant
data and accurate
Data Analysis and The group attempts to analyze The group uses appropriate tools and techniques and
The group makes attempt the data but uses inappropriate tools and/or techniques and results; and validates results with
arrives at correct results; and
Evaluation to analyze the data theories. Consequently, relates results
tools and/techniques arrives at correct results. validates results with theories
to other knowledge
Total Score
Evaluated by:

20
Activity 3: Center of Pressure on a Submerged Plane Surface


1. Demonstrate the concepts and equations for calculating forces acting on plane surfaces.
2. Locate the center of pressure of plane surface submerged in a fluid.
3. Measure the pressure force acting on a plane surface, and compare the measured forces with
calculated forces.

The activity aims to validate the derived theoretical magnitude and location of force (due to pressure)
acting on a plane surface using state of the art equipment.

Submerged surfaces can be found in many engineering applications. Dams, weirs and water gates
are familiar examples of submerged surfaces used to control the flow of water. From the design viewpoint, it
is important to have knowledge of the forces that act on the submerged surfaces.
A plane surface Figure 3.1 located beneath the surface of a liquid is subject to a pressure due to
height of liquid above it. Increasing pressure varies linearly with increasing depth resulting in a pressure
distribution that acts the submerged surface. The analysis of this situation involves determining the force,
which is equivalent to the pressure and finding the location of this force.
Figure 3.1
21
For this case, it can be shown that the equivalent forces is,
𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴 eq. 3.1
Where:
γ = is the liquid density
ℎ̅ = the vertical distance from the free surface of the liquid to the centroid of the plane
A = the area of the plane in contact with the liquid.
Further, the location of this force below the free surface is,
𝐼𝑔
𝑑𝑐.𝑝. = 𝐴𝑦̅ + ℎ̅ eq. 3.2
Where:
Ig = the centroidal moment of inertia of the area
𝑦̅ = distance from the centroid of the plane area to the fluid surface measured parallel to the inclination
of the plane surface
dc.p. = the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the center of pressure
The center of pressure apparatus operates on the principle that the moment resulting from the
weights is balanced by the moment resulting from horizontal force acting on the plane AB as shown in Figure
3.2. Using equilibrium equation it could be observed that the net moment acting at the hinge/pivot is zero.
Which gives,
𝑊𝑑
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = eq. 3.3
𝑑𝑐.𝑝.
Where the value of dc.p. is given by:
If surface level S≤100mm then:
𝑆
𝑑𝑐.𝑝. = 200 − 3 eq. 3.4
If surface level S≥100mm then:
𝐼𝑔
𝑑𝑐.𝑝. = 150 + 𝐴𝑦̅ eq. 3.5
Figure 3.2
Where:
S = water level reading
d = Lever arm of the force due to weight
W = Force due to weight of the appended weights
22

• Center of pressure apparatus • Water
• Set of weights • Beaker
3.6. Procedure:
Note: Use the legend attached on the equipment to locate the parts described in the procedure below
Calibrating the equipment:

1. Set the water vessel (1) to an angle of α = 00 using the detent (2).
2. Mount the rider (6), set the lever arm on the scale (e.g. d = 150 mm).
3. Counterbalance the unit with a rotating slier (3): The stop pin (4) must be precisely in the
middle of the hole for this.
Performing the Activity
1. Top up with water until the unit is balanced (stop pin (4) is at the center of hole).
2. Read off the water level S and enter it in the prepared worksheet.
3. Use eq. 3.4 and eq. 3.5 to determine the dc.p., eq. 3.3 to determine Fexperimental, and eq.
3.1 to determine Ftheoretical. Then tabulate the computed values on prepared worksheet.
4. Increased the appended weights (7) in increments of 0.5 to 1 N and repeat the
measurement.
23
3.7. Laboratory Report:
Group No.: Section:

Date Performed: Date Submitted:
Group Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
3.7.1. Data and Results:
Fexperimental Ftheoretical
Trials W (N) d (mm) S (mm) dc.p.(mm) % error
(N) (N)
24
25

26
3.7.5. Conclusion/s
27
1. Why isn’t the weight of the torus and the balance arm taken into account?
2. What is the significance effect of hydrostatic pressure in civil engineering?
3. A vertical rectangular plane of height d and base b is submerged in a liquid with its top edge at the
liquid surface. Determine the total force P acting on one side and its location from the liquid surface.
4. A vertical rectangular plate is submerged half in oil (sp.gr. = 0.8) and half in water such that its top
edge is flushed with the oil surface. What is the ratio of the force exerted by water acting on the
lower half to that by oil acting on the upper half?
5. A 30 m long dam retains 9 m of water as shown in the figure. Find the total resultant force acting on
the dam and the location of the center of pressure from the bottom.
28

Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
data and accurate
to other knowledge
Total Score
Evaluated by:

29
Activity 4: Fluid Viscosity Determination


1. Discuss the concept of fluid viscosity.
2. Identify the settling time of spheres in a quiescent fluid.
3. Solve the viscosity of a fluid using Stokes’ law and the terminal velocity of a sphere in this fluid.

The activity aims to determine the viscosity of fluid using Stokes’ law.

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid.
A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid
with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.
Falling Ball Viscometers
The falling ball viscometer is based on Stokes’ Law, and is what we will use in this laboratory
investigation. This type of viscometer consists of a circular cylinder containing the fluid and a smooth ball.
The ball is placed in the fluid and the time that it takes to fall the length of the cylinder is recorded. This time
is then utilized to solve for the viscosity out of the velocity relationship that we derived using Stokes’ Law and
summation of forces. As the ball is dropped into the fluid it accelerates as a result of the gravitational field
until the ball reaches terminal velocity. Terminal velocity occurs when the viscous and buoyancy forces equal
the weight of the ball. At this point the velocity of the ball is maximum, or terminal. To simplify our approach,
we will allow the ball to reach terminal velocity prior to making the time measurements. The forces acting on
a sphere, for example, that are falling at terminal velocity through the liquid are:
Weight – Buoyancy – Drag = 0

𝟒 𝟒
𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝝆𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒈 − 𝟑 𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒈 − 𝟔𝝁𝝅𝑽𝑹 = 𝟎 eq. 4.1
𝟑
𝝆𝑽𝑫 ≤ 𝟏 eq. 4.2
Where D is the sphere diameter and V is the terminal velocity. Once the viscosity of the liquid is found, the
above ratio should be calculated to be certain that the mathematical model gives an accurate description of
a sphere falling through the liquid.
30
4.5. Resources / Instruments Required:

• Graduated cylinder • Test Fluids (oil, water, diesel)
• Scale • Several Small Spheres with Weight and
• Stopwatch Diameter to be measured
4.6. Procedures:
Equipment Measurements
1. Weigh each sphere on an electronic scientific scale and record on a sheet of paper the mass of each
sphere (in kilograms). Measure each sphere for diameter then divide that by two to equal the radius.
Record each radius value on the paper.
4𝜋𝑟 3
2. Calculate the volume of each sphere using the formula 𝐴 = 3 , where "v" represents volume and
"r" represents the sphere's radius.
3. Determine the density of each sphere by dividing the mass found in Step 1 by the volume found in
Step 2. Record the density of each sphere.
4. Place an empty beaker on the scale and record its weight. Remove the beaker and fill it with 10 ml of
the liquid. Subtract the weight of the empty beaker from the weight of the full beaker and divide the
answer by 10 to calculate the density of 1 ml of that liquid.
Determine Viscosity
5. Prepare your workstation with a graduated cylinder, the spheres, liquids, paper, stopwatch and tape.
Carefully pour liquid into a graduated cylinder until it is nearly full. Leave about a half inch of space
between the liquid and the top of the cylinder.
6. Mark off a spot, using the tape, about 2 cm below the liquid's surface and another about half an inch
from the bottom of the cylinder. These marks will help determine the distance of the sphere's fall.
Use either the top or the bottom of the tape as a guide, but remain consistent. Measure the exact
distance between the tape marks and record it.
7. Hold the sphere on the surface of the liquid. Simultaneously start the stopwatch and drop the
sphere. Stop the watch when the sphere reaches the second tape mark. Record the data. Repeat
the drop using the other spheres and record their data. Repeat Steps 1 through 4 with the other
liquid.
8. Calculate the velocity of the spheres by dividing the distance between the tape marks by the time it
took for the sphere to reach the second mark.
9. Calculate the viscosity of the fluid using eq. 4.1
31
Group No.: Section:

Group Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
Sphere Data
Materials Diameter (mm) Volume (m3) Weight (g) Density (g/m3)
Marble
Metal sphere
Viscosity Data
Liquids Demsity Trials Sphere Distance Time (s) Velocity Viscosity
Used (cm) (m/s) (Pa – s)
1 Marble
2 Metal
1 Marble
2 Metal
1 Marble
2 Metal
32
33

34
4.7.5. Conclusion/s
35
1. Should the terminal velocity of two different size spheres be the same?
2. Does a larger sphere have a higher terminal velocity?
3. Should the velocity found for two different size spheres be the same? Why or why not?
4. If different size spheres give different results for the viscosity, what are the error sources?
5. What are the shortcomings of this method?
6. Why should temperature be recorded?
7. Can this method be used for gases?
8. Can this method be used for opaque liquids?
9. Can this method be used for something like peanut butter, or grease of flour dough? Why or
why not?
36

Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
data and accurate
to other knowledge
Total Score
Evaluated by:

37
Activity 5: Determination of Specific Gravity using Hydrometer


At the end of the activity, the students shall be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of Archimedes principle.
2. Demonstrate the proper use of hydrometer.
3. Prove hydrometer measurements using Archimedes principle.
5.3. Objective:
The activity aims to determine the specific gravity of fluid using Archimedes Principle.
5.4. Principle of the Activity:

Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In
a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus a column
of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column than
at the top. This difference in pressure results in a net force that tends to accelerate an object upwards. The
magnitude of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure between the top and the bottom of
the column, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is also equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would
otherwise occupy the column, i.e. the displaced fluid.
For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged
tends to sink. If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the
force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a gravitational
field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction (that is, a non-inertial
reference frame). In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of
the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
Operation of the hydrometer is based on “Archimedes Principle” that a solid suspended in a fluid
will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the submerged part of the suspended
solid. Thus, the lower the density of the substance, the farther the hydrometer will sink.
𝐹𝑏 = 𝛾𝑓 𝑉𝑠 eq. 5.1
Where,
Fb = Buoyant Force
Yf = specific weight of fluid
Vs = Volume submerged/displaced
38
5.5. Resources / Instruments Required:

• Graduated Cylinder
• Hydrometer
• Liquids
5.6. Procedures:
With the use of mass-volume-density relationship

1. Using weighing scale, determine the mass of an empty graduated cylinder
2. Pour out some amount of fluid on the graduated cylinder then measure the combined mass of the
fluid and the graduated cylinder. Also, determine the volume of fluid being poured on the graduated
cylinder.
3. Using the data from procedure 1 and 2 determine the mass of fluid being poured on the graduated
cylinder
4. Determine the density by dividing the calculated mass of fluid to the corresponding volume of fluid
on the cylinder. Consequently, the Specific gravity of the fluid can now be determined.
5. Repeat procedure 1 to 4 for other liquids.
With the use of hydrometer

1. Pour an amount of liquid into the graduated cylinder.
2. Place the graduated cylinder on a level surface.
3. Gently lower the hydrometer into the graduated cylinder. If there are bubbles clinging to the
hydrometer, flick it to knock them off. If this does not get rid of the bubbles, remove the hydrometer
and lower it again. Bubbles throw off the hydrometer reading.
4. Move the hydrometer to the middle of the graduated cylinder so it is floating freely and not attached
to the sides.
5. Take the measurement at the lowest point of the curved surface of the liquid.
39

Group No: Section:
Group Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
Table 5.1: Using mass-volume-density relation
Fluid Mass Volume S using mass-volume-

Unit: Unit: density relation
Table 5.2: Using hydrometer relation
FLUID SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Table 5.3: Summary
Fluid S from Table S from Table % error

5.1 5.2
40
41

42
5.7.5. Conclusion/s
43
1. A rectangular solid piece of wood 30 cm2 and 5 cm thick floats in water to a depth of 3.25 cm. How
heavy an object must be placed on the wood (s=0.50) in such a way that it will just be submerged?
2. The specific gravity of rock used as concrete aggregate is often desirable to know. If a rock weighed
6.50 N in the air and 3.80 N submerged in water, what would be the specific gravity of the rock?
3. A piece of wood weighs 17.80 N in air and a piece of metal weighs 14.80 N in water. Together the
two weighs 13.35 N in water. What is the specific gravity of the wood?
4. How does buoyant force vary with the depth of submerged fluid? Why?
44

Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
data and accurate
to other knowledge
Total Score
Evaluated by:

45
Activity 6: Determination of Density of a Fluid Using Archimedes Principle


1. Demonstrate ability to measure, collect and record data accurately.
2. Demonstrate ability to use data in a formula to solve for density.
3. Identify the density of water and compare with common liquids.
4. Identify if there is a relationship between the volume and mass of the volume in solving for
density.
6.3. Objective/s of the activity:

The activity aims to indirectly measure/determine the density of a fluid using Archimedes Principle.
Additionally it aims to validate Archimedes principle.
6.4. Principle of the activity:
Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In
a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus a column
of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column than
at the top. This difference in pressure results in a net force that tends to accelerate an object upwards. The
magnitude of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure between the top and the bottom of
the column, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is also equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would
otherwise occupy the column, i.e. the displaced fluid.
For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged
tends to sink. If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the
force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a gravitational
field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction (that is, a non-inertial
reference frame). In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of
the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 eq. 6.1

Where,
Fb = Buoyant Force
g = gravitational acceleration
ρfluid = density of fluid
46
Vdisplced fluid= Volume submerged/displaced

For this activity the amount of buoyant force is given by:
𝐹𝑏 = (𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑚𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 )𝑔 eq. 6.2
Equating eq. 6.1 and 6.2 the fluid density is given by:
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 −𝑚𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 eq. 6.3
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

• Graduated Cylinder • Block of wood
• Spring balance • Graduated cylinder
• Liquids whose properties are to be • Beaker
measured (water, oil, soy sauce, diesel)
6.6. Procedure:
Method 1
1. Weigh an empty graduated cylinder or beaker.
2. Weigh a known volume of a liquid using a graduated cylinder or beaker.
3. Identify the density of the liquid from the difference in weight divided by the volume.
Method 2
1. Determine the mass of the block of wood in air (mair) using weighing scale.
2. Determine the mass of the block of wood in fluid (mfluid) using spring balance (If it floats
the mfluid = 0)
3. Identify the buoyant force acting on the object from the difference of its mass which is
determined from procedure 1 and 2 (Fb = mair – mfluid)
4. With the block remains submerged/floating on the cylinder, determine the change in
level of the surface and record it as the Volume submerged/displaced (Vdisplace fluid)
5. Identify the density of the liquid using equation 6.3
47
Group No.: Section:

Name of Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.

Table 6.1: Using mass-volume-density relation
Fluid Mass Volume Density (ρfluid):

Unit: Unit: Unit:
Table 6.2: Using equation 6.3

Fluid mair mfluid Vdisplaced fluid Density (ρfluid):
Unit: Unit: Unit: Unit:
Table 6.3: Summary
Fluid ρ from Table 6.1 ρ from Table 6.2 % error

48
49

50
6.7.5. Conclusion/s
51
1. Are the results of all density measurement in agreement?
2. How does the buoyant force vary with the depth of the submerged object? Why?
3. An ice berg weighing 8.96 kN/m3 floats in seawater (y=10.10 kN/m3) with a volume m3 above the
surface. What is the total volume of the iceberg?
4. A log 1m long and having a diameter of 30 cm floats in fresh water. If its specific gravity is 0.75, what
is the depth of floatation?
52

Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
data and accurate
to other knowledge
Total Score
Evaluated by:

53
Activity 7: Force and Forced Vortex Apparatus


1. Identify the surface profile of a free and forced vortex.
2. Locate and describe the total head variation in free and forced vortex.
3. Sketch the shape of a free vortex by measurement of the surface profile coordinates.
7.3. Objective/s of the Activity:

The activity aims to plot the surface of various forced vortices formed under different speed
conditions.
7.4. Principle of the Activity:

When at rest, the surface of mass of liquid is horizontal at PQ as
shown in the Figure 7.1. When this mass of liquid is rotated about
a vertical axis at constant angular velocity ω radian per second, it
will assume the surfaceABC which is parabolic. Every particle is
subjected to centripetal force or centrifugal force CF = mω 2x
which produces centripetal acceleration towards the center of
rotation. Other forces that acts are gravity force W = mg and
normal force N.
𝐶𝐹
tan 𝜃 =
𝑊
𝑚𝜔2 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑚𝑔
ω2 x
tan 𝜃 = eq. 7.1
𝑔
Where tan θ is the slope at the surface of paraboloid at any distance

x from the axis of rotation.
From Calculus, y’ = slope, thus Figure 7.1
𝑑𝑦
= tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ω2 x
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔
54
ω2 x
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑔
ω2 x
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑔
ω2 x2
𝑦= eq. 7.2
2𝑔
For cylindrical vessel of radius r revolved about its vertical axis, the height h of paraboloid is
ω2 r2
ℎ= eq. 7.3
2𝑔
Other Formulas
By squared-property of parabola, the relationship of y, x, h and r is defined by
r2 x2
= eq. 7.4
ℎ 𝑦
Volume of paraboloid of revolution

𝑉 = ½ 𝜋 𝑟 2ℎ eq. 7.5
Important conversion factor
1 𝑟𝑝𝑚 = 1/30 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 eq. 7.6
• Free and Forced Vortex Apparatus

• Hydraulic Bench
• Water
7.6. Procedure:
Measurements
1. Radius and Height
Insert combined radius and height gauge in mount from underneath and secure using star-type nut.
• For measurement, loosen star-type nut and set new height; then use knurled nut and set
new height ; then use knurled nut on cross member to move gauges to surface of vortex.
• Readings are taken at the following points:
Height: Shoulder of retaining rod; this indicates the height of the gauges above the bottom
Radius: Left edge of notch of slider; this indicates the radius
2. Height gauge
• Pull combined radius and height gauge downwards out of mount and insert 10 mm gauge in
hole; secure with star-type nut.
55
• Insert 3 mm gauges in holes in gland bolts and secure

• For measurement, position gauges on surface of vortex. As all gauges are of equal length, a
rule can be used to measure the distance between the top edge of the mount and the end of
the gauge.
Velocity determination by way of number of revolutions
1. Allow a small piece of paper or polystyrene to drop into the surface to measure the velocity of the
vortex.
2. Then use a stopwatch to determine the time taken for the piece of paper to perform 10 revolutions
with the vortex.
3. Determine the radius on which the paper revolves.
Angular velocity ω is.
ω = 2πn (with n in Revolutions/seconds)
56

Group No.: Section:
Group Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
Table 7.1: Using Height Gage

Radius r in Rotation ω (rpm) (rad/sec)
0 30 50 70 90 110
mm
Measured
Height h in Theoretical
mm
Theoretical
Height h in Measured
mm
Percent Percent
Error Error
Table 7.2: Using Radius and Height Gage

Radius r in Rotation ω (rpm) (rad/sec)
10 20 30 40 50 60
mm
Measured
Height h in Theoretical
mm
Theoretical
Height h in Measured
mm
Percent Percent
Error Error
57
58

59
7.7.5. Conclusion/s
60
1. A rectangular tank 20 ft. long by 6 ft. deep by 7 ft. wide contains 3 ft. of water. If the linear
acceleration horizontally in the direction of the tanks length is 8.05 ft./sec 2, determine the greatest
pressure at the bottom of the tank.
2. If the tank in Problem 1 is filled with water and accelerated in the direction of its length and the rate
of 5 ft./sec2, how many gallons of water are spilled?
3. A tank is 1.5 square and contains 1m of water. How high must its sides be if no water is spilled
when the acceleration is 4 m/sec2 parallel to a pair of sides?
4. An open cylindrical tank 6 ft high and 3 ft in diameter contains 4.5 ft of water. If the cylinder rotates
its geometric axis,
a. What is the greatest constant angular velocity that will be allowed without spilling the water?
5. A U-tube with right angles bends is 305 mm wide and contains mercury that rises 229 in each leg
when the tube is at rest. At what speed must the tube be rotated about an axis 76 mm from one leg
so that there will be no mercury in that leg of the tube.
61

Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
data and accurate
to other knowledge
Total Score
Evaluated by:

62
Activity 8: Bernoulli’s Principle Demonstrator

8.2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):

1. State Bernoulli’s principle.
2. Illustrate and Justify the variation of potential and kinetic energy along the venturi meter
3. Solve problems involving Bernoulli’s principle.
8.3. Objective/s of the Activity:

The activity aims to illustrate the Bernoulli’s principle.

Bernoulli's principle, sometimes known as Bernoulli's equation, holds that for fluids in an ideal state,
pressure and density are inversely related: in other words, a slow-moving fluid exerts more pressure than a
fast-moving fluid. Since "fluid" in this context applies equally to liquids and gases, the principle has as many
applications with regard to airflow as to the flow of liquids. One of the most dramatic everyday examples of
Bernoulli's principle can be found in the airplane, which stays aloft due to pressure differences on the surface
of its wing; but the truth of the principle is also illustrated in something as mundane as a shower curtain that
billows inward.
Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the application of the principles of conservation of energy.
𝐸1 = 𝐸2 eq. 8.1
𝑉21 𝑃1 𝑉22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 eq. 8.2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstrator facilitates the students and the industrial professionals to explore the
fundamentals of “Bernoulli's Theorem” in Fluid Mechanics. It states that, in a steady flow the sum of all forms
of mechanical energy (kinetic, potential and pressure energy) in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all
points on that streamline. It consists of classical venture of clear acrylic. A series of wall tapping allows
measurement of static pressure distribution of convergent duct, while a total head tube is provide at the centre
of throat. These tapping are connected to a bank of manometer tube. This unit has been designed with
Hydraulic Bench to study the characteristic flow through convergent and divergent section. During the Activity,
the water fed to the venture and the flow rate can be control by the gate valve at the outlet of venture. The
venture is used to demonstrate the flow rate measurement and to determine the co-efficient of discharge.
• Self-contained system
• Simple representation of concept
• Direct measurement of static head
63
• Seven pressure tapings along with tubes

• Requires minimal installation
• Robust and transparent venturimeter
• All tanks are rust proof
Bernoulli’s equation for constant head h:

𝑉 21 𝑃1 𝑉 2 2 𝑃2
+ = + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Allowance for friction losses hf and conversion of the pressures p1 and p2 into static pressure heads
h1 and h2 yields:
𝑉 21 𝑉 22
+ ℎ1 = + ℎ2 + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
• Bernoulli’s Principle Demonstrator
• Hydraulic Bench
• Water
8.6. Procedures:
1. Arrange the Activityation set - up on the HM 150 such that the discharge routes the water into
the channel.
2. Make hose connection between HM 150 and HM 150.07.
3. Open discharge of HM 150.
4. Set cap nut (1) of probe compression gland such that slight resistance is felt on moving probe.
5. Open inlet and outlet valves.
6. Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of HM 150.
7. Open vent valves (2) on water pressure gauges.
8. Carefully close outlet valve until pressure gauges are flushed.
9. By simultaneously setting inlet and outlet valve, regulate water level in pressure gauges such
that neither upper nor lower range limit (UL, LL) is overshot or undershot.
10. Record pressure at all measurement points. Then move overall pressure probe to
corresponding measurement level and note down overall pressure.
11. Determine volumetric flow rate. To do so, use stopwatch to establish time t required for raising
the level in the tank of the HM 150 from 201 to 301.
64

Group No.: Section:
Group Members:
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.

Table 8.1 Pressure Heads and Velocity
Trial Volume Time, t Discharge Measuring Point 1 2 3 4 5 6
V (m3) (sec) Q (m3/s)
Head , h Total
1 (mm) Static
Dynamic
Velocity Measured
V (m/s) Calculated
Head , h Total
(mm) Static
2 Dynamic
Velocity Measured
V (m/s) Calculated
Calculation of dynamic pressure head:

ℎ𝑑𝑦𝑛 = ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 – ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
The velocity Vmeas was calculated from the dynamic pressure
𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 = √2𝑔ℎ𝑑𝑦𝑛
65
66

67
8.7.5. Conclusion/s
68
1. A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter water main. The
deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the inlet to the throat is 375
mm. (a) Determine the discharge neglecting head loss, (b) Compute the discharge if the head
lost from the inlet to the throat is 300 mm of water, and (c) what is the meter coefficient?
450 mm
150 mm
1 2 outlet
Inlet water throat
Mercury, s=13.6
2. A horizontal 150 mm diameter pipe gradually reduces its section to 50 mm diameter,

subsequently enlarging into 150 mm section. The pressure in the 150 mm pipe at a point just
before entering the reducing section is 140 kPa and in the 50 mm section at the end of the
reducer, the pressure is 70 KPa. If 600 mm head is lost between the points where the pressure
are as above given, compute the rate of flow of water through the pipe.
69
3. Oil (sp. gr. = 0.8) flows at the rate of 8.5 litres per second through a 25 mm horizontal
venturimeter which is attached to a 37.5 mm diameter pipe as shown in the figure. A
differential manometer containing mercury is attached from the base of the inlet to the throat
and to the base of the outlet. Calculate the deflection of mercury in each tube if the head lost
from the inlet to the throat is 5% of the velocity in the throat and from the throat to the outlet is
20% of the velocity head in the throat.
37.5 mm 25 mm 37.7 mm
1 2 oil, s= 0.8 3
mercury
70

Group Members:
1. 3. 5.
2. 4.
Score
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
data and accurate
to other knowledge
Total Score
Evaluated by:

71

CE023 LABORATORY MANUAL 2nd Revision

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CIVIL

EDITED BY: ENGR.

EDITED BY: ENGR.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................ 3

ACTIVITY 1: SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION..................................................................................................... 4

ACTIVITY 2: MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE USING MANOMETER.......................................................................... 12

ACTIVITY 3: CENTER OF PRESSURE OF A SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACE ................................................................ 20

ACTIVITY 4: FLUID VISCOSITY DETERMINATION .................................................................................................... 29

ACTIVITY 5: DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY USING HYDROMETER .......................................................... 37

ACTIVITY 6: DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF A FLUID USING ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE ....................................... 45

ACTIVITY 7: FORCE AND FORCED VORTEX APPARATUS ......................................................................................... 53

ACTIVITY 8: BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE DEMONSTRATOR ......................................................................................... 62

Activity 1: Specific Gravity Determination

1.1. Student Outcomes (SOs) Addressed by the Activity

1.2 Activity’s Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):

1.3 Objective/s of the Activity

1.4 Principle of the Activity

1.5 Resources/Instruments Required:

1.7.1 Data Results:

Table 1.1: With the use of manometer

Table1.2: With the use of mass-volume-density relationship

Table 1.3: Summary

1.7.1 Analysis / Computations:

1.7.2 Source/s of Error

1.7.1 Technique/s and recommendations to minimize error/s

Questions and Problems

TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Signature of Faculty Date

Activity 2: Measurement of Pressure using Manometer

2.1. Student Outcomes (SOs) Addressed by the Activity

2.2. Activity’s Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):

2.3. Objective/s of the Activity

2.4. Principle of the Activity

Note: g = unit weight of the liquid

2.5. Resources/Instruments Required:

• U – Tube manometer • Water, soy sauce, oil, vinegar, and diesel

Section: Date Performed:

2.7.1. Data and Results

2.7.3. Source/s of Error

2.7.4. Technique/s and recommendations to minimize error/s

Questions and Problems:

5. What are other methods/instruments used in measuring pressure?

TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Signature of Faculty Date

Activity 3: Center of Pressure on a Submerged Plane Surface

3.1. Student Outcomes (SOs) Addressed by the Activity

3.2. Activity’s Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):

3.3. Objective/s of the Activity

3.4. Principle of the Activity

3.5. Resources/Instruments Required:

Calibrating the equipment:

3.7. Laboratory Report:

Group No.: Section:

3.7.1. Data and Results:

3.7.3. Source/s of Error

3.7.4. Technique/s and recommendations to minimize error/s

Questions and Problems:

2. What is the significance effect of hydrostatic pressure in civil engineering?

TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Signature of Faculty Date

Activity 4: Fluid Viscosity Determination

4.1. Student Outcomes (SOs) Addressed by the Activity