Bab 2

c h a p t e r
Basic Laws
There are too many people praying for mountains of difficulty to be
2
removed, when what they really need is the courage to climb them!
—Unknown
Enhancing Your Skills and Your Career

ABET EC 2000 criteria (3.b), “an ability to design and con-
duct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data.”
Engineers must be able to design and conduct e xperiments, as well as
analyze and interpret data. Most students ha ve spent man y hours per -
forming experiments in high school and in college. During this time, you
have been asked to analyze the data and to interpret the data. Therefore,
you should already be skilled in these tw o activities. My recommenda -
tion is that, in the process of performing e xperiments in the future, you
spend more time in analyzing and interpreting the data in the conte xt of
the experiment. What does this mean?
If you are looking at a plot of voltage versus resistance or current
versus resistance or po wer versus resistance, what do you actually see?
Does the curve make sense? Does it agree with what the theory tells you?
Does it dif fer from e xpectation, and, if so, wh y? Clearly, practice with
analyzing and interpreting data will enhance this skill.
Since most, if not all, the e xperiments you are required to do as a
student involve little or no practice in designing the experiment, how can
you develop and enhance this skill?
Actually, developing this skill under this constraint is not as difficult
as it seems. What you need to do is to take the experiment and analyze it.
Just break it down into its simplest parts, reconstruct it trying to under -
stand why each element is there, and finally, determine what the author
of the experiment is trying to teach you. Even though it may not always
seem so, e very experiment you do w as designed by someone who w as
sincerely motivated to teach you something.
29
30 Chapter 2 Basic Laws
Learning Objectives
By using the information and exercises in this chapter you will be
able to:
1. Know and understand the voltage current relationship of resis-
tors (Ohm’s law).
2. Understand the basic structure of electrical circuits, essentially
nodes, loops, and branches.
3. Understand Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws and their
importance in analyzing electrical circuits.
4. Understand series resistances and voltage division, and parallel
resistances and current division.
5. Know how to convert delta-connected circuits to wye-connected
circuits and how to convert wye-connected circuits to delta-
connected circuits.
2.1 Introduction
Chapter 1 introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power
in an electric circuit. To actually determine the v alues of these v ari-
ables in a gi ven circuit requires that we understand some fundamen -
tal laws that govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law
and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation upon which electric circuit
analysis is built.
In this chapter , in addition to these la ws, we shall discuss some
techniques commonly applied in circuit design and analysis. These tech-
niques include combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage division,
current division, and delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations.The
application of these laws and techniques will be restricted to resistive
circuits in this chapter. We will finally apply the laws and techniques to
real-life problems of electrical lighting and the design of dc meters.
2.2 Ohm’s Law

l i Materials in general ha ve a characteristic beha vior of resisting the flow
of electric charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is
+
known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The resistance
v R
of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and
– its length ℓ, as sho wn in Fig. 2.1(a). We can represent resistance (as
Material with
resistivity ρ
measured in the laboratory), in mathematical form,
ℓ
Cross-sectional
R = ρ __ (2.1)
area A A
(a) (b) where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good
Figure 2.1 conductors, such as copper and aluminum, ha ve low resistivities, while
(a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivities. Table 2.1 pres-
resistance.
ents the values of ρ for some common materials and shows which mate-
rials are used for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
The circuit element used to model the current-resisting beha vior of a
material is the resistor. For the purpose of constructing circuits, resistors are
2.2 Ohm’s Law 31
TABLE 2.1
Resistivities of common materials.

Material Resistivity (Ω∙m) Usage
−8
Silver 1.64 ×10 Conductor
Copper 1.72 ×10−8 Conductor
Aluminum 2.8 ×10−8 Conductor
Gold 2.45 ×10−8 Conductor
Carbon 4 ×10−5 Semiconductor
Germanium 47 ×10−2 Semiconductor
Silicon 6.4 ×102 Semiconductor
Paper 1010 Insulator
Mica 5 ×1011 Insulator
Glass 1012 Insulator
Teflon 3 ×1012 Insulator
usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds. The circuit sym-
bol for the resistor is shown in Fig. 2.1(b), where R stands for the resistance
of the resistor. The resistor is the simplest passive element.
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German ph ysicist, is credited
with finding the relationship between current and voltage for a resistor.
This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly propor-
tional to the current i flowing through the resistor.
That is,
v∝i (2.2)
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resis-
tance, R. (The resistance is a material property which can change if the
internal or external conditions of the element are altered, e.g., if there are
changes in the temperature.) Thus, Eq. (2.2) becomes
v = iR (2.3)
Historical
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, in 1826
experimentally determined the most basic law relating voltage and cur -
rent for a resistor. Ohm’s work was initially denied by critics.
Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria, Ohm threw himself
© SSPL via Getty Images
into electrical research. His efforts resulted in his famous law. He was
awarded the Copley Medal in 1841 by the Royal Society of London. In
1849, he was given the Professor of Physics chair by the University of
Munich. To honor him, the unit of resistance was named the ohm.
which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R in Eq. (2.3) is measured

+
in the unit of ohms, designated Ω. Thus,
i
The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of

v=0 R=0
electric current; it is measured in ohms (Ω).
–
We may deduce from Eq. (2.3) that
R = __v (2.4)
(a) i
so that
+ i=0
1 Ω = 1 V/A
To apply Ohm’ s la w as stated in Eq. (2.3), we must pay careful

v R=∞ attention to the current direction and v oltage polarity. The direction of
current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform with the passive sign
– convention, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). This implies that current flows from
a higher potential to a lower potential in order for v = i R. If current flows
(b)
from a lower potential to a higher potential, v = −i R.
Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important
Figure 2.2 that we consider the tw o extreme possible values of R. An element with
(a) Short circuit (R =0), (b) Open circuit
(R =∞). R = 0 is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). For a short circuit,
v = iR = 0 (2.5)
showing that the v oltage is zero b ut the current could be an ything. In

practice, a short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be a
perfect conductor. Thus,
A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

(a)
Similarly, an element with R =∞ is known as an open circuit, as shown
in Fig. 2.2(b). For an open circuit,
i = R→∞ v =0

lim __
(2.6)
R
indicating that the current is zero though the v oltage could be anything.
Thus,
(b)
An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.
Figure 2.3
Fixed resistors: (a) wirewound type,
(b) carbon film type.
A resistor is either fixed or v ariable. Most resistors are of the fixed
© McGraw-Hill Education/Mark Dierker, type, meaning their resistance remains constant. The two common types
photographer of fixed resistors (wirewound and composition) are shown in Fig. 2.3. The
composition resistors are used when large resistance is needed. The circuit
symbol in Fig. 2.1(b) is for a fixed resistor. Variable resistors have adjust-
able resistance. The symbol for a variable resistor is shown in Fig. 2.4(a).
A common variable resistor is known as a potentiometer or pot for short,
with the symbol shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The pot is a three-terminal element
with a sliding contact or wiper . By sliding the wiper , the resistances be -
(a) (b) tween the wiper terminal and the fixed terminals v ary. Like fixed resis-
Figure 2.4 tors, variable resistors can be of either wire wound or composition type,
Circuit symbol for: (a) a variable resistor as shown in Fig. 2.5. Although resistors like those in Figs. 2.3 and 2.5 are
in general, (b) a potentiometer. used in circuit designs, today most circuit components including resistors
are either surface mounted or integrated, as typically shown in Fig. 2.6.
2.2 Ohm’s Law 33
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5
Variable resistors: (a) composition type, (b) slider pot.
© McGraw-Hill Education/Mark Dierker, photographer
It should be pointed out that not all resistors obe y Ohm’s la w. A
© Eric Tomey/Alamy RF
resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor. It has a con-
stant resistance and thus its current-voltage characteristic is as illustrated
in Fig. 2.7(a): Its i-v graph is a straight line passing through the ori -
gin. A nonlinear resistor does not obe y Ohm’s law. Its resistance varies
with current and its i-v characteristic is typically sho wn in Fig. 2.7(b).
Examples of devices with nonlinear resistance are the light bulb and the
diode. Although all practical resistors may e xhibit nonlinear beha vior Figure 2.6
Resistors in an integrated circuit board.
under certain conditions, we will assume in this book that all elements
actually designated as resistors are linear.
A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistanceR, v
known as conductance and denoted by G:
1 = __i (2.7)
G = __ v Slope = R
R
The conductance is a measure of how well an element will conduct
i
electric current. The unit of conductance is the mho (ohm spelled back-
ward) or reciprocal ohm, with symbol ℧, the inverted omega. Although (a)
engineers often use the mho, in this book we prefer to use the siemens v
(S), the SI unit of conductance:
1 S = 1 ℧ = 1 A /V (2.8)
Thus,
Slope = R
Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is
measured in mhos (℧) or siemens (S). i
(b)
The same resistance can be e xpressed in ohms or siemens. F or Figure 2.7
example, 10 Ω is the same as 0.1 S. From Eq. (2.7), we may write The i-v characteristic of: (a) a linear
resistor, (b) a nonlinear resistor.
i = Gv (2.9)
The power dissipated by a resistor can be e xpressed in terms of R.
Using Eqs. (1.7) and (2.3),
v2
p = vi = i 2R = __ (2.10)
R
The power dissipated by a resistor may also be e xpressed in terms of

G as
i2
p = vi = v2G = __ (2.11)
G
We should note two things from Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11):
1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either
current or voltage.
2. Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a resis-
tor is al ways positive. Thus, a resistor al ways absorbs po wer from
the circuit. This confirms the idea that a resistor is a passive element,
incapable of generating energy.
Example 2.1 An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
Solution:
From Ohm’s law,
R = _v = ___
120 = 60 Ω
i 2
Practice Problem 2.1 The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a resis -
tor) that converts electrical energy to heat energy. How much current is
drawn by a toaster with resistance 15 Ω at 110 V?
Answer: 7.333 A.
Example 2.2 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, calculate the current i, the conductance
G, and the power p.
i
+ Solution:
30 V +
– 5 kΩ v The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V)
– because the resistor and the voltage source are connected to the same
pair of terminals. Hence, the current is
Figure 2.8 v = _____
i = __ 30 = 6 mA
For Example 2.2. R 5 × 10 3
The conductance is
G = __ 1
1 = _____ = 0.2 mS
R 5 × 10 3
We can calculate the power in various ways using either Eqs. (1.7),
(2.10), or (2.11).
p = vi = 30(6 × 10 −3) = 180 mW

or
2
p = i 2R = (6 × 10 −3) 5 × 10 3 = 180 mW
or
p = v 2G = (30) 20.2 × 10 −3 = 180 mW
2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops 35
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9, calculatethe voltage v, the conductance Practice Problem 2.2
G, and the power p.
i
Answer: 30 V, 100 µS, 90 mW. +
3 mA 10 kΩ v
–
Figure 2.9
For Practice Prob. 2.2
A voltage source of 20 sin πt V is connected across a 5-kΩ resistor. Find Example 2.3
the current through the resistor and the power dissipated.
Solution:
v = _______
i = __ 20 sinπt = 4 sinπt mA
R 5 × 10 3
Hence,
p = vi = 80 sin 2 π t mW
A resistor absorbs an instantaneous power of 30 cos 2 t mW when con - Practice Problem 2.3
nected to a voltage source v = 15 cos t V. Find i and R.
Answer: 2 cos t mA, 7.5 kΩ.
2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops

Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in se veral
ways, we need to understand some basic concepts of network topology. To
differentiate between a circuit and a network, we may regard a network as
an interconnection of elements or devices, whereas a circuit is a network
providing one or more closed paths. The convention, when addressing
network topology, is to use the w ord network rather than circuit. We do
this even though the word network and circuit mean the same thing when
used in this context. In network topology, we study the properties relating
to the placement of elements in the network and the geometric configura-
tion of the network. Such elements include branches, nodes, and loops.
A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
In other w ords, a branch represents an y two-terminal element. The cir- 5Ω b

a
cuit in Fig. 2.10 has five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the
2-A current source, and the three resistors.
10 V +
– 2Ω 3Ω 2A
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit c

(a connecting wire) connects tw o nodes, the two nodes constitute a sin - Figure 2.10
gle node. The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has three nodes a, b, and c. Notice that Nodes, branches, and loops.
b the three points that form node b are connected by perfectly conducting
wires and therefore constitute a single point. The same is true of the four
5Ω points forming node c. We demonstrate that the circuit in Fig. 2.10 has
only three nodes by redrawing the circuit in Fig. 2.11.The two circuits in
2Ω
3Ω 2A Figs. 2.10 and 2.11 are identical. However, for the sake of clarity, nodes
a b and c are spread out with perfect conductors as in Fig. 2.10.
+
–
10 V A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
c
Figure 2.11
The three-node circuit of Fig. 2.10 is A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a
redrawn. set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through
any node more than once. A loop is said to be independent if it contains
at least one branch which is not a part of an y other independent loop.
Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.
It is possible to form an independent set of loops where one of the
loops does not contain such a branch. In Fig. 2.11, abca with the 2 Ω re-
sistor is independent. A second loop with the 3 Ω resistor and the current
source is independent. The third loop could be the one with the 2Ω resistor
in parallel with the 3Ω resistor. This does form an independent set of loops.
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will
satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology:
b=l+n−1 (2.12)
As the next two definitions show, circuit topology is of great value to

the study of voltages and currents in an electric circuit.
Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node
and consequently carry the same current.
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same
two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
Elements are in series when the y are chain-connected or connected se -

quentially, end to end. F or example, two elements are in series if they
share one common node and no other element is connected to that
common node. Elements in parallel are connected to the same pair of
terminals. Elements may be connected in a w ay that they are neither in
series nor in parallel. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.10, the voltage source
and the 5- Ω resistor are in series because the same current will flow
through them. The 2-Ω resistor, the 3-Ω resistor, and the current source
are in parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes b and c
and consequently have the same voltage across them. The 5-Ω and 2-Ω
resistors are neither in series nor in parallel with each other.
Example 2.4 Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.12. Identify which elements are in series and which are inparallel.
Solution:
Since there are four elements in the circuit, the circuit has four branches:
10 V, 5Ω, 6 Ω, and 2 A. Thecircuit has three nodes as identified in Fig. 2.13.
The 5-Ω resistor is in series with the 10-V voltage source because the same
current would flow in both. The 6-Ω resistor is in parallel with the 2-A cur-
rent source because both are connected to the same nodes 2 and 3.
2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws 37
5Ω 1 5Ω 2
10 V + 2A 10 V + 2A
– 6Ω – 6Ω
Figure 2.12 3
For Example 2.4. Figure 2.13
The three nodes in the circuit of
Fig. 2.12.
How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. 2.14 have? Identify Practice Problem 2.4
the elements that are in series and in parallel.
Answer: Five branches and three nodes are identified in Fig. 2.15. The
1-Ω and 2-Ω resistors are in parallel. The 4-Ω resistor and 10-V source
are also in parallel.
5Ω 1 5Ω 2
+ 10 V 1Ω 2Ω + 10 V 4Ω
1Ω 2Ω – 4Ω –
Figure 2.14 3
For Practice Prob. 2.4. Figure 2.15
Answer for Practice Prob. 2.4.
2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it
is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set
of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gusta v Robert
Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are formally kno wn as Kirchhoff’s
current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the la w of conservation of charge,
which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot
change.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that

N
∑ in = 0 (2.13)
n=1
where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth

current entering (or lea ving) the node. By this la w, currents entering a
node may be re garded as positive, while currents lea ving the node may
be taken as negative or vice versa.
Historical
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887), a German physicist, stated
two basic laws in 1847 concerning the relationship between the cur -
rents and voltages in an electrical network. Kirchhoff’s laws, along with
Ohm’s law, form the basis of circuit theory.
Born the son of a lawyer in Konigsberg, East Prussia, Kirchhoff
entered the University of Konigsberg at age 18 and later became a lectur-
© Pixtal/age Fotostock RF
er in Berlin. His collaborative work in spectroscopy with German chem-

ist Robert Bunsen led to the discovery of cesium in 1860 and rubidium
in 1861. Kirchhoff was also credited with the Kirchhoff law of radiation.
Thus, Kirchhoff is famous among engineers, chemists, and physicists.
To prove KCL, assume a set of currents ik (t), k = 1, 2,…, flow into

a node. The algebraic sum of currents at the node is
iT (t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t) + ⋯ (2.14)
Integrating both sides of Eq. (2.14) gives

i5
i1
qT (t) = q1(t) + q2(t) + q3(t) + ⋯ (2.15)
i4
i2 where qk (t) = ∫ ik (t) d t and qT (t) = ∫ iT (t) d t . But the law of conserva-
i3
tion of electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of electric charges
at the node must not change; that is, the node stores no net charge. Thus,
Figure 2.16 qT (t) = 0 → iT (t) = 0, confirming the validity of KCL.
Currents at a node illustrating KCL. Consider the node in Fig. 2.16. Applying KCL gives
i1 + (−i2) + i3 + i4 + (−i5) = 0 (2.16)
since currents i1, i3, and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5
are leaving it. By rearranging the terms, we get
Closed boundary
i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5 (2.17)
Equation (2.17) is an alternative form of KCL:
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the cur-
rents leaving the node.
Note that KCL also applies to a closed boundary . This may be re -

garded as a generalized case, because a node may be regarded as a closed
Figure 2.17 surface shrunk to a point. In tw o dimensions, a closed boundary is the
Applying KCL to a closed boundary. same as a closed path. As typically illustrated in the circuit of Fig. 2.17,
the total current entering the closed surface is equal to the total current
Two sources (or circuits in general) are leaving the surface.
said to be equivalent if they have the A simple application of KCL is combining current sources in paral-
same i-v relationship at a pair of lel. The combined current is the algebraic sum of the current supplied
terminals. by the indi vidual sources. F or e xample, the current sources sho wn in
Fig. 2.18(a) can be combined as in Fig. 2.18(b).The combined or equiva- IT

lent current source can be found by applying KCL to node a. a
IT +I2 =I1 +I3 I1 I2 I3
or b
(a)
IT = I1 − I2 + I3 (2.18)
IT
A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2, in series, unless
I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be violated. a
Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conserv ation of IT = I1 – I2 + I3
energy:
b
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages (b)
around a closed path (or loop) is zero. Figure 2.18
Current sources in parallel: (a) original
circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that
M
∑ vm = 0 (2.19)
m=1
where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches
in the loop) and vm is the mth voltage.
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.19. The sign on
each voltage is the polarity of the terminal encountered first as we travel KVL can be applied in two ways: by
around the loop. We can start with an y branch and go around the loop taking either a clockwise or a counter-
either clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with the v olt- clockwise trip around the loop. Either
age source and go clockwise around the loop as sho wn; then v oltages way, the algebraic sum of voltages
around the loop is zero.
would be −v1, +v2, +v3, +v4, and −v5, in that order. For example, as we
reach branch 3, the positive terminal is met first; hence, we have +v3. For
branch 4, we reach the ne gative terminal first; hence, −v4. Thus, KVL
yields + v2 – + v3 –
−v 1 + v 2 + v 3 − v 4 + v 5 = 0 (2.20)
v1 + –
Rearranging terms gives – + v4
v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4 (2.21) – +
v5
which may be interpreted as Figure 2.19
A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises (2.22)
This is an alternative form of KVL. Notice that if we had traveled coun-

terclockwise, the result w ould have been +v1, −v5, +v4, −v3, and −v2,
which is the same as before e xcept that the signs are re versed. Hence,
Eqs. (2.20) and (2.21) remain the same.
When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied
to obtain the total v oltage. The combined v oltage is the algebraic sum
of the v oltages of the indi vidual sources. F or example, for the v oltage
sources shown in Fig. 2.20(a), the combined or equivalent voltage source
in Fig. 2.20(b) is obtained by applying KVL.
−Vab + V1 + V2 − V3 = 0
or
Vab = V1 + V2 − V3 (2.23)
To avoid violating KVL, a circuit cannot contain tw o different voltages

V1 and V2 in parallel unless V1 = V2.
a
+
+ V
– 1
a
Vab + V +
– 2
Vab + V =V +V –V
– – S 1 2 3
+ V3
– –
b b
(a) (b)
Figure 2.20
Voltage sources in series: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.
Example 2.5 For the circuit in Fig. 2.21(a), find voltages v1 and v2.
2Ω 2Ω
+ v1 – + v1 –
– –
20 V +
– v2 3Ω 20 V +
– i v2 3Ω
+ +
(a) (b)
Figure 2.21
For Example 2.5.
Solution:
To find v1 and v2 we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Assume that current i flows through the loop as shown in Fig. 2.21(b).
From Ohm’s law,
v1 = 2i, v2 = −3i (2.5.1)
Applying KVL around the loop gives
−20 + v1 − v2 = 0 (2.5.2)
Substituting Eq. (2.5.1) into Eq. (2.5.2), we obtain
−20 + 2i + 3i = 0 or 5i = 20 ⇒ i=4A
Substituting i in Eq. (2.5.1) finally gives
v1 = 8 V, v2 = −12 V
Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of Fig. 2.22. Practice Problem 2.5

4Ω
Answer: 16 V, −8 V.
+ v1 –
–
32 V +
–
+ –8 V
+ v2 –
2Ω
Figure 2.22
For Practice Prob. 2.5.
Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23(a). Example 2.6

i 4Ω 2vo 4Ω 2vo
+ – + –
– i –
12 V +
– 4V + 12 V +
– 4V +
6Ω 6Ω
+ vo – + vo –
(a) (b)
Figure 2.23
For Example 2.6.
Solution:
We apply KVL around the loop as shown in Fig. 2.23(b). The result is
−12 + 4i + 2vo − 4 + 6i = 0 (2.6.1)
Applying Ohm’s law to the 6-Ω resistor gives
vo = −6i (2.6.2)
Substituting Eq. (2.6.2) into Eq. (2.6.1) yields
−16 + 10i − 12i = 0 ⇒ i = −8 A
and vo = 48 V.
Find vx and vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.24. Practice Problem 2.6

Answer: 20 V, −10 V. 10 Ω
+ vx –
+
70 V +
– – 2vx
5Ω
+ vo –
Figure 2.24
Example 2.7 Find current io and voltage vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.25.
Solution:
a Applying KCL to node a, we obtain
io
+ 3 + 0.5io = io ⇒ io = 6 A
0.5io vo 4Ω 3A
– For the 4-Ω resistor, Ohm’s law gives
vo = 4io = 24 V
Figure 2.25
For Example 2.7.
Practice Problem 2.7 Find vo and io in the circuit of Fig. 2.26.
Answer: 20 V, 10 A.
io
+
15 A 2Ω io 12 Ω vo
–
Figure 2.26
Example 2.8 Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.27(a).
i1 i3 i1 i3
8Ω a 8Ω a
+ v1 – i2 + v1 – i2
+ + + +
30 V +
–
v2 3Ω v3 6Ω 30 V +
–
Loop 1 v2 3 Ω Loop 2 v3 6Ω
– – – –
(a) (b)
Figure 2.27
For Example 2.8.
Solution:
We apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. By Ohm’s law,
v1 = 8i1, v2 = 3i2, v3 = 6i3 (2.8.1)
Since the voltage and current of each resistor are related by Ohm’s
law as shown, we are really looking for three things: (v1, v2, v3) or (i1, i2, i3).
At node a, KCL gives
i1 − i2 − i3 = 0 (2.8.2)
Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. 2.27(b),
−30 + v1 + v2 = 0
2.5 Series Resistors and Voltage Division 43
We express this in terms of i1 and i2 as in Eq. (2.8.1) to obtain
−30 + 8i1 + 3i2 = 0
or
(30 − 3i2)
i1 = ______ (2.8.3)
8
Applying KVL to loop 2,
−v 2 + v 3 = 0 ⇒ v3 = v2 (2.8.4)
as expected since the two resistors are in parallel. We express v1 and v2 in

terms of i1 and i2 as in Eq. (2.8.1). Equation (2.8.4) becomes
i
6i3 = 3i2 ⇒ i3 = __2 (2.8.5)
2
Substituting Eqs. (2.8.3) and (2.8.5) into (2.8.2) gives
30 − 3i2
_____ i
− i2 − __2 = 0
8 2
or i2 = 2 A. From the v alue of i2, we no w use Eqs. (2.8.1) to (2.8.5) to
obtain
i1 = 3 A, i3 = 1 A, v1 = 24 V, v2 = 6 V, v3 = 6 V
Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.28. Practice Problem 2.8
Answer: v1 = 6 V, v2 = 4 V, v3 = 10 V, i1 = 3 A, i2 = 500 mA, i3 = 2.5 A. i1 i3
2Ω 4Ω
+ v1 – i2 + v3 –
+
10 V + v2 – 6V
– 8Ω +
–
2.5 Series Resistors and Voltage Division
The need to combine resistors in series or in parallel occurs so frequently
Figure 2.28
that it warrants special attention. The process of combining the resistors For Practice Prob. 2.8.
is facilitated by combining two of them at a time. With this in mind, con-
sider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 2.29. The two resistors are in series,
since the same current i flows in both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to
each of the resistors, we obtain
v1 = iR1, v2 = iR2 (2.24)
If we apply KVL to the loop (mo ving in the clockwise direction), we

have i a R1 R2
−v + v1 + v2 = 0 (2.25) + v1 – + v2 –
v +
Combining Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25), we get –
v = v1 + v2 = i(R1 + R2) (2.26)

b
or Figure 2.29
v
i = _____ (2.27)
A single-loop circuit with two resistors
R1 + R2 in series.
Notice that Eq. (2.26) can be written as
v = iReq (2.28)
i a Req implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor
+ v – Req; that is,
v +
– Req = R1 + R2 (2.29)
Thus, Fig. 2.29 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.30.The
b two circuits in Figs. 2.29 and 2.30 are equivalent because they exhibit the
Figure 2.30 same v oltage-current relationships at the terminals a-b. An equivalent
Equivalent circuit of the Fig. 2.29 circuit. circuit such as the one in Fig. 2.30 is useful in simplifying the analysis
of a circuit. In general,
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series

is the sum of the individual resistances.
Resistors in series behave as a single For N resistors in series then,

resistor whose resistance is equal to N
the sum of the resistances of the Req = R1 + R2 + ⋯ + RN = ∑ Rn (2.30)
n=1
individual resistors.
To determine the voltage across each resistor in Fig. 2.29, we substi-
tute Eq. (2.26) into Eq. (2.24) and obtain
R1 R2
v1 = _____ v, v2 = _____ v (2.31)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Notice that the source v oltage v is divided among the resistors in direct
proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the
voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division, and the cir-
cuit in Fig. 2.29 is called avoltage divider. In general, if a voltage divider
has N resistors (R1, R2, … , RN) in series with the source voltage v, the nth
resistor (Rn) will have a voltage drop of
Rn
vn = __________ v (2.32)
R1 + R2 + ⋯ + RN
2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division

i Node a
Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where tw o resistors are connected
in parallel and therefore ha ve the same v oltage across them. From
i1 i2 Ohm’s law,
v +
– R1 R2 v = i1R1 = i2R2
or
Node b v,
i1 = __ v
i2 = __ (2.33)
R1 R2
Figure 2.31
Two resistors in parallel. Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i = i1 + i2 (2.34)
Substituting Eq. (2.33) into Eq. (2.34), we get
( R1 + R2 ) = Req
v + __
i = __ v = v __
1 __ 1 v
___ (2.35)
R1 R2
2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division 45
where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:
1 = __
___ 1 + __
1 (2.36)
Req R1 R2
or
R1 + R2
1 =______
___
Req R1R2
or
R1R2
Req = _____ (2.37)
R1 +R2
Thus,
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the prod-

uct of their resistances divided by their sum.
It must be emphasized that this applies only to tw o resistors in parallel.

From Eq. (2.37), if R1 = R2 then Req = R1/R2.
We can extend the result in Eq. (2.36) to the general case of a circuit
with N resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is
1 = __
___ 1 + __
1 + ⋯ + ___
1
Req R1 R2 RN (2.38)
Note that Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor
in the parallel combination. If R1 = R2 = ⋯=RN = R, then
R
Req = __ (2.39)
N
Conductances in parallel behave as a
single conductance whose value is
For e xample, if four 100- Ω resistors are connected in parallel, their equal to the sum of the individual
equivalent resistance is 25 Ω. conductances.
It is often more convenient to use conductance rather than resistance
when dealing with resistors in parallel. From Eq. (2.38), the equi valent
conductance for N resistors in parallel is
Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 + ⋯ + GN (2.40)
where Geq = 1/ Req, G1 = 1/ R1, G2 = 1/ R2, G3 = 1/ R3, … , GN = 1/ RN.

Equation (2.40) states:
i a
The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the
sum of their individual conductances.
v + v Req or Geq
–
This means that we may replace the circuit in Fig. 2.31 with that in
Fig. 2.32. Notice the similarity between Eqs. (2.30) and (2.40). The
equivalent conductance of parallel resistors is obtained the same w ay b
as the equi valent resistance of series resistors. In the same manner , the Figure 2.32
equivalent conductance of resistors in series is obtained just the same Equivalent circuit to Fig. 2.31.
way as the resistance of resistors in parallel. Thus, the equivalent con-

ductance Geq of N resistors in series (such as shown in Fig. 2.29) is
___ 1 + __
1 = __ 1 + __
1 + ⋯ + ___
1
Geq G1 G2 G3 GN (2.41)
Given the total current i entering node a in Fig. 2.31, ho w do we

i obtain current i1 and i2? We kno w that the equi valent resistor has the
same voltage, or
i1 = 0 i2 = i
iR1 R2
R1 R2 = 0 v = iReq = _____ (2.42)
R1 + R2
Combining Eqs. (2.33) and (2.42) results in

(a)
i R2 i R1 i
i1 = _____ , i2 = _____ (2.43)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
i2 = 0
i1 = i
R1 R2 = ∞ which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in in -

verse proportion to their resistances. This is kno wn as the principle
of current division, and the circuit in Fig. 2.31 is known as a current
divider. Notice that the lar ger current flows through the smaller re -
(b) sistance.
Figure 2.33 As an extreme case, suppose one of the resistors in Fig. 2.31 is zero,
(a) A shorted circuit, (b) an open circuit. say R2 = 0; that is, R2 is a short circuit, as sho wn in Fig. 2.33(a). From
Eq. (2.43), R2 = 0 implies that i1 = 0, i2 = i. This means that the entire
current i bypasses R1 and flows through the short circuit R2 = 0, the path
of least resistance. Thus when a circuit is short circuited, as sho wn in
Fig. 2.33(a), two things should be kept in mind:
1. The equivalent resistance Req = 0. [See what happens when R2 = 0
in Eq. (2.37).]
2. The entire current flows through the short circuit.
As another e xtreme case, suppose R2 = ∞, that is, R2 is an open
circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.33(b). The current still flows through the path
of least resistance, R1. By taking the limit of Eq. (2.37) as R2 → ∞, we
obtain Req = R1 in this case.
If we divide both the numerator and denominator by R1R2, Eq. (2.43)
becomes
G1
i1 = _____ i (2.44a)
G1 + G2
G2
i2 = _____ i (2.44b)
G1 + G2
Thus, in general, if a current divider has N conductors (G1, G2, … , GN) in

parallel with the source current i, the nth conductor (Gn) will have current
Gn
in = __________ i (2.45)
G1 + G2 + ⋯ + GN
In general, it is often convenient and possible to combine resistors in

series and parallel and reduce a resisti ve network to a single equivalent
resistance Req. Such an equi valent resistance is the resistance between
the designated terminals of the netw ork and must e xhibit the same i-v
characteristics as the original network at the terminals.
Find Req for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.34. Example 2.9
Solution: 4Ω 1Ω
To get Req, we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6- Ω and
3-Ω resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent resistance is 2Ω
Req
5Ω
6×3=2Ω
6 Ω ∥ 3Ω = ____
6+3 6Ω 3Ω
8Ω
(The symbol ∥ is used to indicate a parallel combination.) Also, the 1-Ω

Figure 2.34
and 5-Ω resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is For Example 2.9.
1Ω+5Ω = 6Ω
4Ω
Thus the circuit in Fig. 2.34 is reduced to that in Fig. 2.35(a). In
Fig. 2.35(a), we notice that the tw o 2- Ω resistors are in series, so the 2Ω
equivalent resistance is Req
6Ω
2Ω
2Ω+2Ω=4Ω 8Ω
This 4-Ω resistor is now in parallel with the 6-Ω resistor in Fig. 2.35(a); (a)
their equivalent resistance is 4Ω
4 × 6 = 2.4 Ω
4 Ω ∥ 6 Ω = ____ Req
4+6 2.4 Ω
8Ω
The circuit in Fig. 2.35(a) is now replaced with that in Fig. 2.35(b). In
Fig. 2.35(b), the three resistors are in series. Hence, the equivalent resis-
(b)
tance for the circuit is
Figure 2.35
Req = 4 Ω + 2.4 Ω + 8 Ω = 14.4 Ω Equivalent circuits for Example 2.9.
By combining the resistors in Fig. 2.36, find Req. Practice Problem 2.9
Answer: 11 Ω.
4Ω 4Ω 8Ω
Req
6Ω 12 Ω 10 Ω
3Ω 6Ω
Figure 2.36
Example 2.10 Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit in Fig. 2.37.
10 Ω c 1Ω d 1Ω
a
6Ω
Rab
3Ω 4Ω 5Ω
12 Ω
b
b b
Figure 2.37
For Example 2.10.
Solution:
The 3-Ω and 6-Ω resistors are in parallel because they are connected to
the same two nodes c and b. Their combined resistance is
10 Ω c 1Ω d
a 3×6=2Ω
3 Ω ∥ 6 Ω = ____ (2.10.1)
3+6
2Ω 3Ω 6Ω Similarly, the 12-Ω and 4-Ω resistors are in parallel since the y are con-
nected to the same two nodes d and b. Hence
b
b b b 12 × 4 = 3 Ω
12 Ω ∥ 4 Ω = ____ (2.10.2)
12 + 4
(a)
Also the 1-Ω and 5-Ω resistors are in series; hence, their equivalent re -
10 Ω
a
c sistance is
2Ω 3Ω 1Ω+5Ω=6Ω (2.10.3)
b With these three combinations, we can replace the circuit in Fig. 2.37 with
b b that in Fig. 2.38(a). In Fig. 2.38(a), 3-Ω in parallel with 6-Ω gives 2-Ω, as
(b) calculated in Eq. (2.10.1). This 2-Ω equivalent resistance is now in series
Figure 2.38 with the 1-Ω resistance to give a combined resistance of 1 Ω +2Ω=3Ω.
Equivalent circuits for Example 2.10. Thus, we replace the circuit in Fig. 2.38(a) with that in Fig. 2.38(b). In
Fig. 2.38(b), we combine the 2-Ω and 3-Ω resistors in parallel to get
2 × 3 = 1.2 Ω
2 Ω ∥ 3 Ω = ____
2+3
This 1.2-Ω resistor is in series with the 10-Ω resistor, so that
Rab = 10 + 1.2 = 11.2 Ω
Practice Problem 2.10 Find Rab for the circuit in Fig. 2.39.
20 Ω
Answer: 19 Ω.
16 Ω 5Ω
a
Rab 18 Ω 20 Ω
1Ω
9Ω
2Ω
b
Figure 2.39
Find the equivalent conductance Geq for the circuit in Fig. 2.40(a). Example 2.11
5S
Solution:
The 8-S and 12-S resistors are in parallel, so their conductance is Geq
6S 8S 12 S
8 S + 12 S = 20 S
This 20-S resistor is now in series with 5 S as shown in Fig. 2.40(b) so (a)
that the combined conductance is
5S
20 × 5 
 ____   = 4 S
20 + 5 Geq
6S 20 S
This is in parallel with the 6-S resistor. Hence,
G eq = 6 + 4 = 10 S
(b)
We should note that the circuit in Fig. 2.40(a) is the same as that in 1
5Ω
Fig. 2.40(c). While the resistors in Fig. 2.40(a) are expressed in siemens,
those in Fig. 2.40(c) are expressed in ohms. To show that the circuits are Req
1 1 1
the same, we find Req for the circuit in Fig. 2.40(c). 6Ω 8Ω 12 Ω
Req = __ ∥
  1   ( __
6 5 8 12 ) 6 ( 5 20 ) 6 4
  1   + __ ∥   1    = __
  1   ___ ∥
  1   __
  1   + ___
  1    = __ ∥
  1   __
  1   
(c)
_
Figure 2.40
  1  × _  1 
= ____   1   Ω
  _16 _14   = ___ For Example 2.11: (a) original circuit,
  6  +   4  10 (b) its equivalent circuit, (c) same circuit as
in (a) but resistors are expressed in ohms.
  1    = 10 S
Geq = ___
Req
This is the same as we obtained previously.
Calculate Geq in the circuit of Fig. 2.41. Practice Problem 2.11

Answer: 8 S.
7S 5S
Geq
16 S 8S
Figure 2.41
Find io and vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.42(a). Calculate the power Example 2.12
dissipated in the 3-Ω resistor.
Solution:
The 6-Ω and 3-Ω resistors are in parallel, so their combined resistance is
  6 × 3 
6 Ω ∥ 3 Ω = ____   = 2 Ω
6 + 3
Thus, our circuit reduces to that shown in Fig. 2.42(b). Notice that vo is
not affected by the combination of the resistors because the resistors are
i io in parallel and therefore have the same voltage vo. From Fig. 2.42(b), we
4Ω a
can obtain vo in two ways. One way is to apply Ohm’s law to get
+
vo
12 = 2 A
i = _____
12 V +
– 6Ω 3Ω 4+2
–
and hence, vo = 2i = 2 × 2 = 4 V. Another way is to apply voltage divi-
b sion, since the 12 V in Fig. 2.42(b) is divided between the 4-Ω and 2-Ω
(a) resistors. Hence,
i 2 (12 V) = 4 V
vo = _____
4Ω a 2+4
+ Similarly, io can be obtained in two ways. One approach is to apply
12 V +
–
vo 2Ω Ohm’s law to the 3-Ω resistor in Fig. 2.42(a) now that we know vo; thus,
–
vo = 3io = 4 ⇒ 4A
io = __
b 3
(b) Another approach is to apply current division to the circuit in Fig. 2.42(a)
Figure 2.42 now that we know i, by writing
For Example 2.12: (a) original circuit,
(b) its equivalent circuit. 6 i = __
io = _____ 4A
2 (2 A) =__
6+3 3 3
The power dissipated in the 3-Ω resistor is
po = voio = 4 (__
3)
4 = 5.333 W
Practice Problem 2.12 Find v1 and v2 in the circuit sho wn in Fig. 2.43. Also calculate i1 and i2
and the power dissipated in the 12-Ω and 40-Ω resistors.
i1
12 Ω
Answer: v1 = 10 V, i1 = 833.3 mA, p1 = 8.333 W, v2 = 20 V, i2 = 500 mA,
+ v1 – p2 = 10 W.
6Ω
i2
+
30 V +
– 10 Ω v2 40 Ω
–
Figure 2.43
Example 2.13 For the circuit sho wn in Fig. 2.44(a), determine: (a) the v oltage vo,
(b) the power supplied by the current source, (c) the po wer absorbed by
each resistor.
Solution:
(a) The 6-k Ω and 12-k Ω resistors are in series so that their combined
value is 6 + 12 = 18 kΩ. Thus the circuit in Fig. 2.44(a) reduces to that
shown in Fig. 2.44(b). We now apply the current division technique to
find i1 and i2.
18,000
i1 =_____________
(30 mA) = 20 mA
9,000 + 18,000
9,000
i2 = _____________ (30 mA) = 10 mA
9,000 + 18,000
2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 51
Notice that the voltage across the 9-kΩ and 18-kΩ resistors is the same, 6 kΩ
and vo = 9,000i1 = 18,000i2 = 180 V, as expected.
(b) Power supplied by the source is +
30 mA vo 9 kΩ 12 kΩ
po = voio = 180(30) mW = 5.4 W –
(c) Power absorbed by the 12-kΩ resistor is (a)
p = iv = i2 (i2 R) = i 2
2R = (10 ×10 ) (12,000) =1.2 W
−3 2
io i2
Power absorbed by the 6-kΩ resistor is i1

+
30 mA vo 9 kΩ 18 kΩ
p = i22 R = (10 × 10−3)2 (6,000) = 0.6 W –
Power absorbed by the 9-kΩ resistor is

v2 (180) 2 (b)
p = __o = _____ = 3.6 W
R 9,000 Figure 2.44
For Example 2.13: (a) original circuit,
or (b) its equivalent circuit.
p = voi1 = 180(20) mW = 3.6 W
Notice that the power supplied (5.4 W) equals the power absorbed (1.2 +
0.6 + 3.6 = 5.4 W). This is one way of checking results.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.45, find: (a) v1 and v2, (b) the power dis- Practice Problem 2.13
sipated in the 3-k Ω and 20-k Ω resistors, and (c) the power supplied by
the current source.
3 kΩ
+ +
9 kΩ v1 30 mA 15 kΩ v2 60 kΩ
– –
Figure 2.45
Answer: (a) 135 V, 180 V, (b) 2.025 W, 540 mW, (c) 5.4 W.
2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations R1
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither
in parallel nor in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in R2 R3
Fig. 2.46. How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when the resistors
R4
are neither in series nor in parallel? Man y circuits of the type sho wn in vs +
–
Fig. 2.46 can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks.
These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) netw ork shown in Fig. 2.47 and the R5 R6
delta (Δ) or pi (Π) network shown in Fig. 2.48. These networks occur by
themselves or as part of a lar ger network. They are used in three-phase Figure 2.46
networks, electrical filters, and matching networks. Our main interest The bridge network.
1 3
R1 R2
R1 R2 1 3
R3 R3
2 4 2 4
(a) (b)
Figure 2.47
Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.
Rc
here is in how to identify them when they occur as part of a network and
1 3 how to apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis of that network.
Rb Ra Delta to Wye Conversion

Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place
2 4 where the circuit contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a wye
(a) network on the existing delta network and find the equivalent resistances
in the wye network. To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye net-
Rc
work, we compare the tw o networks and mak e sure that the resistance
1 3
between each pair of nodes in the Δ (or Π) network is the same as the
resistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network. For
Rb Ra terminals 1 and 2 in Figs. 2.47 and 2.48, for example,
R12 (Y) = R1 + R3 (2.46)
2 4
(b) R12(Δ)=Rb∥(Ra+Rc)
Figure 2.48
Setting R12(Y) = R12(Δ) gives
Two forms of the same network: (a) Δ,
Rb (Ra + Rc)
(b) Π. R12 = R1 + R3 = _________ (2.47a)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Similarly,
Rc (Ra + Rb)
R13 = R1 + R2 = _________ (2.47b)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra (Rb + Rc)
R34 = R2 + R3 = _________ (2.47c)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Subtracting Eq. (2.47c) from Eq. (2.47a), we get
Rc (Rb − Ra)
R1 − R2 = _________ (2.48)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Adding Eqs. (2.47b) and (2.48) gives
Rb Rc (2.49)
R1 = ________
Ra + Rb + Rc
and subtracting Eq. (2.48) from Eq. (2.47b) yields
Rc Ra
R2 = ________ (2.50)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Subtracting Eq. (2.49) from Eq. (2.47a), we obtain
Ra Rb (2.51)
R3 = ________
Ra + Rb + Rc
We do not need to memorize Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51). To transform a ∆ Rc

network to Y, we create an extra node n as shown in Fig. 2.49 and follow a b
R1 R2
this conversion rule:
n
Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent Δ branches, divided by the sum of the three Δ resistors.
Rb Ra
One can follow this rule and obtain Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) from Fig. 2.49. R3
Wye to Delta Conversion

c
To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye network to an
Figure 2.49
equivalent delta network, we note from Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) that Superposition of Y and Δ networks as an
Ra Rb Rc (Ra + Rb + Rc) aid in transforming one to the other.
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 = _________________
(Ra + Rb + Rc) 2
Ra Rb Rc (2.52)
=_______
Ra + Rb + Rc
Dividing Eq. (2.52) by each of Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) leads to the follo w-
ing equations:
R1 R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
Ra = _________________ (2.53)
R1
R1 R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 (2.54)

Rb = _________________
R2
R1 R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 (2.55)

Rc = _________________
R3
From Eqs. (2.53) to (2.55) and Fig. 2.49, the con version rule for Y to Δ
is as follows:
Each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of all possible products of Y

resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
The Y and Δ networks are said to be balanced when
R1 = R2 = R3 = RY, Ra = Rb = Rc = R∆ (2.56)
Under these conditions, conversion formulas become
RΔ (2.57)
RY = ___ or RΔ = 3RY
3
One may w onder wh y RY is less than RΔ. Well, we notice that the
Y-connection is like a “series” connection while the Δ-connection is like
a “parallel” connection.
Note that in making the transformation, we do not take anything out
of the circuit or put in anything new. We are merely substituting different
but mathematically equivalent three-terminal network patterns to create
a circuit in which resistors are either in series or in parallel, allo wing us
to calculate Req if necessary.
Example 2.14 Convert the Δ network in Fig. 2.50(a) to an equivalent Y network.

Rc
a b a b
25 Ω
5Ω 7.5 Ω
R1 R2
10 Ω 15 Ω
Rb Ra
R3 3Ω
c c
(a) (b)
Figure 2.50
For Example 2.14: (a) original Δ network, (b) Y equivalent network.
Solution:
Using Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51), we obtain
Rb Rc
R1 = _______ 10 × 25 = ___
= ________ 250 = 5 Ω
Ra + Rb + Rc 15 + 10 + 25 50
Rc Ra
R2 = _______ 25 × 15 = 7.5 Ω
= _____
Ra + Rb + Rc 50
Ra Rb
R3 = _______ 15 × 10 =3 Ω
= _____
Ra + Rb + Rc 50
The equivalent Y network is shown in Fig. 2.50(b).
Practice Problem 2.14 Transform the wye network in Fig. 2.51 to a delta network.
R1 R2 Answer: Ra = 140 Ω, Rb = 70 Ω, Rc = 35 Ω.
a b
10 Ω 20 Ω
R3 40 Ω
c
Figure 2.51
Example 2.15 Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in Fig. 2.52 and use
it to find current i.
Solution:
1. Define. The problem is clearly defined. Please note, this part nor-
mally will deservedly take much more time.
2. Present. Clearly, when we remove the voltage source, we end up with
a purely resistive circuit. Since it is composed of deltas and wyes, we
have a more comple x process of combining the elements together .
We can use wye-delta transformations as one approach to find a so- i

a a
lution. It is useful to locate the wyes (there are tw o of them, one at
n and the other at c) and the deltas (there are three: can, abn, cnb).
3. Alternative. There are different approaches that can be used to solve 12.5 Ω 10 Ω
this problem. Since the focus of Sec. 2.7 is the wye-delta transfor -
5Ω
mation, this should be the technique to use.Another approach would 120 V +
– c n 30 Ω
be to solv e for the equi valent resistance by injecting one amp into
the circuit and finding the voltage between a and b; we will learn 15 Ω 20 Ω
about this approach in Chap. 4.
The approach we can apply here as a check w ould be to use
a wye-delta transformation as the first solution to the problem. b b
Later we can check the solution by starting with a delta-wye Figure 2.52
transformation. For Example 2.15.
4. Attempt. In this circuit, there are two Y networks and three Δ networks.
Transforming just one of these will simplify the circuit. If we con
vert the
Y network comprising the 5-Ω, 10-Ω, and 20-Ω resistors, we may select
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 5 Ω
Thus from Eqs. (2.53) to (2.55) we have

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 ______________
Ra = _____________ = 10 × 20 + 20 × 5 + 5 × 10
R1 10
350 = 35 Ω
= ___
10
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 ___
Rb = _____________ = 350 = 17.5 Ω
R2 20
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 ___
Rc = _____________ = 350 =70 Ω
R3 5
With the Y converted to Δ, the equivalent circuit (with the volt-
age source removed for now) is shown in Fig. 2.53(a). Combining
the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain
70 × 30 = 21 Ω
70∥30 = _____
70 + 30
12.5 × 17.5 = 7.292 Ω
12.5∥17.5 = ________
12.5 + 17.5
15 × 35 = 10.5 Ω
15∥35 = _____
15 + 35 a
4.545 Ω
a
d
12.5 Ω 2.273 Ω 1.8182 Ω 30 Ω
17.5 Ω a
70 Ω 30 Ω 7.292 Ω
c n
35 Ω 21 Ω
15 Ω 15 Ω 20 Ω
10.5 Ω
b b b
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.53
Equivalent circuits to Fig. 2.52, with the voltage source removed.
so that the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.53(b). Hence, we find
17.792 × 21 = 9.632 Ω
Rab = (7.292 +10.5) ∥ 21 = ________
17.792 + 21
Then
vs 120 = 12.458 A
i = ___ = ____
Rab 9.632
We observe that we have successfully solved the problem. Now

we must evaluate the solution.
5. Evaluate. Now we must determine if the answer is correct and then
evaluate the final solution.
It is relatively easy to check the answer; we do this by solving
the problem starting with a delta-wye transformation. Let us trans -
form the delta, can, into a wye.
Let Rc = 10 Ω, Ra = 5 Ω, and Rn = 12.5 Ω. This will lead to (let
d represent the middle of the wye):
Rc Rn
Rad = _______ 10 × 12.5 = 4.545 Ω
= ________
Ra + Rc + Rn 5 + 10 +12.5
= 5 × 12.5 = 2.273 Ω
Ra Rn ______
Rcd = ____
27.5 27.5
= 5 × 10 = 1.8182 Ω
Ra Rc ____
Rnd = ____
27.5 27.5
This now leads to the circuit sho wn in Figure 2.53(c). Looking at

the resistance between d and b, we have two series combination in
parallel, giving us
(2.273 + 15)(1.8182 + 20) 376.9

Rdb = ________________ = ____ = 9.642 Ω
2.273 + 15 + 1.8182 + 20 39.09
This is in series with the 4.545-Ω resistor, both of which are in par-
allel with the 30-Ω resistor. This then gives us the equivalent resis-
tance of the circuit.
(9.642 + 4.545)30 425.6 = 9.631 Ω

Rab = ____________ = ____
9.642 + 4.545 + 30 44.19
This now leads to
vs 120 = 12.46 A
i = ___ = ____
Rab 9.631
We note that using tw o variations on the wye-delta transformation

leads to the same results. This represents a very good check.
6. Satisfactory? Since we ha ve found the desired answer by deter -
mining the equi valent resistance of the circuit first and the an-
swer checks, then we clearly ha ve a satisfactory solution. This
represents what can be presented to the indi vidual assigning the
problem.
2.8 Applications 57
For the bridge network in Fig. 2.54, find Rab and i. Practice Problem 2.15
i 6Ω
a
Answer: 60 Ω, 4 A.
48 Ω 20 Ω
40 Ω
240 V +
–
60 Ω 100 Ω
2.8 Applications
Resistors are often used to model de vices that con vert electrical ener - b
gy into heat or other forms of energy. Such devices include conducting
Figure 2.54
wire, light bulbs, electric heaters, stoves, ovens, and loudspeakers. In this For Practice Prob. 2.15.
section, we will consider two real-life problems that apply the concepts
developed in this chapter: electrical lighting systems and design of dc
meters.
2.8.1 Lighting Systems

Lighting systems, such as in a house or on a Christmas tree, often con- So far, we have assumed that connect-
sist of N lamps connected either in parallel or in series, as sho wn in ing wires are perfect conductors (i.e.,
Fig. 2.55. Each lamp is modeled as a resistor . Assuming that all the conductors of zero resistance). In real
lamps are identical and Vo is the power-line voltage, the voltage across physical systems, however, the
each lamp is Vo for the parallel connection and Vo /N for the series con- resistance of the connecting wire may
nection. The series connection is easy to manufa cture b ut is seldom be appreciably large, and the
used in practice, for at least two reasons. First, it is less reliable; when modeling of the system must include
that resistance.
a lamp fa ils, all the lamps go out. Second, it is harder to maintain;
when a lamp is bad, one must test all the lamps one by one to detect
the faulty one.
Historical
Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) was perhaps the greatestAmerican
inventor. He patented 1093 inventions, including such history-making
inventions as the incandescent electric bulb, the phonograph, and the
first commercial motion pictures.
Born in Milan, Ohio, the youngest of seven children, Edison re-
ceived only three months of formal education because he hated school.
He was home-schooled by his mother and quickly began to read on
his own. In 1868, Edison read one of Faraday’s books and found his
calling. He moved to Menlo Park, New Jersey, in 1876, where he man -
aged a well-staffed research laboratory. Most of his inventions came
out of this laboratory. His laboratory served as a model for modern re-
search organizations. Because of his diverse interests and the over -
whelming number of his inventions and patents, Edison began to estab - Library of Congress
lish manufacturing companies for making the devices he invented. He
designed the first electric power station to supply electric light. Formal
electrical engineering education began in the mid-1880s with Edison as
a role model and leader.
1
2
+
Vo
–
1 2 3 N
+ 3
Vo
–
Power N
plug
(a) Lamp (b)
Figure 2.55
(a) Parallel connection of light bulbs, (b) series connection of light bulbs.
Example 2.16 Three light bulbs are connected to a 9-V battery as sho wn in Fig. 2.56(a).
Calculate: (a) the total current supplied by the battery , (b) the current
through each bulb, (c) the resistance of each bulb.
I I1
I2
+
V2 R2
– +
15 W 9V V1 R1
+ –
9V 20 W V3 R3
10 W –
(a) (b)
Figure 2.56
(a) Lighting system with three bulbs, (b) resistive circuit equivalent model.
Solution:
(a) The total po wer supplied by the battery is equal to the total po wer
absorbed by the bulbs; that is,
p = 15 + 10 + 20 = 45 W
Since p = V I, then the total current supplied by the battery is
p 45
I = __ = __ =5A
V 9
(b) The bulbs can be modeled as resistors as shown in Fig. 2.56(b). Since
R1 (20-W bulb) is in parallel with the battery as well as the series com -
bination of R2 and R3,
V1 = V2 + V3 = 9 V
The current through R1 is

p 20 = 2.222 A
I1 = __1 = __
V1 9
2.8 Applications 59
By KCL, the current through the series combination of R2 and R3 is
I2 = I − I1 = 5 − 2.222 = 2.778 A
(c) Since p = I2R,

p1 _____
R1 = ___ = 20 2 = 4.05 Ω
I21 2.222
p2 _____
R2 = ___ = 15 2 = 1.945 Ω
I22 2.777
p3 _____
R3 = ___ = 10 2 = 1.297 Ω
I 23 2.777
Refer to Fig. 2.55 and assume there are six light b ulbs that can be con - Practice Problem 2.16
nected in parallel and six dif ferent light b ulbs that can be connected in
series. In either case, each light bulb is to operate at 40 W. If the voltage
at the plug is 115 V for the parallel and series connections, calculate the
current through and the voltage across each bulb for both cases.
Answer: 115 V and 347.8 mA (parallel), 19.167 V and 2.087 A (series).
a
2.8.2 Design of DC Meters
Max
By their nature, resistors are used to control the flow of current. We take
b
advantage of this property in se veral applications, such as in a poten - Vin +
–
tiometer (Fig. 2.57). The w ord potentiometer, derived from the w ords +
Vout
potential and meter, implies that potential can be metered out. The po- Min –
tentiometer (or pot for short) is a three-terminal de vice that operates on c
the principle of v oltage division. It is essentially an adjustable v oltage
Figure 2.57
divider. As a voltage regulator, it is used as a volume or level control on The potentiometer controlling potential
radios, TVs, and other devices. In Fig. 2.57, levels.
Rbc
Vout = Vbc = ___ V (2.58)
Rac in
where Rac = Rab + Rbc. Thus, Vout decreases or increases as the sliding
contact of the pot moves toward c or a, respectively.
Another application where resistors are used to control current flow
is in the analog dc meters—the ammeter,voltmeter, and ohmmeter, which
measure current, voltage, and resistance, respectively. Each of these me-
ters employs the d’Arsonval meter mo vement, shown in Fig. 2.58. The
movement consists essentially of a mo vable iron-core coil mounted on An instrument capable of measuring
a pivot between the poles of a permanent magnet. When current flows voltage, current, and resistance is
through the coil, it creates a torque which causes the pointer to deflect. called a multimeter or a volt-ohm
The amount of current through the coil determines the deflection of the meter (VOM).
pointer, which is registered on a scale attached to the meter movement.
For example, if the meter mo vement is rated 1 mA, 50 Ω, it w ould take
1 mA to cause a full-scale deflection of the meter movement. By intro- A load is a component that is receiving
ducing additional circuitry to the d’Arsonval meter mo vement, an am - energy (an energy sink), as opposed
meter, voltmeter, or ohmmeter can be constructed. to a generator supplying energy (an
Consider Fig. 2.59, where an analog v oltmeter and ammeter are con - energy source). More about loading
nected to an element. The voltmeter measures the voltage across a load and will be discussed in Section 4.9.1.
scale
spring
pointer
N permanent magnet
spring rotating coil
stationary iron core

Figure 2.58
A d’Arsonval meter movement.
Ammeter I
A is therefore connected in parallel with the element.As shown in Fig. 2.60(a),
the voltmeter consists of a d’Arson val movement in series with a resistor
+
whose resistance Rm is deliberately made very large (theoretically, infinite),
Voltmeter V V Element
to minimize the current drawn from the circuit. To extend the range of volt-
–
age that the meter can measure, series multiplier resistors are oftenconnected
with the voltmeters, as shown in Fig. 2.60(b). The multiple-range voltmeter
Figure 2.59 in Fig. 2.60(b) can measure v oltage from 0 to 1 V, 0 to 10 V, or 0 to 100 V,
Connection of a voltmeter and an depending on whether the switch is connected to R1, R2, or R3, respectively.
ammeter to an element. Let us calculate the multiplier resistorRn for the single-range voltmeter
in Fig. 2.60(a), or Rn = R1, R2, or R3 for the multiple-range voltmeter in
Fig. 2.60(b). We need to determine the value of Rn to be connected in series
with the internal resistance Rm of the voltmeter. In any design, we consider
the worst-case condition. In this case, the worst case occurs when the full-
scale current Ifs = Im flows through the meter. This should also correspond
Multiplier Meter
Rn
+ Im Rm
Probes V
–
(a)
R1
1V Meter
R2 10 V Switch
+ Im Rm
100 V
Probes V R3
–
(b)
Figure 2.60
Voltmeters: (a) single-range type, (b) multiple-range type.
2.8 Applications 61
to the maximum v oltage reading or the full-scale v oltage Vfs. Since the Rn
In
multiplier resistance Rn is in series with the internal resistance Rm,
Vfs = I fs (Rn +Rm) (2.59) Meter
Im
From this, we obtain
Vfs Rm
Rn = ___ − Rm (2.60)
Ifs I
Similarly, the ammeter measures the current through the load and is
Probes
connected in series with it. As shown in Fig. 2.61(a), the ammeter consists
of a d’Arsonval movement in parallel with a resistor whose resistance Rm (a)
is deliberately made very small (theoretically, zero) to minimize the v olt-
age drop across it. To allow multiple ranges, shunt resistors are often con- R1
nected in parallel with Rm as sho wn in Fig. 2.61(b). The shunt resistors 10 mA
allow the meter to measure in the range 0–10 mA, 0–100 mA, or 0–1 A, R2 100 mA Switch
depending on whether the switch is connected toR1, R2, or R3, respectively.
Now our objective is to obtain the multiplier shunt Rn for the single- 1A
range ammeter in Fig. 2.61(a), or Rn = R1, R2, or R3 for the multiple-range R3
ammeter in Fig. 2.61(b). We notice that Rm and Rn are in parallel and that
Meter
at full-scale reading I = Ifs = Im + In, where In is the current through the
shunt resistor Rn. Applying the current division principle yields Im
Rn Rm
Im = _____ I I
Rn + Rm fs
or
Probes
Im
Rn = _____ R (2.61)
Ifs − Im m (b)
The resistance Rx of a linear resistor can be measured in tw o ways. Figure 2.61

Ammeters: (a) single-range type,
An indirect way is to measure the current I that flows through it by con-
(b) multiple-range type.
necting an ammeter in series with it and the v oltage V across it by con -
necting a voltmeter in parallel with it, as shown in Fig. 2.62(a). Then
V
Rx = __ (2.62)
I A
The direct method of measuring resistance is to use an ohmmeter .
I
An ohmmeter consists basically of a d’Arson val movement, a v ariable +
resistor or potentiometer, and a battery, as shown in Fig. 2.62(b). Apply- Rx V V
ing KVL to the circuit in Fig. 2.62(b) gives –
E = (R + Rm + Rx)Im
(a)
or
E − (R +R )
Rx = __ (2.63)
Ohmmeter
m
Im Im
The resistor R is selected such that the meter gives a full-scale deflection;
that is, Im = Ifs when Rx = 0. This implies that Rm R
E = (R + Rm) Ifs (2.64) E Rx
Substituting Eq. (2.64) into Eq. (2.63) leads to
( Im )
Ifs
Rx = __ −1 (R + Rm) (2.65) (b)
Figure 2.62
As mentioned, the types of meters we ha ve discussed are kno wn as Two ways of measuring resistance:
analog meters and are based on the d’Arsonval meter movement. Another (a) using an ammeter and a voltmeter,
type of meter , called a digital meter, is based on acti ve circuit elements (b) using an ohmmeter.
Historical
Samuel F. B. Morse (1791–1872), an American painter, invented
the telegraph, the first practical, commercialized application of
electricity.
Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, and studied at Yale
and the Royal Academy of Arts in London to become an artist. In the
1830s, he became intrigued with developing a telegraph. He had a working
model by 1836 and applied for a patent in 1838. The U.S. Senate appro -
priated funds for Morse to construct a telegraph line between Baltimore
and Washington, D.C. On May 24, 1844, he sent the famous first mes-
sage: “What hath God wrought!” Morse also developed a code of dots and
dashes for letters and numbers, for sending messages on the telegraph. The
development of the telegraph led to the invention of the telephone.
Library of Congress
such as op amps. For example, a digital multimeter displays measurements

of dc or ac voltage, current, and resistance as discrete numbers, instead of
using a pointer deflection on a continuous scale as in an analog multimeter.
Digital meters are what you would most likely use in a modern lab. How-
ever, the design of digital meters is beyond the scope of this book.
Example 2.17
Following the v oltmeter setup of Fig. 2.60, design a v oltmeter for the
following multiple ranges:
(a) 0–1 V (b) 0–5 V (c) 0–50 V (d) 0–100 V
Assume that the internal resistance Rm = 2 kΩ and the full-scale current
Ifs =100μA.
Solution:
We apply Eq. (2.60) and assume that R1, R2, R3, and R4 correspond with
ranges 0–1 V, 0–5 V, 0–50 V, and 0–100 V, respectively.
(a) For range 0–1 V,
1
R1 = _______ − 2000 = 10,000 − 2000 = 8 kΩ
100 × 10 −6
(b) For range 0–5 V,
5
R2 = _______ − 2000 = 50,000 − 2000 = 48 kΩ
100 × 10 −6
(c) For range 0–50 V,
50
R3 = _______ − 2000 = 500,000 − 2000 = 498 kΩ
100 × 10 −6
(d) For range 0–100 V,
100 V − 2000 = 1,000,000 − 2000 = 998 kΩ
R4 = _______
100 × 10 −6
Note that the ratio of the total resistance (Rn + Rm) to the full-scale volt-
age Vfs is constant and equal to 1/Ifs for the four ranges. This ratio (given
in ohms per v olt, or Ω/ V) is kno wn as the sensitivity of the v oltmeter.
The larger the sensitivity, the better the voltmeter.
2.9 Summary 63
Following the ammeter setup of Fig. 2.61, design an ammeter for the Practice Problem 2.17
following multiple ranges:
(a) 0–1 A (b) 0–100 mA (c) 0–10 mA
Take the full-scale meter current as Im = 1 mA and the internal resistance
of the ammeter as Rm = 50 Ω.
Answer: Shunt resistors: 50 mΩ, 505 mΩ, 5.556 Ω.
2.9 Summary
1. A resistor is a passi ve element in which the v oltage v across it is
directly proportional to the current i through it. That is, a resistor is
a device that obeys Ohm’s law,
v = iR
where R is the resistance of the resistor.
2. A short circuit is a resistor (a perfectly , conducting wire) with zero
resistance (R = 0). An open circuit is a resistor with infinite resis-
tance (R = ∞).
3. The conductance G of a resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance:
1
G = __
R
4. A branch is a single tw o-terminal element in an electric circuit. A
node is the point of connection between tw o or more branches. A
loop is a closed path in a circuit. The number of branches b, the
number of nodes n, and the number of independent loops l in a net-
work are related as
b=l+n−1
5. Kirchhoff’s current la w (KCL) states that the currents at an y node
algebraically sum to zero. In other w ords, the sum of the currents
entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving the node.
6. Kirchhoff’s v oltage la w (KVL) states that the v oltages around a
closed path algebraically sum to zero. In other w ords, the sum of
voltage rises equals the sum of voltage drops.
7. Two elements are in series when the y are connected sequentially ,
end to end. When elements are in series, the same current flows
through them (i1 = i2). They are in parallel if the y are connected to
the same two nodes. Elements in parallel always have the same volt-
age across them (v1 = v2).
8. When two resistors R1 (=1/G1) and R2 (=1/G2) are in series, their
equivalent resistance Req and equivalent conductance Geq are
G1G2
Req = R1 + R2, Geq = _____
G1 + G2
9. When two resistors R1 (=1/G1) and R2 (=1/G2) are in parallel, their
equivalent resistance Req and equivalent conductance Geq are
R1R2
Req = _____ , Geq = G1 + G2
R1 + R2
10. The voltage division principle for two resistors in series is

R1 R2
v1 = _____ v, v2 = _____ v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
11. The current division principle for two resistors in parallel is
R2 R1
i1 = _____ i, i2 = _____ i
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
12. The formulas for a delta-to-wye transformation are
Rb Rc Rc Ra
R1 = _______ , R2 = _______
Ra + Rb + Rc Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 = _______
Ra + Rb + Rc
13. The formulas for a wye-to-delta transformation are
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra = _____________ , Rb = _____________
R1 R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc = _____________
R3
14. The basic laws covered in this chapter can be applied to the prob-
lems of electrical lighting and design of dc meters.
Review Questions
2.1 The reciprocal of resistance is: I
4Ω
(a) voltage (b) current
(c) conductance (d) coulombs
3V +
–
+ 5V
–
2.2 An electric heater draws 10 A from a 120-V line.
6Ω
The resistance of the heater is:
(a) 1200 Ω (b) 120 Ω Figure 2.63
(c) 12 Ω (d) 1.2 Ω For Review Question 2.6.
2.3 The voltage drop across a 1.5-kW toaster that draws
12 A of current is:
2.7 The current Io of Fig. 2.64 is:
(a) 18 kV (b) 125 V
(c) 120 V (d) 10.42 V (a) −4 A (b) −2 A (c) 4 A (d) 16 A
2.4 The maximum current that a 2W, 80 kΩ resistor can
safely conduct is:
(a) 160 kA (b) 40 kA 10 A
(c) 5 mA (d) 25 μA
2.5 A network has 12 branches and 8 independent loops. 2A 4A
How many nodes are there in the
network?
(a) 19 (b) 17 (c) 5 (d) 4
2.6 The current I in the circuit of Fig. 2.63 is: Io
(a) −0.8 A (b) −0.2 A Figure 2.64

(c) 0.2 A (d) 0.8 A For Review Question 2.7.
Problems 65
2.8 In the circuit in Fig. 2.65, V is: 2.10 In the circuit of Fig. 2.67, a decrease in R3 leads to a
decrease of, select all that apply:
(a) 30 V (b) 14 V (c) 10 V (d) 6 V
(a) current through R3
10 V
(b) voltage across R3
+ –
(c) voltage across R1
(d) power dissipated in R2
12 V +
–
+ 8V
–
(e) none of the above
R1
+ –
V
Vs + R2 R3
Figure 2.65 –
For Review Question 2.8.
Figure 2.67
2.9 Which of the circuits in Fig. 2.66 will give you
Vab =7V?
Answers: 2.1c, 2.2c, 2.3b, 2.4c, 2.5c, 2.6b, 2.7a, 2.8d,
5V 5V
2.9d, 2.10b, d.
+– a –+ a
3V +
– 3V +
–
+– b +– b
1V 1V
(a) (b)
5V 5V
+– a –+ a
3V +
– 3V +
–
–+ b –+ b
1V 1V
(c) (d)
Figure 2.66
Problems
Section 2.2 Ohm’s Law 2.2 Find the hot resistance of a light bulb rated 60 W,
120 V.
2.1 Design a problem, complete with a solution, to help
students to better understand Ohm’s law. Use at 2.3 A bar of silicon is 4 cm long with a circular cross
least two resistors and one voltage source. Hint, you section. If the resistance of the bar is 240 Ω at room
could use both resistors at once or one at a time, it is temperature, what is the cross-sectional radius of
up to you. Be creative. the bar?
2.4 (a) Calculate current i in Fig. 2.68 when the switch Section 2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
is in position 1.
(b) Find the current when the switch is in position 2. 2.8 Design a problem, complete with a solution, to help
other students better understand Kirchhoff’s Current
Law. Design the problem by specifying values of
1 2
ia, ib, and ic, shown in Fig. 2.72, and asking them to
solve for values of i1, i2, and i3. Be careful to specify
i realistic currents.
100 Ω 250 Ω
+ 40 V
–
ib
Figure 2.68 i2 i1
For Prob. 2.4. ia
i3
ic
Section 2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Figure 2.72
2.5 For the network graph in Fig. 2.69, find the number
For Prob. 2.8.
of nodes, branches, and loops.
2.9 Find i1, i2, and i3 in Fig. 2.73.
–4 A
1A i2
–3 A A B i3
i1 –6 A
2A
Figure 2.69 C
For Prob. 2.5. –2 A
Figure 2.73
For Prob. 2.9.
2.6 In the network graph shown in Fig. 2.70, determine
the number of branches and nodes.
2.10 Determine i1 and i2 in the circuit of Fig. 2.74.
–8 A 4A
i2
i1
–6 A
Figure 2.70
For Prob. 2.6. Figure 2.74
For Prob. 2.10.
2.7 Determine the number of branches and nodes in the

circuit of Fig. 2.71. 2.11 In the circuit of Fig. 2.75, calculate V1 and V2.
1Ω 4Ω 1V 2V
+ – + –
12 V +
– 8Ω 5Ω 2A + + +
V1 5V V2
– – –
Figure 2.71 Figure 2.75

For Prob. 2.7. For Prob. 2.11.
Problems 67
2.12 In the circuit in Fig. 2.76, obtain v1, v2, and v3. 2.16 Determine Vo in the circuit in Fig. 2.80.
+ 30 V –
16 Ω 14 Ω
– 50 V + + 20 V – + v2 –
+
10 V +
– Vo + 25 V
–
+ + +
40 V v1 v3 –
– – –
Figure 2.80
For Prob. 2.16.
Figure 2.76
For Prob. 2.12.
2.13 For the circuit in Fig. 2.77, use KCL to find the 2.17 Obtain v1 through v3 in the circuit of Fig. 2.81.
branch currents I1 to I4.
+ v1 –
2A
v2 – +
24 V +
– +
v3 + 10 V
–
I2 7A I4 –
–+
3A I3 4A 12 V
I1
Figure 2.81
For Prob. 2.17.
Figure 2.77
For Prob. 2.13.
2.18 Find I and V in the circuit of Fig. 2.82.
2.14 Given the circuit in Fig. 2.78, use KVL to find the I
branch voltages V1 to V4.
+
3A 20 Ω 10 Ω 4A 20 Ω –2 A V
+ + –
–
3V V1 V2
– – +2 V – +
– +
V3
– + + Figure 2.82
4V V4 5V For Prob. 2.18.
+ – –
Figure 2.78
For Prob. 2.14. 2.19 From the circuit in Fig. 2.83, find I, the power dis-
sipated by the resistor, and the power supplied by
each source.
2.15 Calculate v and ix in the circuit of Fig. 2.79.
10 V
12 Ω + 16 V – +–
I
+v– ix
+ 12 V +
– 3Ω
10 V +
– 4V + 3i
– x
– +–
–8 V
2.20 Determine io in the circuit of Fig. 2.84. 2.24 For the circuit in Fig. 2.88, find Vo / Vs in terms of α,
R1, R2, R3, and R4. If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4, what value
of α will produce |Vo / Vs| =10?
io 22 Ω
Io R1
54 V + + 5i
– – o
+
Vs + R2 𝛼Io R3 R4 Vo
–
–
Figure 2.84
For Prob. 2.24.
2.21 Find Vx in the circuit of Fig. 2.85.

2.25 For the network in Fig. 2.89, find the current, volt-
age, and power associated with the 20-kΩ resistor.
2 Vx
1Ω
+ –
+
+ 5 mA 10 kΩ Vo 0.01Vo 5 kΩ 20 kΩ
15 V +
– 5Ω Vx –
–
Figure 2.89
For Prob. 2.25.
2Ω
Figure 2.85
For Prob. 2.21. Sections 2.5 and 2.6 Series and Parallel Resistors
2.26 For the circuit in Fig. 2.90, io = 3 A. Calculate ix and
2.22 Find Vo in the circuit in Fig. 2.86 and the power the total power absorbed by the entire circuit.
absorbed by the dependent source.
10 Ω ix io
25 Ω
+ Vo –
10 Ω 25 A 2 Vo
20 Ω 10 Ω 5Ω 40 Ω
Figure 2.86
For Prob. 2.26.
2.23 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.87, determine Vx and

the power absorbed by the 60-Ω resistor. 2.27 Calculate Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.91.
5Ω 6Ω
8Ω
+ v –
x
20 Ω
Io
60 A 10 Ω 40 Ω 60 Ω
10 V +
– 3Ω 6Ω
15 Ω 30 Ω

Problems 69
2.28 Design a problem, using Fig. 2.92, to help other 2.32 Find i1 through i4 in the circuit in Fig. 2.96.
students better understand series and parallel circuits.
i4 i2 200 Ω
60 Ω
R1
+ v1 – 40 Ω 50 Ω
+ + i3 i1
Vs +
–
v2 R2 v3 R3 16 A
– –
Figure 2.92
For Prob. 2.32.
2.29 All resistors (R) in Fig. 2.93 are 10 Ω each. Find Req.
R
2.33 Obtain v and i in the circuit of Fig. 2.97.
Req R i 4S 6S
+
R R R R 9A v 1S 2S 3S
–
R
Figure 2.97
Figure 2.93 For Prob. 2.33.
For Prob. 2.29.
2.30 Find Req for the circuit in Fig. 2.94. 2.34 Using series/parallel resistance combination, find the
equivalent resistance seen by the source in the circuit
of Fig. 2.98. Find the overall absorbed power by the
resistor network.
25 Ω 180 Ω
50 Ω 70 Ω 150 Ω
60 Ω
Req 60 Ω
600 V +
– 400 Ω 400 Ω 200 Ω
Figure 2.94 130 Ω 50 Ω

For Prob. 2.30.
Figure 2.98
For Prob. 2.34.
2.31 For the circuit in Fig. 2.95, determine i1 to i5.

2.35 Calculate Vo and Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.99.
i1
3Ω
i3
i2 70 Ω 30 Ω
Io
200 V +
– 4Ω i4 2 Ω i5 200 V +
–
1Ω +
20 Ω Vo 5Ω
–

2.36 Find i and Vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.100. 2.39 Evaluate Req looking into each set of terminals for
each of the circuits shown in Fig. 2.103.
i 80 Ω 24 Ω 50 Ω 3 kΩ
6Ω
25 Ω 3Ω 2 kΩ 6 kΩ
+
20 V +
– 20 Ω 30 Ω Vo
– 6Ω 3Ω 6 kΩ
60 Ω 20 Ω
(a) (b)
Figure 2.103
For Prob. 2.36.
2.40 For the ladder network in Fig. 2.104, find I and Req.
2.37 Given the circuit in Fig. 2.101 and that the resis- I 8Ω 2Ω 1Ω
tance, Req, looking into the circuit from the left is
equal to 100 Ω, determine the value of R1.
15 V + 4Ω 6Ω 2Ω
–
R1 R1 Req
Figure 2.104
For Prob. 2.40.
R1 R1
2.41 If Req = 50 Ω in the circuit of Fig. 2.105, find R.
Figure 2.101
For Prob. 2.37.
10 Ω R
30 Ω
Req 12 Ω 12 Ω 12 Ω
60 Ω
2.38 Find Req and io in the circuit of Fig. 2.102.
Figure 2.105
For Prob. 2.41.
60 Ω
12 Ω 2.42 Reduce each of the circuits in Fig. 2.106 to a single

resistor at terminals a-b.
io 2.5 Ω 6Ω 5Ω
80 Ω
a b
35 V +
– 15 Ω 20 Ω 8Ω 20 Ω
Req
30 Ω
Figure 2.102
For Prob. 2.38. (a)
2Ω 4Ω 5Ω
a b
5Ω 3Ω 10 Ω
30 Ω Problems 71
(a)
2.45 Find the equivalent resistance at terminals a-b of
2Ω 4Ω 5Ω
a
each circuit in Fig. 2.109.
b
5Ω 3Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω
8Ω 4Ω 40 Ω
20 Ω
(b)
Figure 2.106 a
For Prob. 2.42.
30 Ω 5Ω
50 Ω
b
2.43 Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab at terminals
a-b for each of the circuits in Fig. 2.107. (a)
5Ω 30 Ω
a
12 Ω
20 Ω 10 Ω 40 Ω
5Ω 20 Ω
b
(a)
25 Ω 60 Ω
15 Ω 10 Ω
10 Ω
a
(b)
80 Ω
Figure 2.109
60 Ω 20 Ω 30 Ω For Prob. 2.45.
b
(b)
Figure 2.107
For Prob. 2.43.
2.44 For the circuits in Fig. 2.108, obtain the equivalent 2.46 Find I in the circuit of Fig. 2.110.
resistance at terminals a-b.
20 Ω 72 Ω 80 Ω
I
30 Ω 24 Ω 20 Ω
a
140 V +
– 36 Ω 10 Ω
30 Ω 8Ω
14 Ω 36 Ω
36 Ω
b

2.47 Find the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit of 2.50 Design a problem to help other students better
Fig. 2.111. understand wye-delta transformations using
Fig. 2.114.
c
R R
5Ω 6Ω
R
9 mA
10 Ω 8Ω
d a b e
R R
20 Ω 3Ω
Figure 2.114
f For Prob. 2.50.
2.51 Obtain the equivalent resistance at the terminals a-b
Figure 2.111 for each of the circuits in Fig. 2.115.
For Prob. 2.47.
a
10 Ω 20 Ω
10 Ω
30 Ω
Section 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations
2.48 Convert the circuits in Fig. 2.112 from Y to Δ. 10 Ω 20 Ω
b
(a)
10 Ω 10 Ω 30 Ω 20 Ω
a b a b 30 Ω
10 Ω 50 Ω
25 Ω 10 Ω 20 Ω
a
c c
5Ω 15 Ω
(a) (b)
Figure 2.112 b
For Prob. 2.48. (b)
Figure 2.115
For Prob. 2.51.
2.49 Transform the circuits in Fig. 2.113 from Δ to Y.

* 2.52 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.116, find the equiva-
lent resistance. All resistors are 3Ω.
60 Ω 75 Ω
a b a b
60 Ω 60 Ω 150 Ω 25 Ω
c c
(a) (b)
Figure 2.113 Req
For Prob. 2.52.
* An asterisk indicates a challenging problem.

Problems 73
* 2.53 Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab in each of the 2.56 Determine V in the circuit of Fig. 2.120.
circuits of Fig. 2.117. In (b), all resistors have a
value of 30 Ω. 30 Ω
16 Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω
30 Ω 40 Ω
+
20 Ω 100 V +
– V 35 Ω 12 Ω 20 Ω
–
a 10 Ω
Figure 2.120
80 Ω For Prob. 2.56.
60 Ω 50 Ω
b
* 2.57 Find Req and I in the circuit of Fig. 2.121.
(a)
a I 10 Ω 25 Ω
30 Ω
10 Ω 5Ω
10 Ω
b
(b) 50 V +
–
10 Ω 20 Ω
80 Ω
Figure 2.117
For Prob. 2.53.
10 Ω 15 Ω
25 Ω
2.54 Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.118. Find the equiva-
Req
lent resistance at terminals: (a) a-b, (b) c-d.
Figure 2.121
10 Ω 450 Ω
For Prob. 2.57.
a c
300 Ω 300 Ω
Section 2.8 Applications
b d
450 Ω 60 Ω 2.58 The 150 W light bulb in Fig. 2.122 is rated at
110 volts. Calculate the value of Vs to make the light
Figure 2.118
For Prob. 2.54. bulb operate at its rated conditions.
150 Watt
2.55 Calculate Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.119.

100 Ω
Vs +
– 50 Ω
Io
Figure 2.122
For Prob. 2.58.
400 Ω 700 Ω
200 Ω
100 V +
– 2.59 An enterprising young man travels to Europe
carrying three light bulbs he had purchased in North
800 Ω 1.7 kΩ
America. The light bulbs he has are a 100-W light
400 Ω bulb, a 60-W light bulb, and a 40-W light bulb. Each
light bulb is rated at 110 V. He wishes to connect
Figure 2.119 these to a 220-V system that is found in Europe. For
For Prob. 2.55. reasons we are not sure of, he connects the 40-W
light bulb in series with a parallel combination of the and 6 cents/kWh, calculate the annual energy cost of
60-W light bulb and the 100-W light bulb as shown the system.
in Fig. 2.123. How much power is actually being
delivered to each light bulb? What does he see when
he first turns on the light bulbs?
Is there a better way to connect these light bulbs in + A
110 V –
order to have them work more effectively?
110 V + B
40 W 100 W –
Figure 2.125
60 W
Figure 2.123 2.63 If an ammeter with an internal resistance of 100 Ω

For Prob. 2.59. and a current capacity of 2 mA is to measure 5 A,
determine the value of the resistance needed. Calcu-
late the power dissipated in the shunt resistor.
2.60 If the three bulbs of Prob. 2.59 are connected in 2.64 The potentiometer (adjustable resistor) Rx in
parallel to the 120-V source, calculate the current Fig. 2.126 is to be designed to adjust current ix from
through each bulb. 10 mA to 1 A. Calculate the values of R and Rx to
achieve this.
2.61 As a design engineer, you are asked to design a
lighting system consisting of a 70-W power supply
and two light bulbs as shown in Fig. 2.124. You
ix R
must select the two bulbs from the following three
available bulbs.
Rx
R1 = 80 Ω, cost = $0.60 (standard size) 110 V +
– ix
R2 = 90 Ω, cost = $0.90 (standard size)
R3 = 100 Ω, cost = $0.75 (nonstandard size)
The system should be designed for minimum cost Figure 2.126
such that I lies within the range I = 1.2 A ± 5 percent. For Prob. 2.64.
2.65 Design a circuit that uses a d’Arsonval meter (with

I an internal resistance of 2 kΩ that requires a current
of 5 mA to cause the meter to deflect full scale) to
+
build a voltmeter to read values of voltages up to
70-W 100 volts.
Power Rx Ry
Supply 2.66 A 20-kΩ/V voltmeter reads 10 V full scale.
– (a) What series resistance is required to make the
Figure 2.124 meter read 50 V full scale?
For Prob. 2.61.
(b) What power will the series resistor dissipate
when the meter reads full scale?
2.67 (a) Obtain the voltage Vo in the circuit of
2.62 A three-wire system supplies two loads A and B as Fig. 2.127(a).
shown in Fig. 2.125. Load A consists of a mo- (b) Determine the voltage Vʹo measured when a volt-
tor drawing a current of 8 A, while load B is a PC meter with 6-kΩ internal resistance is connected
drawing 2 A. Assuming 10 h/day of use for 365 days as shown in Fig. 2.127(b).
Problems 75
(c) The finite resistance of the meter introduces an 2.69 A voltmeter is used to measure Vo in the circuit in
error into the measurement. Calculate the percent Fig. 2.129. The voltmeter model consists of an ideal
error as voltmeter in parallel with a 250-kΩ resistor. Let
| |
Vo −Vʹo Vs = 95 V, Rs = 25 kΩ, and R1 = 40 kΩ. Calculate
_______ × 100 %
Vo Vo with and without the voltmeter when
(d) Find the percent error if the internal resistance (a) R2 = 5 kΩ (b) R2 = 25 kΩ
were 36 kΩ. (c) R2 = 250 kΩ
1 kΩ Rs
+
2 mA 5 kΩ 4 kΩ Vo R1
–
Vs +
–
+
(a) R2 250 kΩ V
Vo
–
1 kΩ
+
Figure 2.129
For Prob. 2.69.
2 mA 5 kΩ 4 kΩ Vo Voltmeter
–
(b) 2.70 (a) Consider the Wheatstone bridge shown in

Figure 2.127 Fig. 2.130. Calculate va, vb, and vab.
For Prob. 2.67. (b) Rework part (a) if the ground is placed at
a instead of o.
2.68 (a) Find the current I in the circuit of Fig. 2.128(a).
(b) An ammeter with an internal resistance of 1 Ω is
inserted in the network to measure Iʹas shown in
Fig. 2.128(b). What is Iʹ? 8 kΩ 15 kΩ
(c) Calculate the percent error introduced by the
meter as 25 V +
– a b
I − Iʹ
|
_____
I
×100% |
12 kΩ 10 kΩ
o
I 16 Ω
Figure 2.130
For Prob. 2.70.
4V +
– 40 Ω 60 Ω
2.71 Figure 2.131 represents a model of a solar

(a) photovoltaic panel. Given that Vs = 95 V,
R1 = 25 Ω, and iL = 2 A, find RL.
Ammeter
I' 16 Ω
R1
iL
4V +
– 40 Ω 60 Ω
Vs +
– RL
(b)
2.72 Find Vo in the two-way power divider circuit in 2.74 The circuit in Fig. 2.134 is to control the speed of a
Fig. 2.132. motor such that the motor draws currents 5 A, 3 A,
and 1 A when the switch is at high, medium, and low
positions, respectively. The motor can be modeled
1Ω 1Ω as a load resistance of 20 mΩ. Determine the series
dropping resistances R1, R2, and R3.
1Ω
Vo 2Ω
10 V +
–
Low
1Ω 1Ω R1
10-A, 0.01-Ω fuse
Medium
Figure 2.132
For Prob. 2.72. High R2
6V
2.73 An ammeter model consists of an ideal amme- R3

ter in series with a 20-Ω resistor. It is connected
with a current source and an unknown resistor Motor
Rx as shown in Fig. 2.133. The ammeter reading
Figure 2.134
is noted. When a potentiometer R is added and
For Prob. 2.74.
adjusted until the ammeter reading drops to one
half its previous reading, then R = 65 Ω. What is
the value of Rx ?
2.75 Find Rab in the four-way power divider circuit in

Fig. 2.135. Assume each R = 4 Ω.
R R
20 Ω
Ammeter R R
model R R
A
R
a R R R
I R
Rx R R
R R
b
Comprehensive Problems 77
Comprehensive Problems
2.76 Repeat Prob. 2.75 for the eight-way divider shown in 2.79 An electric pencil sharpener rated 240 mW, 6 V is
Fig. 2.136. connected to a 9-V battery as shown in Fig. 2.138.
1 1 Calculate the value of the series-dropping resistor Rx
needed to power the sharpener.
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
Switch Rx
1 1
1
1 1
9V
1
a 1 1 1
Figure 2.138
1 For Prob. 2.79.
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
2.80 A loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier as shown
b in Fig. 2.139. If a 10-Ω loudspeaker draws the maxi-
mum power of 12 W from the amplifier, determine
Figure 2.136
For Prob. 2.76. the maximum power a 4-Ω loudspeaker will draw.
2.77 Suppose your circuit laboratory has the following

standard commercially available resistors in large
quantities:
Amplifier
1.8 Ω 20 Ω 300 Ω 24 kΩ 56 kΩ
Loudspeaker
Using series and parallel combinations and a mini-
mum number of available resistors, how would you Figure 2.139
obtain the following resistances for an electronic For Prob. 2.80.
circuit design?
(a) 5 Ω (b) 311.8 Ω
(c) 40 kΩ (d) 52.32 kΩ
2.78 In the circuit in Fig. 2.137, the wiper divides the 2.81 For a specific application, the circuit shown in
potentiometer resistance between αR and (1 − α)R, Fig. 2.140 was designed so that IL = 83.33 mA and
0 ≤ α ≤1.Find vo / vs. that Rin = 5 kΩ. What are the values of R1 and R2?
R
IL
+ R1
vs + vo
– R 1A 5 kΩ Rin 10 kΩ R2 10 kΩ
𝛼R
–
Figure 2.140
For Prob. 2.78.
2.82 The pin diagram of a resistance array is shown in 2.83 Two delicate devices are rated as shown in Fig.
Fig. 2.141. Find the equivalent resistance between 2.142. Find the values of the resistors R1 and R2
the following: needed to power the devices using a 36-V battery.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
60-mA, 2-Ω fuse
(c) 1 and 4
4 3 36 V, 720 mW
R1
Device 2
36 V
40 Ω 40 Ω
R2 Device 1
30 Ω 12 V, 75 mW
30 Ω
Figure 2.142
30 Ω For Prob. 2.83.
75 Ω
1 2
Figure 2.141
For Prob. 2.82.

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Enhancing Your Skills and Your Career

2.2 Ohm’s Law

Resistivities of common materials.

which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R in Eq. (2.3) is measured

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of

To apply Ohm’ s la w as stated in Eq. (2.3), we must pay careful

showing that the v oltage is zero b ut the current could be an ything. In

A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

i = R→∞ ​​v =​0

It should be pointed out that not all resistors obe y Ohm’s la w. A

The power dissipated by a resistor may also be e xpressed in terms of

Example 2.1 An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.

p = vi = 30(6 × 10 −3) = 180 mW

Answer: 2 cos t mA, 7.5 kΩ.

2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

In other w ords, a branch represents an y two-terminal element. The cir- 5Ω b

A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit c

As the next two definitions show, circuit topology is of great value to

Elements are in series when the y are chain-connected or connected se -

2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Mathematically, KCL implies that

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth

er in Berlin. His collaborative work in spectroscopy with German chem-

To prove KCL, assume a set of currents ik (t), k = 1, 2,…, flow into

iT (t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t) + ⋯ (2.14)

Integrating both sides of Eq. (2.14) gives

i1 + (−i2) + i3 + i4 + (−i5) = 0 (2.16)

Equation (2.17) is an alternative form of KCL:

Note that KCL also applies to a closed boundary . This may be re -

Fig. 2.18(a) can be combined as in Fig. 2.18(b).The combined or equiva- IT

IT +​I2 =​I1 +​I3 I1 I2 I3

This is an alternative form of KVL. Notice that if we had traveled coun-

To avoid violating KVL, a circuit cannot contain tw o different voltages

v1 = 2i, v2 = −3i (2.5.1)

Applying KVL around the loop gives

Substituting Eq. (2.5.1) into Eq. (2.5.2), we obtain

Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of Fig. 2.22. Practice Problem 2.5

Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23(a). Example 2.6

−12 + 4i + 2vo − 4 + 6i = 0 (2.6.1)

Applying Ohm’s law to the 6-Ω resistor gives

Substituting Eq. (2.6.2) into Eq. (2.6.1) yields

−16 + 10i − 12i = 0 ⇒ i = −8 A

Find vx and vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.24. Practice Problem 2.6

Practice Problem 2.7 Find vo and io in the circuit of Fig. 2.26.

v1 = 8i1, v2 = 3i2, v3 = 6i3 (2.8.1)

Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. 2.27(b),

We express this in terms of i1 and i2 as in Eq. (2.8.1) to obtain

−30 + 8i1 + 3i2 = 0

as expected since the two resistors are in parallel. We express v1 and v2 in

If we apply KVL to the loop (mo ving in the clockwise direction), we

v = v1 + v2 = i(R1 + R2) (2.26)

Notice that Eq. (2.26) can be written as

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series

Resistors in series behave as a single For N resistors in series then,

2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Substituting Eq. (2.33) into Eq. (2.34), we get

where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:

i = R→∞ v =0

IT +I2 =I1 +I3 I1 I2 I3