ARO 3011 Fluid Mechanics and Low Speed

Aerodynamics
August 27, 2020
ARO 3011 Fluid Mechanics and Low Speed Aerodynamics

• Reading Assignment:(Munson) 8th edition

– Chapter 1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
– Chapter 2 Fluid Statics

• Homework #1 (Munson) Chapter 1

– Problems (PS 1): #52, #68, #77, # 87a, and #126
(Textbook- Munson, 8th edition)
– Due on Saturday , August 28, 2021 (7:00 PM) on CANVAS
• Homework #2 (Munson) Chapter 2
– Problems: (PS 2): #22, #40, #43, #155, and #162
(Textbook- Munson, 8th edition)
– Due on Thursday, Septembre 2, 2021 (7:00 PM) on CANVAS

2
 Vital Source

Munson’s

Wiley : pdf copy 120 days on CANVAS

for $ 39.00 .

McCormick’s

Not available as pdf version on CANVAS

Used-Textbook can be ordered on AMAZON

Note: ARO 3011 uses two Textbooks: 1. Munson, Young and Okiishi; 2. McCormick’s
 • Today’s topics

• Pressure, and pressure gradient

• Pascal law
• Derivation of Euler equation
• Atmospheric pressure distribution vs. altitude
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Hydrostatic pressure in liquid --- Manometers, …
• Buoyance
• Archimedes’ principle
• Rigid body fluid motion
• Linear acceleration
• Rotation motion
 Chapter 2 Fluid Statics
• What is “Pressure” : the normal force per unit area at a given point acting on a
Given plane within the fluid mass of interest.
• Fluid statics: Fluid is either at rest or moving in such a manner that there
is no relative motion between adjacent particles (i.e., no shear force)
• Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal (Pa).
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi, psf.
• Pascal’s law: The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent
of direction as long as there are no shearing stresses present.
 Pascal’s Law
• In the 1600's, the French scientist Blaise Pascal
discovered a fact now known as Pascal's Law. It
states that pressure at any point in a body of fluid
at rest is the same in every direction, exerting
equal force on equal areas. This works for gases
and liquids (both are fluids).
• Another important result from Pascal law :
when we apply pressure at one surface, this pressure
value is transmitted through the fluid
without decreasing in magnitude.

6
 Fluid Statics -- derivation of Pascal Law

• Pascal’s law: The pressure at a point is independent of direction

as long as there are no shearing stress present –blow, we can prove it.
• In the diagram, the free body only has pressure forces action on it
xyz
F y = p yxz − psxs (sin  ) = 
2
ay

xyz xyz
 Fz = p z xz − p s xs (cos  ) − 
2
= 
2
az

y = s cos  ; z = s sin 
y
p y − ps = a y
2
z
p z − ps = ( a z +  )
2
As we let y and z → 0, it yield p y = ps , p z = ps
Thus, we have p y = ps = p z
Generalized Pascal’s Law

• Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the
same amount.
• In picture, pistons are at
same height:

F1 F2 F2 A2
P1 = P2 → = → =
A1 A2 F1 A1

• Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage
 Derivation of Euler equation ( = viscosity = 0)
p y p y
Fy = ( p − )xz − ( p + )xz
y 2 y 2
p p p
Fy = − xyz , similarly Fz = − xyz − gxyz; and Fx = − xyz
y z x
p p p
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = −( i + j + k )xyz − gxyzk = a (m) = xyz (a )
x y z

− p − k = a
Chapter 2 Fluid Statics ----- Basic Equation for Pressure Field

− p − k = a = 0
p + k = 0

p
=0
x
p
=0
y
p
= − g
z
Variation in pressure with elevation.

• Hydrostatic
From a vertical datum,
equation pressure decreases as
z-datum elevation increases.
dp
= −
dz
 Pressure Variation in Uniform Density

Assuming that the density (ρ) and specific weight (g) of

a fluid are constant hrough the fluid

dp
Integrate
dz
= − to get p + z = pz
pz : Piezometric pressure

p 
 + z  = constant Piezometric head
 

 p1  p 
Hydrostatic Equation  + z1  =  2 + z2 
   
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

• Actual pressure at a give point is called the

absolute pressure.
• Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated
to read zero in the atmosphere, and therefore
indicate gage pressure, Pgage=Pabs - Patm.
• Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Example:
What is the water pressure at a
depth of 35 ft in the tank shown?
Specific Weight
γ = 62.4 lb/ft3

P1= 0 (gage)

 p1   p2 
 + z1  =  + z2 
   

0 + 250 = (P2/g) + 215

35 ft = (P2/g)
P2 = 35 * 62.4
P2 = 2180 psfg = 15.2 psig
Psig = pound force per square inch ( gage pressure)
 Example:

Oil with a specific gravity of 0.80 forms a layer 0.90m deep in

an open tank that is otherwise filled with water. The total depth
of water and oil is 3 m. What is the gage pressure at the bottom
of the tank. γ = 9810 N/m3

p2 = 0.90 x (0.8 x 9810) = 7.06 kPa

p3 = 7.06 + 2.1 x 9,810 = 27.7 kPa

 Fluid Statics
When a surface is submerged in a fluid at rest, hydrostatic forces
develop on the surface due to the fluid pressure. These forces must be
perpendicular to the surface since there is no shear action present.
These forces can be determined by integrating the static pressure
distribution over the area it is acting on.
Example: What is the force acting on the bottom of the tank shown
or on the side of the tank?

Fluid with density 

 Pressure Prism: Vertical Wall
Pressure Prism: A graphical interpretation of the forces due to a fluid acting on
a plane area. The “volume” of fluid acting on the wall is the pressure prism and
equals the resultant force acting on the wall.
Resultant Force:

O Volume
FR =
1
(h )(bh)
2
FR =
1
(h )A
2
Location of the Resultant Force, CP:
The location is at the centroid of the volume of the
pressure prism.

Center of Pressure:
 b 2h 
 , 
2 3 
What is the resultant force magnitude, force direction, and center of force on a plane surface?

1
F R = h 2
y 2

h
1
F R =   ydA =   ydy = h 2
A
0
2
h h

 ydA  ydy h
In this case , yc = 0
= 0
= = centroid
A h 2
h h

 y dA  dy
2 2
y
2
yR = 0
= 0
= h = center of pressure
yc A ( h / 2) h 3
 The Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure is measured
by a device called a barometer;
thus, atmospheric pressure is often
referred to as the barometric
pressure.
• PC can be taken to be zero since
there is only Hg vapor above
point C, and it is very low relative
to Patm.
• Change in atmospheric pressure
due to elevation has many effects:
Cooking, nose bleeds, engine
performance, aircraft
PC +  gh = Patm performance.

Patm =  gh
 The Manometer

• An elevation change of “h”

in a fluid at rest corresponds
to P/g.
• A device based on this is
called a manometer.
• A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil.
• Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
pressure differences are
P1 = P2 anticipated.
P2 = Patm +  gh
Measuring Pressure Drops

• Manometers are well--suited

to measure pressure drops
across valves, pipes, heat
exchangers, etc.
• Relation for pressure drop
P1-P2 is obtained by starting
at point 1 and adding or
subtracting gh terms until
we reach point 2.
• If fluid in pipe is a gas,
P1-P2= gh
Application of Euler equation to find atmospheric pressure vs. altitude(compressible flows)

Static Pressure in compressible Flows (atmospheric pressure)

p = −ρgk
Consider a special case, the standard atmosphere, which is compressible flow.

Now air density is not constant with altitude,  = (h)= (z)

1 p
=−
g p = −ρgk
p z RT

1 p g
=−
p z RT

• Recall p = RT - perfect gas law (if we know “T” varies with altitude, h,
then we can integrate the static pressure equation)
 Ideal Gas Law
A form of the general equation of state, relating pressure,
specific volume, and temperature;

• p = absolute pressure [N/m2]

• V = volume [m3]
• n = number of moles
• Ru = universal gas constant
• [8.314 kJ/kmol-K; 0.287 kPa·m3/kg ·K]
• T = absolute temperature [K]
• MWgas = molecular weight of gas
 Sea level pressure (h=0) p ~ 14.7 psia = 101.33 kPa)

“T” = constant @ 11< h< 20 km, and “T” is linear with h< 11km
 Static Pressure in compressible Flows

Air is compressible and it follows perfect gas law, i.e., p=RT, R = Air gas constant

p p p p
= = 0, = −  g , then using the relation  =
y x z RT
p2 z2
dp pg dp p2 g dz
we have
dz
=−
RT
or  p
p1
= n
p1
= −
R T
z1

For the case T = constant = T0 (isothermal , e.g ., in Stratosphere),

g ( z2 − z1 )
p2 = p1 exp[− ] Stratosphere ( 20  h  11km)
RT0
On the other hand when T = Ta −  z , then it yields,
z
p = pa [1 − ]g /( R ) Troposphere (h  11 km)
Ta
where pa = pressure, Ta = air temperature at z = 0

 z1
Note : To find p1 , at z = z1, u sin g p1 = pa [1 − ]g /( R ) Z1~ 11km
Ta
Once we know p and T, we can calculate density from perfect gas law, p=RT
And viscosity from Sutherland viscosity law =2.27E(-08)*T3/2/(T+198.6) lb-sec/ft2
• Rigid body fluid motion – no shear force
• Linear acceleration
• Rotation motion

p + k = a  0,
 = g
 Rigid-Body Motion
• There are special cases where a body of fluid can undergo rigid-body
motion: linear acceleration, and rotation of a cylindrical container.
ax

• In these cases, no shear is developed.

• Newton's 2nd law of motion can be used to derive an equation of motion for
a fluid that acts as a rigid body
P +  gk = −  a

P P P
• In Cartesian coordinates: = −  ax , = − ay , = −  ( g + ax )
x y z
 Chapter 2 Fluid Statics with acceleration ≠ 0
− p − k = a
For a = 0, then − p − k = 0
For a rigid body motion (a  0), with no shearing stress, this equation stll holds.
No shear stress exists and fluid particles are stationary in the moving coordinate.
Linear Rigid body motion

ax

ax
Rigid body rotation
Pressure gradient in rectangular coordinate with a z :
p p p
− = a x ; − = a y ; − = a z + g Linear Rigid body motion
x y z
Pressure gradient in cylindrical coordinate with  (rotation rates)
p p p
− = r 2 , − = 0, = − g Rigid body rotation
r  z
 Linear Rigid body motion p + ez = a
When a container filled with fluid (fully
or partially ) is moving at constant
acceleration, a, the system eventually reaches
a rigid body motion.

Along the water surface, dp = 0., thus it yields,

dz ay
=− = tan 
dy g + az 
Special case of linear rigid body motion, a z = 0,
dz ay
=−
dy g
 Problem: A coffee mug is placed on a car’s horizontal tray while the car is accelerated
At 7 m/s2. The mug is 10 cm deep and 6 cm in diameter. The coffee is 7 cm deep at rest.
Assume rigid body acceleration, determine whether the coffee will spill out of the mug.

Given: ax=7m/s2, coffee mug height H=10cm, R=3cm, coffee depth = 7cm
Determine: Will coffee spill over under ax =7 m/s2.
Solution:

The free surface will tilt at an angle,  (see previous page),

dz a a
= − x = tan  = − x
dx g + az g
7.0
 = tan −1 ( ) = 35.5
9.81
z = (3cm)(tan  ) = 2.14 cm  3 cm
Thus coffee will not spill unless it was slashed during
the start − up of acceration
 Rotational Rigid body motion

p + k = a
p 1 p p
p = er + e + ez
r r  z
ar = −r 2 er ; a = a z = 0,
Thus from the fluid statics equation, it yields :
p p p
= r 2 , = 0, = −
r  z
p p
dp = dr + dz = r 2 dr − dz (1)
r z
At the water surface, dp = 0, it gives
dz r 2 r 2 2
= , integrating once, we have z = + constant
dr g 2g
•The water surface is a paraboloid, Equation (1) can be integrated directly as
concave upward
 dp =   rdr −   dz
2
•The pressure varies hydrostatically
in z-direction 1
p=  2 r 2 − z + constant, let p = p* at r = 0, and z = 0,
2
r 2 2
z − z0 = ( let r = 0, z = z0 ) 1
then we have p = p * +  2 r 2 − gz
2g 2
1
p = p* +  2 r 2 − gz The pressure is linear in z , and parabolic in r.
2
 Problem: A coffee cup is placed on a turn table, and rotated about its central axis
until a rigid body mode occurs. Find the angular velocity which will cause
the coffee to just reach the lip of the cup

Given: the cup has d =7 cm coffee in still state

r= 3 cm = 0.03m, cup has 10 cm depth
Still coffee level
Find: , that will let coffee reach its
lip of the cup

r 2 2
z − z0 = ( let r = 0, z = z0 = 0)
2g
r 2 2
z=
2g
r = R = 0.03m, z = 6cm = 0.06m,
R 2 2 (0.03) 2  2
0.06m = =
2g 2(9.81 m / s 2 )
Solve for ,  2 =1308 or  = 36.2 rad / s
Archimedes Principle
(Buoyancy)
 Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ Principle: An object completely immersed in a fluid
experiences an upward buoyant force equal in magnitude to the
weight of fluid displaced by the object.

Buoyant Force When a Volume V is

Submerged in a Fluid of Density ρfluid
Fb = ρfluid gV

Q: Does buoyant force

depend on depth?
a) yes
b) no
The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of Syracuse

• Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.

• Hiero, 306-215 B.C.
• Hiero learned of a rumor where the
goldsmith replaced some of the gold
in his crown with silver. Hiero asked
Archimedes to determine whether the
crown was pure gold.
• Archimedes had to develop a
nondestructive testing method
Archimedes observations:
"Archimedes happened to go to the bath, and
on getting into a tub observed that the more
his body sank into it the more water ran out
over the tub.
As this pointed out the way to explain the case
in question, he jumped out of the tub and
rushed home naked, crying with a loud voice
that he had found what he was seeking; for he,
as he ran, shouted repeatedly in Greek,

‘Eureka, Eureka.’ meaning ‘I have

found (it), I have found (it)’.”
 Buoyancy: Archimedes’
Principle
Archimedes’ Principle states that the buoyant
force has a magnitude equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body and is directed
vertically upward.

Archimedes (287-212 BC) Story

•Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a fluid.
•The force results from different pressures on the top and bottom of the object
•The pressure forces acting from below are greater than those on top
Now, treat an arbitrary submerged object as a planar surface:

Forces on the Fluid

Arbitrary Shape

V
 Buoyancy and Flotation: Archimedes’ Principle
Balancing the Forces of the F.B.D. in the vertical Direction:

W =  (h2 − h1 )A − V 
Then, substituting:

W is the weight of the shaded area

F1 and F2 are the forces on the plane surfaces Simplifying,
FB is the bouyant force the body exerts on the fluid

The force of the fluid on the body is opposite, or vertically

upward and is known as the Buoyant Force.

The force is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.

The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of Syracuse

• The weight of the crown and nugget

are the same in air: Wc = cVc = Wn
= nVn.
• If the crown is pure gold, c=n
which means that the volumes must
be the same, Vc=Vn.
• In water, the buoyancy force is
B=H2OV.
• If the scale becomes unbalanced, this
implies that the Vc ≠ Vn, which in
turn means that the c ≠ n
• Goldsmith was shown to be a fraud!
 Buoyancy and Flotation
(Archimedes Principle)

Iceberg floating in sea water

Direct consequence of hydrostatic pressure

 Floating Objects
Q. If the density of an iceberg is 0.90
that of seawater, how much of an
iceberg’s volume is below the sea?

𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑

𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔

𝐼𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚, 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔

𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 → = = 0.90 ,
𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒
90% of iceberg below the sea
Problem: how to determine solid material’s density

Given: a block of concrete weights 100 lb in air, and 60 lbf in water

assume water’s specific weight is 62.4 lb/ft3
Find: Concrete's specific weight, =g
 Problem: how to determine solid material’s density

B
Given: a block of concrete weights 100 lb in air, and 60 lbf in water
assume water’s specific weight is 62.4 lb/ft3
Find: Concrete's specific weight, =g or (density)

40 lb
Solving the volume of the block as V = = 0 . 641 ft 3

62.4 lb / ft 3
Thus, the specific weight of the block is :
100 lb
g = = 156 lb / ft 3

0.641 ft 3
Question: Which graph gives the correct
Description of force in the rope as shown?
Question: Which graph gives the correct
Description of force in the rope as shown?