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Week 1: Unit Learning Outcomes 1(ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. Analyze the Introduction to Dynamics.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. a. Analyze the Introduction to Dynamics.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of curriculum and to
demonstrate on how to apply the derivatives of Vector Functions will be operationally defined
the terms used in the course. You will encounter these terms as we go on with the lesson. Please
refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding the
concepts.

1. Classical dynamics studies the motion of bodies using the principles established by
Newton and Euler.
2. A particle is a mass point; it possesses a mass but has no size.
3. The term absolute motion is used when the motion is described with respect to a fixed
reference frame (coordinate system).

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3) weeks
of the course, you need to understand the importance of the derivatives of vector functions that
will be laid down in the succeeding pages.

Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are
expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.

Keywords

Vector Position Particle Distance

Derivative Velocity Displacement Tangent
Scalar Acceleration Path Coordinate Path

The purpose of this chapter is to review the basic concepts of Newtonian mechanics:
displacement, velocity, acceleration, Newton’s laws, and units of measurement.

Derivatives of Vector Functions

A knowledge of vector calculus is a prerequisite for the study of dynamics. Here we discuss the
derivatives of vectors; integration is introduced throughout the text as needed.

The vector A is said to be a vector function of a scalar parameter u if the magnitude and direction
of A depend on u. (In dynamics, time is frequently chosen to be the scalar parameter.) This
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functional relationship is denoted by A(u). If the scalar variable changes from the value u to (u +
u), the vector A will change from A(u) to A(u + ȟu). Therefore, the change in the vector A can be
written as

ȟA = A(u + ȟ—ȌΫȋ—ȌȋͳͳǤͳȌ

As seen in Fig. 11.2, ȟA is due to a change in both the magnitude and the direction of the vector A.

The derivative of A with respect to the scalar u is defined as

݀࡭ ȟ࡭ ࡭(‫ ݑ‬+ ȟ‫ )ݑ‬െ ࡭(‫)ݑ‬

= lim = lim (11.2)
݀‫୼ ݑ‬௨՜଴ ȟ‫୼ ݑ‬௨՜଴ ȟ‫ݑ‬

assuming that the limit exists. This definition resembles the derivative of the scalar function y(u),
which is defined as

݀࢟ ȟ࢟ ‫ ݑ(ݕ‬+ ȟ‫ )ݑ‬െ ‫)ݑ(ݕ‬

= lim = lim (11.3)
݀‫୼ ݑ‬௨՜଴ ȟ‫୼ ݑ‬௨՜଴ ȟ‫ݑ‬

Caution In dealing with a vector function, the magnitude of the derivative |dA/du| must not be
confused with the derivative of the magnitude d|A|/du. In general, these two derivatives will not
be equal. For example, if the magnitude of a vector A is constant, then d|A|/du = 0. However,
|dA/du| will not equal zero unless the direction of A is also constant.

The following useful identities can be derived from the definitions of derivatives (A and B are
assumed to be vector functions of the scalar u, and m is also a scalar):

݀(݉࡭) ݀࡭ ݀݉
=݉ + ࡭ (11.4)
݀‫ݑ‬ ݀‫ݑ݀ ݑ‬

݀(࡭ + ࡮) ݀࡭ ݀࡮
= + (11.5)
݀‫ݑ‬ ݀‫ݑ݀ ݑ‬

݀(࡭ ή ࡮) ݀࡮ ݀࡭
=࡭ή + ή࡮ (11.6)
݀‫ݑ‬ ݀‫ݑ݀ ݑ‬

݀(࡭ × ࡮) ݀࡮ ݀࡭
=࡭× + ×࡮ (11.7)
݀‫ݑ‬ ݀‫ݑ݀ ݑ‬

Sample Problem

The acceleration a of a particle is related to its velocity v, its position coordinate x, and time t by
the equation
a = Ax3t + Bvt2 (a)
where A and B are constants. The dimension of the acceleration is length per unit time squared,
that is, [a] = [L/T 2]. The dimensions of the other variables are [v] = [L/T ], [x] = [L], and [t] = [T ].
Derive the dimensions of A and B if Eq. (a) is to be dimensionally homogeneous. Express the units
for A and B in the SI system.

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Solution
For Eq. (a) to be dimensionally homogeneous, the dimension of each term on the right-hand side
of the equation must be [L/T 2], the same as the dimension for a. Therefore, the dimension of the
first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (a) becomes

‫ܮ‬
[‫ ݔܣ‬ଷ ‫ ݔ[]ܣ[ = ]ݐ‬ଷ ][‫ܮ[]ܣ[ = ]ݐ‬ଷ ][ܶ] = ൤ ൨ (ܾ)
ܶଶ

1 ‫ܮ‬ 1
[‫= ]ܣ‬ ൤ ଶ൨ = ଶ ଷ ࡭࢔࢙࢝ࢋ࢘
[‫ܮ‬ଷ ][ܶ] ܶ ‫ܶ ܮ‬

In the SI system the units of A are ݉ିଶ ‫ି ݏ‬ଷ . Performing a similar dimensional analysis on the
second term on the righthand side of Eq. (a) gives

‫ܮ‬ ‫ܮ‬
[‫ ݐݒܤ‬ଶ ] = [‫ ݐ[] ݒ[]ܤ‬ଶ ] = [‫ ]ܤ‬൤ ൨ [ܶ ଶ ] = ൤ ଶ ൨ (ܿ)
ܶ ܶ

Solving Eq. (c) for the dimension of B, we find

‫ ܶ ܮ‬1 1
[‫ = ]ܤ‬൤ ଶ ൨ ൤ ൨ ൤ ଶ ൨ = ൤ ଷ ൨ ࡭࢔࢙࢝ࢋ࢘
ܶ ‫ܶ ܮ‬ ܶ

The units of B are ‫ି ݏ‬ଷ

Position

Consider the motion of a particle along a smooth path as shown in Fig. 11.3. The position of the
particle at time t is specified by the position vector r(t), which is the vector drawn from a fixed
origin O to the particle. Let the location of the particle be A at time t, and B at time t + ȟt, where
ȟt is a finite time interval. The corresponding change in the position vector of the particle,

ȟ‫ ݐ(ݎ = ݎ‬+ ȟ‫ )ݐ‬െ ‫)ݐ(ݎ‬

is called the displacement vector of the particle.

Fig. 11.3

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As indicated in Fig. 11.3, the position of the particle at time t can also be specified by the path
coordinate s(t), which is the length of the path between a fixed-point E and the particle. The
change in path length during the time interval ȟt is

ȟ‫ ݐ(ݏ = ݏ‬+ ȟ‫ )ݐ‬െ ‫)ݐ(ݏ‬ (11.9)

Caution The change in path length should not be confused with the distance traveled by the
particle. The two are equal only if the direction of motion does not change during the time
interval. If the direction of motion changes during ȟt, then the distance traveled will be larger
than ȟs.

Velocity

The velocity of the particle at time t is defined as

ȟ‫ݎ‬
‫ = )ݐ( ݒ‬lim = r(‫)ݐ‬ (11.10)
୼௧՜௢ ȟt

where the overdot denotes differentiation with respect to time. Because the velocity is the
derivative of the vector function r(t), it is also a vector. From Fig. 11.3 we observe that r becomes
tangent to the path at A as ȟ–՜ͲǤ‘•‡“—‡–Ž›ǡ the velocity vector is tangent to the path of the
particle.
We also deduce from Fig. 11.3 that |ȟ”ȁ՜ȟs as ȟ–՜ͲǤŠ‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ǡ–Š‡
magnitude of the velocity, also known as the speed of the particle, is

|ȟ‫|ݎ‬ ȟ‫ݏ‬
‫ = )ݐ(ݒ‬lim = lim = ‫)ݐ(ݏ‬ (11.11)
୼௧՜଴ ȟ‫ݐ‬ ୼௧՜଴ ȟ‫ݐ‬

The dimension of velocity is [length/time], so the unit of velocity is m/s or ft/s.

Acceleration

The velocity vectors of the particle at A (time t) and B (time t + t) are shown in Fig. 11.4(a). Note
that both vectors are tangent to the path. The change in the velocity during the time interval t,
shown in Fig. 11.4(b), is

ȟ‫ ݐ(ݒ = ݒ‬+ ȟ‫ )ݐ‬െ ‫)ݐ( ݒ‬ (11.12)

The acceleration of the particle at time t is defined as

ȟ‫ݒ‬
ܽ(‫ = )ݐ‬lim = ‫)ݐ( ݎ = )ݐ(ݒ‬ (11.13)
୼௧՜଴ ȟ‫ݐ‬

The acceleration is a vector of dimension [length/time2]; hence its unit is m/s2 or ft/s2.

Caution The acceleration vector is generally not tangent to the path of the particle. The direction
of the acceleration coincides with ȟv as ȟ–՜Ͳǡ™Š‹…Šǡƒ• seen in the figure, is not necessarily in
the same direction as v.

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Scope of Newtonian Mechanics

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) published his celebrated laws of motion in
Principia (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). Without a doubt, this work ranks
among the most influential scientific books ever published. We should not think, however, that
its publication immediately established classical mechanics. Newton’s work on mechanics dealt
primarily with celestial mechanics and was thus limited to particle motion. Another two hundred
or so years elapsed before rigid-body dynamics, fluid mechanics, and the mechanics of
deformable bodies were developed. Each of these areas required new axioms before it could
assume a usable form.
Nevertheless, Newton’s work is the foundation of classical, or Newtonian, mechanics. His
efforts have even influenced two other branches of mechanics born at the beginning of the
twentieth century: relativistic and quantum mechanics. Relativistic mechanics addresses
phenomena that occur on a cosmic scale (velocities approaching the speed of light, strong
gravitational fields, etc.). It removes two of the most objectionable postulates of Newtonian
mechanics: the existence of a fixed or inertial reference frame and the assumption that time is an
absolute variable, “running” at the same rate in all parts of the universe. (There is evidence
that Newton himself was bothered by these two postulates.) Quantum mechanics is concerned
with particles on the atomic or subatomic scale. It also removes two cherished concepts of
classical mechanics: determinism and continuity. Quantum mechanics is essentially a
probabilistic theory; instead of predicting an event, it determines the likelihood that an event will
occur. Moreover, according to this theory, the events occur in discrete steps (called quanta) rather
than in a continuous manner.
Relativistic and quantum mechanics, however, have by no means invalidated the
principles of Newtonian mechanics. In the analysis of the motion of bodies encountered in our
everyday experience, both theories converge on the equations of Newtonian mechanics. Thus, the
more esoteric theories actually reinforce the validity of Newton’s laws of motion.

Newton’s laws for particle motion

Using modern terminology, Newton’s laws of particle motion may be stated as follows.
1. If a particle is at rest (or moving with constant velocity), it will remain at rest (or continue
to move with constant velocity) unless acted on by a force.
2. A particle acted on by a force will accelerate in the direction of the force. The magnitude
of the acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of the force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the particle.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction; that is, the forces of interaction
between two particles are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

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Although the first law is simply a special case of the second law, it is customary to state the first
law separately because of its importance to the subject of statics.

Inertial reference frames

When applying Newton’s second law, attention must be paid to the coordinate system in
which the accelerations are measured. An inertial reference frame (also known as a Newtonian
or Galilean reference frame) is defined to be any rigid coordinate system in which Newton’s laws
of particle motion relative to that frame are valid with an acceptable degree of accuracy. In most
design applications used on the surface of the earth, an inertial frame can be approximated with
sufficient accuracy by attaching the coordinate system to the earth. In the study of earth satellites,
a coordinate system attached to the sun usually suffices. For interplanetary travel, it is necessary
to use coordinate systems attached to the so-called fixed stars.
It can be shown that any frame that is translating with constant velocity relative to an
inertial frame is itself an inertial frame. It is a common practice to omit the word inertial when
referring to frames for which Newton’s laws obviously apply.

Units and Dimensions

The standards of measurement are called units. The term dimension refers to the type of
measurement, regardless of the units used. For example, kilogram and meter/second are units,
whereas mass and length/time are dimensions. The base dimensions in the SI system (from
Système international d’unités) are mass [M], length [L], and time [T], and the base units are
kilogram (kg), meter (m), and second (s). All other dimensions or units are combinations of the
base quantities. For example, the dimension of velocity is [L/T ], the unit being km/h, m/s, and so
on.
A system with the base dimensions [FLT] (such as the U.S. Customary system), is called a
gravitational system. If the base dimensions are [MLT] (as in the SI system), the system is known
as an absolute system. In each system of measurement, the base units are defined by physically
reproducible phenomena, or physical objects. For example, the second is defined by the duration
of a specified number of radiation cycles in a certain isotope, and the kilogram is defined as the
mass of a certain block of metal kept near Paris, France.
All equations representing physical phenomena must be dimensionally homogenous; that
is, each term of the equation must have the same dimension. Otherwise, the equation will not
make physical sense (it would be meaningless, for example, to add a force to a length). Checking
equations for dimensional homogeneity is a good habit to learn, as it can reveal mistakes made
during algebraic manipulations.

Mass, Force and Weight

If a force F acts on a particle of mass m, Newton’s second law states that
‫ܽ݉ = ܨ‬
where a is the acceleration vector of the particle. For a gravitational [FLT] system, dimensional
homogeneity of Eq. (11.14) requires the dimension of mass to be
‫ ܶܨ‬ଶ
[‫ = ] ܯ‬ቈ ቉ (11.14)
‫ܮ‬
For an absolute [MLT] system of units, dimensional homogeneity of Eq. (11.4) yields for the
dimension of force
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‫ܮܯ‬
[‫ = ] ܨ‬൤ ଶ ൨ (11.15ܾ)
ܶ
The derived unit of force in the SI system is a newton (N), defined as the force that accelerates a
1.0-kg mass at the rate of 1.0 m/s2. From Eq. (11.15b), we obtain
1.0 ܰ = 1.0 ݇݃ . ݉/‫ ݏ‬ଶ
Weight is the force of gravitation acting on a body. If we denote the gravitational acceleration
(free-fall acceleration of the body) by g, the weight W of a body of mass m is given by Newton’s
second law as
ܹ = ݉݃ (11.16)
Note that mass is a constant property of a body, whereas weight is a variable that depends on the
local value of g. The nominal gravitational acceleration at sea level, called standard gravity, is
defined as g =9.80665 m/s². The actual value of g varies from about 9.78 to 9.84, depending on
the latitude and the proximity of large land masses. In this text, we mostly use the average value
݃ = 9.81 ݉/‫ݏ‬²
in computations. However, in some cases calculation is rendered much simpler by rounding off
this value to 9.8m/s². Thus if the mass of a body is 1.0 kg, its weight on earth is (9.81 m/s²)(1.0
kg) = 9.81 N.

Conversion of Units
A convenient method for converting a measurement from one set of units to another set is to
multiply the measurement by appropriate conversion factors. For example, to convert 180 km/h
to m/s, we proceed as follows:
݇݉ ݇݉ 1.0 ݄ 1000 ݉
180 = 180 ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ = 50 ݉/‫ݏ‬
݄ ݄ 3600 ‫ ݏ‬1.0 ݇݉
we see that each conversion factor is dimensionless and of magnitude 1. Therefore, a
measurement is unchanged when it is multiplied by conversion factors only its units are altered.
Note that it is permissible to cancel units during the conversion as if they were algebraic
quantities.
Conversion factors applicable to mechanics are listed inside the front cover of the book.

Law of Gravitation
In addition to his many other accomplishments, Newton also proposed the law of universal
gravitation. Consider two particles of mass mA and mB that are separated by a distance R, as
shown in Fig. 11.5. The law of gravitation states that the two particles are attracted to each other
by forces of magnitude F that act along the line connecting the particles, where
݉஺ ݉஻
‫ܩ=ܨ‬ (11.17)
ܴଶ
The universal gravitational constant G is approximately 6.67×10Ϋ11 m3/(kg · s2).
Although this law is valid for particles, Newton showed that it is also applicable to spherical
bodies provided that their masses are distributed uniformly. (When attempting to derive this
result, Newton had to develop calculus.)
If we let ݉஺ = ‫ܯ‬௘ (the mass of the earth), ݉஻ = ݉ (the mass of a body), and ܴ = ܴ௘ (the
mean radius of the earth), then F in Eq. (11.17) will be the weight W of the body. Comparing ܹ =
‫ܯܩ‬௘ ݉/ܴ௘ଶ with W = mg, we find that ݃ = ‫ܯܩ‬௘ /ܴ௘ଶ . Of course, adjustments may be necessary in
the value of g for some applications in order to account for local variation of the gravitational
attraction.
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Example
Find the gravitational force exerted by the earth on a 70-kg man whose height above the surface
of the earth equals the radius of the earth. The mass and radius of the earth are Me = 5.9742 ×
1024 kg and Re = 6378 km, respectively.
Solution
Consider a body of mass m located at a distance 2Re from the center of the earth of mass Me. The
law of universal gravitation, from Eq. (11.17), states that the body is attracted to the earth by the
force F given by
݉‫ܯ‬௘
‫ܩ=ܨ‬
(2ܴ௘ )ଶ
™Š‡”‡
α͸Ǥ͸͹έͳͲΫͳͳ³/(kg · s²) is the universal gravitational constant. Substituting the values
for G and the given parameters, the earth’s gravitational force acting on the 70-kg man is
(70)(5.9742 × 10ଶସ )
‫( = ܨ‬6.67 × 10ିଵଵ ) = 171.4 ܰ ࡭࢔࢙࢝ࢋ࢘
[2(6378 × 10ଷ )]ଶ

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:

Pytel, A. and Kiusalaas, J. (2017). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics. 4th Ed. SI Edition: Australia:
Cengage Learning

Let’s Check
1. In a certain vibration problem, the differential equation describing the motion of a
particle of mass m is

݀ଶ ‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݉ ଶ
+ܿ + ݇‫ܲ = ݔ‬௢ ‫ݐ߱ ݊݅ݏ‬
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬

where x is the displacement of the particle. What are the dimensions of constants c, k,
Ͳǡƒ†ɘ‹–‡”•‘ˆ–Š‡„ƒ•‡†‹‡•‹‘•‘ˆƒ‰”ƒ˜‹–ƒ–‹‘ƒŽȏ Ȑ system?

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2. Find the mass of an object (in kg) that weighs 2 kN at a height of 1800 km above the
earth’s surface.

Mass of earth = 5.9742 × 10ଶସ ݇݃

Radius of earth = 6378 km
Mass of moon = 0.073483 × 10ଶସ kg
Radius of moon = 1737 km
Mass of sun = 1.9891 × 10ଷ଴ kg
Distance between earth and sun = 149.6 × 10଺ km

Let’s Analyze
Use the following data in Problems 1 & 2
Mass of earth = 5.9742 × 10ଶସ ݇݃
Radius of earth = 6378 km
Mass of moon = 0.073483 × 10ଶସ kg
Radius of moon = 1737 km
Mass of sun = 1.9891 × 10ଷ଴ kg
Distance between earth and sun = 149.6 × 10଺ km

1. Prove that the weight of an object on the moon is approximately one-sixth of its weight
on earth.

2. Determine the gravitational force exerted by the sun on a 1.0-kg object on the surface of
the earth.

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3. Determine the dimensions of the following in terms of the base dimensions of a

gravitational [FLT] system of units:
(a) mv2;
(b) mv; and
(c) ma.

The dimensions of the variables are [m] = [M], [v] = [L/T ] and a = [L/T 2].

In a Nutshell
Use the following data in Problems 1 & 2
Mass of earth = 5.9742 × 10ଶସ ݇݃
Radius of earth = 6378 km
Mass of moon = 0.073483 × 10ଶସ kg
Radius of moon = 1737 km
Mass of sun = 1.9891 × 10ଷ଴ kg
Distance between earth and sun = 149.6 × 10଺ km

1. A spacecraft travels along the straight line connecting the earth and the sun. At what
distance from earth will the gravitational forces of the earth and the sun be equal?

2. A man weighs 150N on the surface of the earth. Find his weight at an elevation equal to
the radius of the earth.

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3. The mass moment of inertia I of a homogeneous sphere about its diameter is I =

(2/5)mR2, where m and R are its mass and radius, respectively. Find the dimension of I
in terms of the base dimensions of
(a) a gravitational [FLT] system; and
(b) an absolute [MLT] system.

4. A famous equation of Einstein is E = mc2, where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed
of light. Determine the dimension of energy in terms of the base dimensions of
(a) a gravitational [FLT] system; and
(b) an absolute [MLT] system

Course Schedule (Week 1)

This section calendars all the activities and exercises, including readings and lectures, as well
as time for making assignments and doing other requirements, in a programmed schedule by
days and weeks, to help the students in SDL pacing, regardless of mode of delivery (OBD or
DED).

Activity Date Where to submit

Big Picture ULO-1a: Let’s Check Aug. 19, 2020 BB’s assignment feature
Big Picture ULO-1a: Let’s Analyze Aug. 20, 2020 BB’s assignment feature
Big Picture ULO-1a: In a Nutshell Aug. 21, 2020 BB’s assignment feature
Quiz 1 Aug. 22, 2020 BB’s Quiz Feature

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