Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

Chapter 1 Introduction
Electromagnetics (EM) may be regarded as the study of the interactions between electric charges at rest and in motion. It entails the analysis, synthesis, physical interpretation, and application of electric and magnetic fields. EM principles find applications in various allied disciplines such as microwaves, antennas, electric machines, satellite communications, bioelectromagnetics, plasmas, nuclear research, fiber optics, electromagnetic interference and compatibility, electromechanical energy conversion, radar meteorology, and remote sensing. In physical medicine, for example, EM power, either in the form of shortwaves or microwaves, is used to heat deep tissues and to stimulate certain physiological responses in order to relieve certain pathological conditions. EM fields are used in induction heaters for melting, forging, annealing, surface hardening, and soldering operations. Dielectric heating equipment uses shortwaves to join or seal thin sheets of plastic materials. EM energy offers many new and exciting possibilities in agriculture. It is used, for example, to change vegetable taste by reducing acidity. EM devices include transformers, electric relays, radio/TV, telephone, electric motors, transmission lines, waveguides, antennas, optical fibers, radars, and lasers. The design of these devices requires thorough knowledge of the laws and principles of EM.

1.1 VECTOR ALGEBRA

Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which electromagnetic (EM) concepts are most conveniently expressed and best comprehended. The quantities electromagnetic will be dealing with can be either a scalar or a vector. A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude. Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature, entropy, electric potential, and population are scalars. In contrast A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Vector quantities include velocity, force, displacement, and electric field intensity. To distinguish between a scalar and a vector it is customary to represent a vector by a letter with an arrow on top of it, such as and , or by a letter in boldface type such as A and B. A scalar is represented simply by a lettere.g., A, B, U, and V. EM theory is essentially a study of some particular fields. A field is a function that specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a region. If the quantity is scalar (or vector), the field is said to be a scalar (or vector) field. Examples of scalar fields are temperature distribution in a building, sound intensity in a theater, electric potential in a region, and refractive index of a stratified medium. The gravitational force on a body in space and the velocity of raindrops in the atmosphere are examples of vector fields.

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title 1.1.1 Unit Vector

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

A vector A has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of A is a scalar written as A or |A|. A unit vector along A is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its direction is along A, that is,

=| |=
Note that | | = 1. Thus we may write A as A=A which completely specifies A in terms of its magnitude A and its direction Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may be represented as ( , , ) or + +

(1.1)
(1.2) . A vector A in

(1.3)

where and are called the components of A in the x, y, and z directions respectively; , , and are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively as illustrated in the figure below.

(a) Fig 1.1 (a) Unit vectors

, and

(b) , (b) Components of A along

, and

The magnitude of vector A is given by

A= and the unit vector along A is given by (1.4)

(1.5)

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

1.1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction

Two vectors A and B can be added together to give another vector C; that is, C=A+B The vector addition is carried out component by component. Thus, if A = ( B=( , , ) C= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) , , (1.6) ) and (1.7)

Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as D = A B = A + (-B) ) + ( = ( )

+ (

(l.8)

Figure 1.2 Vector addition C = A + B: (a) parallelogram rule, (b) head-to-tail rule.

Figure 1.3 Vector subtraction D = A

B: (a) parallelogram rule, (b) head-to-tail rule.

Graphically, vector addition and subtraction are obtained by either the parallelogram rule or the head-to-tail rule as portrayed in Figures 1.2 and 1.3, respectively.
Vector addition and multiplication by scalar are commutative A+B = B+A kA = Ak

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

Vector addition and multiplication by scalar are associative (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) j(kA) = (jk)A Multiplication by scalar is distributive k( A + B ) = kA + kB

where j and k are scalars

1.1.3 Position and Distance Vectors

A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be represented by (x, y, z).The position vector RP (or radius vector) of point P is the directed stance from the origin O to P: i.e. RP = OP = x + y + z (1.9)

Figure 1.4 Illustration of position vector RP = 3ax + 4ay + 5az

Figure 1.5 Distance vector rPG. The position vector of point P is useful in defining its position in space. Point (3, 4, 5), for example, and its position vector 3ax + 4a>( + 5az are shown in Figure 1.4. The distance vector is ihc displacement from one point to another. If two points P and Q are given by (xP, yP, zp) and (xe, yQ, ZQ), the distance vector (or separation vector) is the displacement from P to Q as shown in Figure 1.5; that is,
rPQ

~ rQ rP

= (xQ - xP)ax + (yQ - yP)&y + (zQ - zP)az

(1.14) The difference between a point P and a vector A should be noted. Though both P and A may be represented in the same manner as (x, y, z) and (Ax, Ay, Az), respectively, the point P is not a vector; only its position vector i> is a vector. Vector A may depend on point P, however. For example, if A = 2xya,t + y2ay - xz2az and P is (2, -1,4), then A at P

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

would be 4a^ + ay 32a;,. A vector field is said to be constant or uniform if it does not depend on space variables x, y, and z. For example, vector B = 3a^ 2a^, + 10az is a uniform vector while vector A = 2xyax + y2ay xz2az is not uniform because B is the same everywhere whereas A varies from point to point.
EXAMPLE 1.1

If A = 10ax - 4ay + 6azandB = 2&x + av, find: (a) the component of A along ay, (b) the magnitude of 3A - B, (c) a unit vector along A + 2B.
1.6 POSITION AND DISTANCE VECTORS

Solution: (a) The component of A along ay is Ay = -4. (b) 3A - B = 3(10, - 4 , 6) - (2, 1, 0) = (30,-12,18) - (2, 1,0) = (28,-13,18) Hence |3A - B| = V282 + (-13)2 + (18)2 = VT277 = 35.74 (c) Let C = A + 2B = (10, - 4 , 6) + (4, 2, 0) = (14, - 2 , 6). A unit vector along C is (14,-2,6) or Vl42 + (-2)2 + 62 ac = 0.91 \3ax - 0.1302a,, + 0.3906az Note that |ac| = 1 as expected. PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.1 Given vectors A = ax + 3a. and B = 5ax + 2av - 6a,, determine (a) |A + B (b) 5A - B (c) The component of A along av (d) A unit vector parallel to 3A 4- B Answer: (a) 7, (b) (0, - 2 , 21), (c) 0, (d) (0.9117, 0.2279, 0.3419). Points P and Q are located at (0, 2, 4) and ( - 3 , 1, 5). Calculate (a) The position vector P (b) The distance vector from P to Q (c) The distance between P and Q (d) A vector parallel to PQ with magntude of 10 10 Vector Algebra Solution: (a) i> = 0ax + 2av + 4az = 2a, + 4az (b) rPQ = rQ - i> = ( - 3 , 1, 5) - (0, 2, 4) = ( - 3 , - 1 , 1) or = - 3 a x - ay + az (c) Since rPQ is the distance vector from P to Q, the distance between P and Q is the magnitude of this vector; that is, Alternatively: d = |i>e| = V9 + 1 + 1 = 3.317

d= V(xQ - xPf + (yQ- yPf + (zQ - zPf

= V 9 + T + T = 3.317 (d) Let the required vector be A, then
A = AaA

where A = 10 is the magnitude of A. Since A is parallel to PQ, it must have the same unit vector as rPQ or rQP. Hence,
rPQ

and

(-3,-1,1) 3.317

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

A = I 0 ( 3' *'- = (-9.045a^ - 3.015a, + 3.015az) PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.2 Given points P(l, - 3 , 5), Q(2, 4, 6), and R(0, 3, 8), find: (a) the position vectors of P and R, (b) the distance vector rQR, (c) the distance between Q and R,
Answer: (a) ax 3ay + 5az, 3a* + 33,, (b) 2a* - ay + 2az. EXAMPLE 1.3

A river flows southeast at 10 km/hr and a boat flows upon it with its bow pointed in the direction of travel. A man walks upon the deck at 2 km/hr in a direction to the right and perpendicular to the direction of the boat's movement. Find the velocity of the man with respect to the earth. Solution: Consider Figure 1.6 as illustrating the problem. The velocity of the boat is ub = 10(cos 45 ax - sin 45 a,) = 7.071a^ - 7.071a, km/hr

w1.7 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION 11

Figure 1.6 For Example 1.3. The velocity of the man with respect to the boat (relative velocity) is um = 2(-cos 45 ax - sin 45 a,,) = -1.414a, - 1.414a,, km/hr Thus the absolute velocity of the man is uab = um + uh = 5.657a., - 8.485ay | u j = 10.2/-56.3" that is, 10.2 km/hr at 56.3 south of east. PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.3 An airplane has a ground speed of 350 km/hr in the direction due west. If there is a wind blowing northwest at 40 km/hr, calculate the true air speed and heading of the airplane. Answer: 379.3 km/hr, 4.275 north of west.

1.7 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how they are multiplied. Thus there are two types of vector multiplication: 1. Scalar (or dot) product: A B 2. Vector (or cross) product: A X B 12 HI Vector Algebra Multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C can result in either: 3. Scalar triple product: A (B X C)

or
4. Vector triple product: A X (B X C)

A. Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors A and B, wrilten as A B. is defined geometrically as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle between them. Thus: A B = AB cos I (1.15) where 6AB is the smaller angle between A and B. The result of A B is called either the scalar product because it is scalar, or the dot product due to the dot sign. If A =
(Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz), then A B = AXBX + AyBy + AZBZ (1.16)

which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by component. Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) with each other if A B = 0. Note that dot product obeys the following: (i) Commutative law:

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title
A - B = B - A (1.17)

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

(ii) Distributive law: A (B + C) = A B + A C (1.18) A-A = |A|2 = A2 (1.19) (iii) Also note that ax ay = ay az = az ax = 0 (1.20a) ax ax = ay ay = az az = 1 (1.20b) It is easy to prove the identities in eqs. (1.17) to (1.20) by applying eq. (1.15) or (1.16).
1.7 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION H 13

B. Cross Product
The cross product of two vectors A ;ind B. written as A X B. is a vector quantity whose magnitude is ihe area of the parallclopiped formed by A and It (see Figure 1.7) and is in the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as A is turned into B. Thus A X B = AB sin 6ABan (1.21) where an is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B. The direction of a n is taken as the direction of the right thumb when the fingers of the right hand rotate from A to B as shown in Figure 1.8(a). Alternatively, the direction of a n is taken as that of the advance of a right-handed screw as A is turned into B as shown in Figure 1.8(b). The vector multiplication of eq. (1.21) is called cross product due to the cross sign; it is also called vector product because the result is a vector. If A = (Ax B = (Bx, By, Bz) then AXB= ax Ax Bx av
Ay By
az

KB

- AzBy)ax + (AZBX - AxBz)ay + (AxBy - AyBx)az

Ay, Az) and (1.22a) (1.22b) which is obtained by "crossing" terms in cyclic permutation, hence the name cross product. Figure 1.7 The cross product of A and B is a vector with magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram and direction as indicated. 14 H Vector Algebra
AXB AX B *- A

(a) (b)

Figure 1.8 Direction of A X B and an using (a) right-hand rule, (b) right-handed screw rule. Note that the cross product has the following basic properties: (i) It is not commutative: It is anticommutative: AXB^BXA AXB=-BXA (ii) It is not associative: A X (B X C) =h (A X B) X C (iii) It is distributive: (iv) A X ( B + C) = A X B + A X C

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title
AXA=0
Also note that ax X ay = az a, X az = ax az X ax = ay

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

(1.23a) (1.23b) (1.24) (1.25) (1.26) (1.27) which are obtained in cyclic permutation and illustrated in Figure 1.9. The identities in eqs. (1.25) to (1.27) are easily verified using eq. (1.21) or (1.22). It should be noted that in obtaining an, we have used the right-hand or right-handed screw rule because we want to be consistent with our coordinate system illustrated in Figure 1.1, which is right-handed. A right-handed coordinate system is one in which the right-hand rule is satisfied: that is, ax X ay = az is obeyed. In a left-handed system, we follow the left-hand or left-handed
1.7 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION 15 (a) (b)

Figure 1.9 Cross product using cyclic permutation: (a) moving clockwise leads to positive results: (b) moving counterclockwise leads to negative results.

screw rule and ax X ay = -az is satisfied. Throughout this book, we shall stick to righthanded coordinate systems. Just as multiplication of two vectors gives a scalar or vector result, multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C gives a scalar or vector result depending on how the vectors are multiplied. Thus we have scalar or vector triple product.

C. Scalar Triple Product

Given three vectors A, B, and C, we define the scalar triple product as A (B X C) = B (C X A) = C (A X B) (1.28) obtained in cyclic permutation. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az), B = (Bx, By, Bz), and C = (Cx, Cy, Cz), then A (B X C) is the volume of a parallelepiped having A, B, and C as edges and is easily obtained by finding the determinant of the 3 X 3 matrix formed by A, B, and C; that is, A (B X C) = Bx By Bz
Cy C,

(1.29) Since the result of this vector multiplication is scalar, eq. (1.28) or (1.29) is called the scalar triple product.

D. Vector Triple Product

For vectors A, B, and C, we define the vector tiple product as A X (B X C) = B(A C) - C(A B) (1.30) 16 Vector Algebra obtained using the "bac-cab" rule. It should be noted that but (A B)C # A(B C) (A B)C = C(A B). (1.31) (1.32)

1.8 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

A direct application of vector product is its use in determining the projection (or component) of a vector in a given direction. The projection can be scalar or vector. Given a vector A, we define the scalar component AB of A along vector B as [see Figure 1.10(a)] AB = A cos 6AB = |A| |aB| cos 6AB

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

or AR = A afl (1.33) The vector component AB of A along B is simply the scalar component in eq. (1.33) multiplied by a unit vector along B; that is, AB = ABaB = (A (1-34) Both the scalar and vector components of A are illustrated in Figure 1.10. Notice from Figure 1.10(b) that the vector can be resolved into two orthogonal components: one component AB parallel to B, another (A - As) perpendicular to B. In fact, our Cartesian representation of a vector is essentially resolving the vector into three mutually orthogonal components as in Figure l.l(b). We have considered addition, subtraction, and multiplication of vectors. However, division of vectors A/B has not been considered because it is undefined except when A and B are parallel so that A = kB, where k is a constant. Differentiation and integration of vectors will be considered in Chapter 3.
-- B - B

(a)

Figure 1.10 Components of A along B: (a) scalar component AB, (b) vector component AB. EXAMPLE 1.4
1.8 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR 17

Given vectors A = 3ax + 4ay + az and B = 2ay - 5az, find the angle between A and B. Solution: The angle dAB can be found by using either dot product or cross product. A B = (3, 4, 1) (0, 2, -5) =0+8-5=3 Alternatively:

A| = V32 + 42 + I2 = V26
COS BAR =

B| = VO2 + 22 + (-5)2 = V29

AB3

IAIIBI V(26)(29)
= 0.1092 9AR = cos"1 0.1092 = 83.73 AXB=34 az 1 02-5 = (-20 - 2)ax + (0 + 15)ay + (6 - 0)az = (-22,15,6) |A X B + 152 + 62 = V745
sin 6AB =

A X Bj V745 / (26X29) = 0.994 dAB = cos"1 0.994 = 83.73 PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.4 If A = ax + 3az and B = 5a* + 2ay - 6a., find 6AB. Answer: 120.6.
EXAMPLE 1.5

Three field quantities are given by P = 2ax - a, Q = 2a^ - ay + 2az R = 2ax - 33^, + az Determine

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

(a) (P + Q) X (P - Q) (b) Q R X P 18 Vector Algebra (c) P Q X R (d) sin0eR (e) P X (Q X R) (f) A unit vector perpendicular to both Q and R (g) The component of P along Q Solution: (a) (P + Q) X (P - Q) = P X (P - Q) + Q X (P - Q) =PXP-PXQ+QXP-QXQ =O+QXP+QXP-O = 2Q X P
=2

ay a, 2-12 20-1 = 2(1 - 0) ax + 2(4 + 2) ay + 2(0 + 2) az = 2ar + 12av 4a, (b) The only way Q R X P makes sense is Q (RX P) = (2,-1,2) 2 2 ay - 3 0 a 1 -1 = (2, - 1 , 2 ) -(3, 4, 6) = 6 - 4 + 12 = 14. Alternatively: Q (R X P) = 2-12 2-31 20-1 To find the determinant of a 3 X 3 matrix, we repeat the first two rows and cross multiply; when the cross multiplication is from right to left, the result should be negated as shown below. This technique of finding a determinant applies only to a 3 X 3 matrix. Hence Q (RXP)= _
+

= +6+0-2+12-0-2 = 14
as obtained before.
1.8 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR 19

(c) From eq. (1.28) or (d) P (Q X R) = Q (R X P) = 14 P (Q X R) = (2, 0, -1) (5, 2, -4) = 10 + 0 + 4 = 14 |QXR

IQIIRI 1(2, /45 V5

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title
3V14 V14

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

= 0.5976 (e) P X (Q X R) = (2, 0, -1) X (5, 2, -4) = (2, 3, 4) Alternatively, using the bac-cab rule, P X (Q X R) = Q(P R) - R(P Q) = (2, - 1 , 2)(4 + 0 - 1) - (2, - 3 , 1)(4 + 0 - 2 ) = (2, 3, 4) (f) A unit vector perpendicular to both Q and R is given by Q X R (5,2, -4)
3 |QXR|

= (0.745, 0.298, -0.596) Note that |a| = l , a - Q = 0 = a - R . Any of these can be used to check a. (g) The component of P along Q is PQ = cos 6PQaQ

= (P aG)ae =
(4

(P Q)Q IQI2
=2

(4+1+4)9 = 0.4444ar - 0.2222av + 0.4444a7. PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.5 Let E = 3av + 4a, and F = 4a^ - 10av + 5ar (a) Find the component of E along F. (b) Determine a unit vector perpendicular to both E and F. Answer: (a) (-0.2837, 0.7092, -0.3546), (b) (0.9398, 0.2734, -0.205).

20 Vector Algebra
FXAMPIF 1 f. Derive the cosine formula and the sine formula a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A sin A sin B sin C abc using dot product and cross product, respectively. Solution: Consider a triangle as shown in Figure 1.11. From the figure, we notice that a+b+c=0 that is, b+c=-a Hence, a2 = a a = (b + c) (b + c) =bb+cc+2bc a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A where A is the angle between b and c. The area of a triangle is half of the product of its height and base. Hence, l-a X b| = l-b X c| = l-c X al ab sin C = be sin A = ca sin B Dividing through by abc gives sin A sin B sin C Figure 1.11 For Example 1.6.
1.8 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR 21

PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.6 Show that vectors a = (4, 0, - 1 ) , b = (1,3, 4), and c = (-5, - 3 , - 3 ) form the

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

sides of a triangle. Is this a right angle triangle? Calculate the area of the triangle. Answer: Yes, 10.5. EXAMPLE 1.7 Show that points Ptf, 2, -4), P2{\, 1, 2), and P 3(-3, 0, 8) all lie on a straight line. Determine the shortest distance between the line and point P4(3, - 1 , 0). Solution: The distance vector fptp2 is given by Similarly,
rPJP2 rp2

Tp,P3 = Tp3-1 rPtP4 = rP4 -

rP P X rP

(1,1 = (-4 >, = ("3, = (-8, >, = (3, = (-2, p= = a* -4 -8 (0,0, ,2) , -1 0,8) -2, 1,0) -3, a, -1 2 0) -(5 6) , 2, -4) - (5, 2, -4) 12) - (5, 2, -4) 4) az 6 12 showing that the angle between r>iP2 and rPiPi is zero (sin 6 = 0). This implies that Ph P2, and P3 lie on a straight line. Alternatively, the vector equation of the straight line is easily determined from Figure 1.12(a). For any point P on the line joining P, and P2 where X is a constant. Hence the position vector r> of the point P must satisfy i> - i>, = M*p2 ~ rP) that is,
rP,=

i> = i>, + \(i>2 - i>,)

= (5, 2, - 4 ) - X(4, 1, -6) i> = (5 - 4X, 2 - X, - 4 + 6X) This is the vector equation of the straight line joining Px and P2- If P3 is on this line, the position

Bahirdar University Engineering Faculty Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Title

Electromagnetic Fields

2008/2009

vector of F3 must satisfy the equation; r3 does satisfy the equation when X = 2. 22 Vector Algebra
(a)

Figure 1.12 For Example 1.7. The shortest distance between the line and point P 4(3, - 1 , 0) is the perpendicular distance from the point to the line. From Figure 1.12(b), it is clear that
d = rPiPt sin 6 = |rP|p4 X aP]p2

312 = 2.426 53 Any point on the line may be used as a reference point. Thus, instead of using P\ as a reference point, we could use P3 so that d= sin PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.7 If P, is (1,2, - 3 ) and P2 is ( - 4 , 0,5), find (a) The distance P]P2 (b) The vector equation of the line P]P2 (c) The shortest distance between the line P\P2 and point P3(7, -1,2) Answer: (a) 9.644, (b) (1 - 5X)ax + 2(1 - X) av + (8X - 3) a^, (c) 8.2.