Importance and Problems of Agriculture

 Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy.  Over 70 per cent of the rural households
depend on agriculture. Agriculture is an important sector of Indian economy as it contributes
about 17% to the total GDP and provides employment to around 58% of the population.
Agriculture is made up of two words –‘Ager’ + ‘culture’. ‘Ager’ means soil and ‘culture’
means cultivation.
 Agriculture is defined as the art, science and business of producing crops and livestock for
economic purpose.
 Importance of Agriculture in India:
 Two third of the livelihood of the Indian population is directly or indirectly dependent
on Agriculture.
 Agricultural sector provides raw material for various industries such as textiles, sugar,
flour mills, Jute, Apparel etc.
 Flourishing Agricultural production in India is the main factor behind the food
security of the large Indian population.
 Allied sectors in agriculture involve- horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy, fishing etc.
 Agriculture and allied sector plays vital role in providing nutrition and livelihood to the huge
population in India.

Major Problems Agriculture in India is Facing

Instability

Agriculture in India is largely depends on monsoon. As a result, production of food-grains fluctuates

year after year. A year of abundant output of cereals is often followed by a year of acute shortage.
This, in its turn, leads to price income and employment fluctuations.

Irrigation

Farmers also suffer due to lack of irrigation facilities. Moreover, ordinary varieties of seed can be
replaced by better varieties if there is an assured supply of water. The present problem is one of
discovering cheap and easy methods of utilising these vast supplies of water.

Land Ownership

Inequality in land distribution is due to the fact that there are frequent changes in land ownership in
India. It is believed that large parcels of land in India are owned by a- relatively small section of the
rich farmers, landlords and money-lenders, while the vast majority of farmers own very little amount
of land, or no land at all. As a result peasants cannot generate sufficient marketable surplus. So they
are not only poor but are often in debt.

Agricultural Laborers

The conditions of most agricultural laborers in India are far from satisfactory. There is also the
problem of surplus labour or disguised unemployment. This pushes the wage rates below the sub-
sistence levels.

Reforms

Agriculture is a state subject as per our Indian Constitution, however, Central

government also take measures so that agricultural production can be improved and so
the lives of the farmers. We come across many instances like farmer’s suicide due to
failures of crops in a particular year other problems faced by farmers such as post-
harvest losses, crop loss due to change in rainfall pattern, flood, drought, etc. Central
government always comes up with the solution of all such problems so that farming
community as a whole can get the benefits. Also, the present government has set a
target of doubling the farmer’s income by 2022 which is yet to achieve and on the road
towards this they have come up with many of the initiatives and the recent one is
amendments in Essential Commodities Act, 1955.

Government's Initiatives
E-NAM

 Electronic National agricultural Market works as pan-India electronic trading

portal which has connected all the existing APMC mandis and provides a unified
national market for agricultural commodities.
 This portal provides an uniformity in agriculture market, removes asymmetry
between buyers and sellers and promotes real time price discovery based on
actual demand and supply.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)

 This scheme enshrines its priority towards conservation and managements of

water.
 This scheme is formulated with the vision of extending the coverage of irrigation
‘Har Khet ko Pani’ and improving water use efficiency ‘More crop per drop’.
 It also provides end to end solution on source creation, distribution, management,
field application and extension activities.

Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)

 It is an initiative to promote organic farming in the country.

 In this scheme, farmers are encouraged to form groups or clusters and take to
organic farming methods over large areas in the country.
 The aim is to form 1,000 clusters and bring up to 5 lakh acres of agricultural area
under organic farming.
 PKVY also aims at empowering farmers through institutional development
through clusters approach not only in farm practice management, input
production, quality assurance but also in value addition and direct marketing
through innovative means.
 It aims to promote natural resource based integrated and climate resilient
sustainable farming systems that ensure maintenance and increase soil fertility,
natural resource conservation, on-farm nutrient recycling and minimize
dependence of farmers on external inputs.
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
It is a unique of its kind of an insurance scheme that integrates multiple
stakeholders on a single platform. It provides insurance coverage and financial
support to the farmers in the event of failure of any of the notified crop as a result
of natural calamities, pests and diseases. It aims to stabilize the income of
farmers to ensure their continuance in farming. It encourages farmers to adopt
innovative and modern agricultural practices

PM-KISAN (Kisan Samman Nidhi) Yojana

It is a direct cash transfer scheme with 100% funding from the Government of
India. An income support of Rs. 6,000 oer year is provided to all farmer families
(including famer, wife and minor children) across the country in three equal
installments of Rs. 2000 each at every four month.

PM-KISAN Maan Dhan Yojana

It is a pension scheme for small and marginal farmers of the country. This
scheme is voluntary and contribution based for farmers at the entry of between
18-40 years of age. In this, farmers will get Rs 3,000 as monthly pension after
attaining the age of 60 years. This scheme is launched to provide an income
support after a certain age to give them financial freedom.

There are many agricultural reforms took place by government to provide a standard
lifestyle to farmers and bring equal socio-economic facilities to them. As India’s
agriculture sector remained sort of distress due to natural calamities, failure of
monsoon, lack of technology, lack of proper education in terms of farming, which many
a times lead to harsh steps taken by farmers in form of life loss.
And, due to present outbreak of pandemic, farming society faced many issues during
post-harvest season of wheat crop. Due to migration of labors, farmers were not able
to harvest crops on time and due to lockdown imposed in the country, they were not
able to sell their produce in the market. Hence, government suggested to amend the
Essential Commodities Act, 1955 which would provide them an opportunity to sell
produce on electronic platform and at higher cost. The target set by present
government is to double the farmer’s income by 2022 and above mentioned schemes
or programs are steps and measures towards it.
Types of Farming and its features

1. Shifting Agriculture: In this type of agriculture, first of all a piece of forest land is cleared by felling trees
and burning of trunks and branches. After the land is cleared, crops are grown for two to three years and then
the land is abandoned as the fertility of the soil decreases. The farmers then move to new areas and the process
is repeated. Dry paddy, maize, millets and vegetables are the crops commonly grown in this type of farming.
This is practiced in most parts of India especially North East Region.

2. Subsistence Agriculture: In subsistence agriculture, farmer and his family produce cereals for themselves
only or for local market. It is characterised by small and scattered land holdings and use of primitive tools. As
the farmers are poor, they do not use fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds in their fields to the extent
they should do. Cereals like wheat, rice, millets are mainly raised.

3. Intensive Farming: Intensive farming aims at maximum possible production on the limited farms with all
efforts possible under the circumstances. It is capable of raising more than one crop a year and huge capital and
human labour is employed on every hectare of land. It is practiced in most parts of densely populated areas. 

4. Extensive Farming: It is the modern system of farming done on large farms also known as mechanical
farming due to extensive use of machines. Extensive farm raises only one crop a year and employment of labour
and capital per hectare of land is comparatively less.

5. Plantation Agriculture: In plantation agriculture, bush or tree farming is done on huge areas. It is capital
centered and needs good managerial ability, technical knowledge, improved machineries, fertilizers, irrigation
and transport facilities. A particular or single sown crop like rubber, tea, coconut, coffee, cocoa, spices and fruit
crops etc. is sown and the yield is generally obtained continuously for a number of years. Plantation agriculture
is export oriented agriculture. Most of the crops grown in plantation agriculture have a life cycle of more than
two years. It is practiced in Kerala, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra.

6. Commercial Agriculture: Commercial Agriculture is practiced to raise crops on a large scale with a view to
export them to other countries and earn money. This type of agriculture farming is done mostly in sparsely
populated areas. Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Maharashtra, mainly practice this type of farming. Wheat, cotton,
sugarcane, corn etc. are some of the commercial crops.

7. Dry Land Farming: Dry farming or dry-land farming may be defined as a practice of growing crops without
irrigation in areas which receive an annual rainfall of 750 mm – 500 mm or even less. In dry land farming,
moisture is maintained by raising special type of crops. Gram, jowar, bajra and peas are such crops which need
less water. It is practiced in low rainfall areas or where there is inadequate irrigation facility. This is practiced in
dry areas of the country such as western, north-western India and central India.

8. Wet Land Farming: Wet land farming depends mainly upon rains, so it is practiced in high rainfall or well
irrigated areas. In this type of farming rice, jute and sugarcane are grown. This type of farming is prevalent in
the north, north-eastern India and on the slopes of the Western Ghats. On the basis of seasons, crops grown in
India can be classified as follows—

(i) Kharif: Kharif crops are grown with the start of monsoon till the beginning of winter (June-July to October-
November).Rice, maize, millets, cotton, groundnut, moong, urad etc. are kharif crops.

(ii) Rabi: Rabi crops are sown with the start of winter till the beginning of summer (October-November to
March-April).Wheat, barley, gram and oilseeds are rabi crops. 

(iii) Zaid: Zaid crops are grown in short season of summer. Watermelon and cucumbers are zaid crops. 
9. Terrace Agriculture: The hill and mountain slopes are cut to form terraces and the land is used in the same
way as in permanent agriculture. Due to scarcity of the availability of flat land, terraces are made to provide
small patch of level land. Soil erosion is also checked due to terrace formation on hill slopes.

Major Crops and Agricultural Seasons in India

Major crops can be classified into-

 Food crops- Rice, Wheat, Millets, Maize and Pulses.

 Cash crops- Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Horticulture crops, Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Cotton and
Jute.

Cropping Seasons

S. Cropping
Time Period Crops States
No Season

1. Rabi Sown: Wheat, barley, Punjab,

October- peas, gram, Haryana,
December mustard etc. Himachal
Harvested: Pradesh,
April-June Jammu and
Kashmir,
Uttarakhand
and Uttar
Pradesh

2. Kharif Sown: June- Rice, maize, Assam, West

July jowar, bajra, Bengal, coastal
Harvested: tur, moong, regions of
September- urad, cotton, Odisha, Andhra
October jute, Pradesh,
groundnut, Telangana,
soybean etc. Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and
Maharashtra

3. Zaid Sown and Seasonal Most of the

harvested: fruits, northern and
March-July vegetables, northwestern
(between Rabi fodder crops
and Kharif) etc.
 states

Page 5 – Rice – climatic conditions

Rice is grown under varying conditions in India from 8° to 25° N latitude and from sea level to about 2,500

metre altitude. It is a tropical plant and requires high heat and high humidity for its successful growth. The

temperature should be fairly high at mean monthly of 24°C. It should be 20°- 22°C at the time of sowing, 23°-

25°C during growth and 25°-30°C at the harvesting time. The average annual rainfall required by rice is 150 cm.

It is the dominant crop in areas of over 200 cm annual rainfall and is still an important crop in areas of 100-200

cm rainfall.Rice can be grown with the help of irrigation, as is done in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. About

40 per cent of rice crop in India is raised under irrigation.

The rainfall should be fairly distributed throughout the year and no month should have less than 12 cm of

rainfall. Less amount of rainfall is required as the harvesting time approaches.

The fields must be levelled and have low mud walls to retain water. This peculiar requirement of rice makes it

primarily a crop of plain areas. Rice grown in well watered lowland plain areas is called wet or lowland rice.

In hilly areas, the hill slopes are cut into terraces for the cultivation of rice. Such a cultivation in which the hill

slopes are cut into terraces is called terraced cultivation. The supply of water to the hill terraces is not as much

as in the plain areas and the rice grown in hilly areas is called dry or upland rice.

Rice can be grown on a variety of soils including silts, loams and gravels and can tolerate acidic as well as

alkaline soils. High-level loams and lighter soils can be used for quick maturing varieties of rice. Black lava soil

is also useful for rice cultivation.

It is, therefore, primarily grown in areas of high population density which provide abundant labour and at the

same time, offer ready market for its consumption.

Page 6: Upland and Lowland Rice , Soil

Lowland Rice
 Rainfed lowland rice ecosystems are found mainly in tropical climate areas; in river deltas, flood plain and
inland swamps. Bunds and dikes are built around rainfed lowland fields to capture and conserve rainfall for
growth and development of rice plants. Water supply to rice crops comes principally from rainfall, but in some
places water may come from diverted small water courses (e.g. streams), or swollen rivers. Rice fields are
covered with a layer of standing water up to 50 cm during half of the growing season or more. Variability in
rainfall and its distribution normally cause either flood or drought stresses in rainfed lowland rice production.
 
In Asia the expansion of the irrigated lowland rice area has contributed negatively the total harvested area of
rainfed lowland rice, while farmers’ efforts to do double cropping in areas with long rainy season have positive
contributions.

Upland Rice

Upland rice is grown in about 13% of the area under rice in India but contributes to
only 4% of the rice production. A number of abiotic and biotic stresses depress rice
yields in rainfed uplands which is mostly populated by resource poor farmers. Though
rice area in uplands have declined in recent years, especially in the South and West,
substantial area in the eastern states of Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, eastern Uttar
Pradesh, parts of Assam, West Bengal and north-eastern states are covered under
upland rice as it is the staple diet of the inhabitants of this region, and land holding which
are predominantly undulating, permit only rice to be grown during the monsoons.
Upland rice systems are diverse, each state growing several genotypes under a range
of management practices and cropping patterns. A redeeming feature of the system
across the states is that it provides sustenance to the farming families during the lean
season as upland rice is harvested early.
Upland rice is grown in about 13% of the area under rice in India but contributes to
only 4% of the rice production. A number of abiotic and biotic stresses depress rice
yields in rainfed uplands which is mostly populated by resource poor farmers. Though
rice area in uplands have declined in recent years, especially in the South and West,
substantial area in the eastern states of Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, eastern Uttar
Pradesh, parts of Assam, West Bengal and north-eastern states are covered under
upland rice as it is the staple diet of the inhabitants of this region, and land holding which
are predominantly undulating, permit only rice to be grown during the monsoons.
Upland rice systems are diverse, each state growing several genotypes under a range
of management practices and cropping patterns. A redeeming feature of the system
across the states is that it provides sustenance to the farming families during the lean
season as upland rice is harvested early.
Upland rice is grown in about 13% of the area under rice in India but contributes to only 4% of the rice
production. A number of abiotic and biotic stresses depress rice yields in rainfed uplands which is mostly
populated by resource poor farmers. Though rice area in uplands have declined in recent years, especially in the
South and West, substantial area in the eastern states of Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, eastern Uttar Pradesh,
parts of Assam, West Bengal and north-eastern states are covered under upland rice as it is the staple diet of the
inhabitants of this region, and land holding which are predominantly undulating, permit only rice to be
grown during the monsoons. Upland rice systems are diverse, each state growing several genotypes under a
range of management practices and cropping patterns. A redeeming feature of the system across the states is
that it provides sustenance to the farming families during the lean season as upland rice is harvested early.

Soil

Soil Condition Required  

 Soils with good water retention capacity with high amount of clay and organic matter are ideal for rice
cultivation.
 Clay or clay loams are most suited for rice cultivation.
 Such soils are capable of holding water for long and sustain crop.
 Rice being a semi-aquatic crop, grows best under sub-merge conditions.
 Rice is cultivated in almost all types of soils with varying productivity.
 The major soil groups where rice is grown are riverine alluvium, red-yellow, red loamy, hill and sub-montane,
Terai, laterite, costal alluvium, red sandy, mixed red, black, medium and shallow black soils.
 It grows well in soils having a pH range between 5.5 and 6.5.

Methods of cultivation and distribution

Distribution

 Rice is grown in varying degrees in almost all parts of the country except higher parts of the
Himalayan ranges exceeding 2,500 metres in altitude, Marusthali part of Rajasthan,
KachchhSaurashtra, Malwa and Marathwada regions due to various geographical constraints.

.  Rice producing areas mainly include the lower and the middle Ganga Plains, the east and the west
Coastal Plains, the Brahmaputra valley and parts of the Peninsular plateau.

 Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh have assumed considerable importance after the introduction
of the Green Revolution. It is clear that about half of rice production in India is contributed by four
states namely West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Andhra Pradesh. The other major producers
are Odisha, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Kerala in order of importance.
Wheat , Millets ,Pulses Page 8 : Climatic Conditions

 The ideal wheat climate has winter temperature 10° to 15°C and summer temperature varying from

21°C to 26°C. The temperature should be low at the time of sowing but as the harvesting time

approaches higher temperatures are required for proper ripening of the crop. But sudden rise in

temperature at the time of maturity is harmful.

Wheat thrives well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of about 75 cm. Annual rainfall of 100 cm is

the highest limit of wheat cultivation. The isohyet of 100 cm marks the boundary between wheat

growing areas on one hand and rice growing areas on the other.

Millets

 A warm, temperate climate is essential for the sprouting and germination of the
millet seeds to keep the soil temperature cozy since they are susceptible to
damage by cold weather and frosts.
 The sustainable temperature for millet growth is 20-30 degrees Celsius.
 Most millets have a short growing season and can be grown well in areas where
other crops fail to grow. For example, Sorghum can be cultivated even in drought
conditions, unlike any other plant because of its excellent water holding capacity
due to the presence of waxy coatings on its stems and leaves.
 Usually, minor millets require below 35cm of rainfall, while a few other major
millets require at least 40cm of rainfall for a good harvest.

Pulses

1) pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.

2) temperature is required from 25 degree Celsius to 30 degree Celsius...

3) these can be grown on all types of soil but dry light soil is the best suited.

4) pulses grow well in the areas of 50 to 75 cm rainfall.

5) pulses are leguminous soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air does pulses are mostly
grown in rotation with other crops.
Wheat , Millets ,Pulses Page 9 : Soil

Wheat is grown in a variety of soils in India. Well-drained loam and clay loams are good for wheat. However good crop of

wheat are raised in sandy loams and black soils also. Soils should be neutral in reaction. Heavy soils with good drainage are

suitable for wheat cultivation under dry condition. 

Millet

 Millet has wide adaptability to different soil from very poor to very fertile and can tolerate a

certain degree of alkalinity. The best soils are alluvial, loamy and sandy soil with good

drainage. 

Pulses

Soil required for growing lentil or masoor Dal is mainly alluvial soil because mainly the pulses need more

quantity of water, nutrients and moisture to grow thus it is favourable to the pulses plant to grow up in alluvial

soil.

Loamy soil as the topsoil is most favorable for most kinds of vegetation including pulses and lentils. It has the

right amount of ratio between sandy, clayey and another soil called silt. The sandy soil is well aerated as it has

the bigger particles which cannot fit together and thus can’t hold water. While the clayey soil has good water

retention capacity as it has fine particles which fit close together. This makes loamy soil well aerated as well as

having the right water holding capacity and most suitable to grow vegetation.
Wheat , Millets ,Pulses Page 10 : Methods of Cultivation and Distribution

Methods of Wheat Production & Distribution

The work in the wheat fields begins after the rainy season, i.e. in the month of October or November. At this
time the land is moist and soft. The fields are ploughed and the soil is broken several times, with the help of
either a tractor or an ox-pulled plough.

The seeds are sown in rows either by broadcasting, dibbling or drilling methods. At the time of sowing, the soil
has enough moisture needed for the growth of plants.

The grain starts appearing by the end of February and the harvesting begins before the hot summer month. In
South India, the crop ripens a bit earlier. At the time of harvesting, the grain is hard and the stalk is brittle.
Harvesting in South India is done mostly by hand. In the north-western parts of India, harvesting machines are
now being used widely. The combine harvesters are preferred as it can do harvesting as well as thrashing and
packing. Wheat production is mainly confined to North-Western parts of the country. Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab and Haryana are the three prominent wheat producing states.

Methods of Millet Production & Distribution

Millets are generally grown as mixed crops in regions of low rainfall, the other crop grown with them being
usually one of the legumes. Most of the millets grown in our country are of short duration, taking, three to four
months from sowing to harvesting. Millets are cultivated in low-fertile land, tribal and rain-fed and mountainous
areas. These areas include Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Telangana.

Methods Of Pulses Production & Distribution

Pulse cultivation requires the temperature of 20° to 30°C along with the adequate rainfall of the range of 50° cms to 75 cms.
Pulses can be cultivated on each type of soils; however, the best suitable soil for this cultivation is dry light soil.

Pulses are produced in all over India but the influential states are Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Rajasthan. Nowadays, importance linked to pulses has increased because of the enhanced demand. India is
the largest producer (25% of global production), consumer (27% of world consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the
world. Pulses account for around 20 per cent of the area under foodgrains and contribute around 7-10 per cent of the total
foodgrains production in the country. Though pulses are grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons, Rabi pulses contribute more
than 60 per cent of the total production.
Gram is the most dominant pulse having a share of around 40 per cent in the total production followed by Tur/Arhar at 15 to
20 per cent and Urad/Black Matpe and Moong at around 8-10 per cent each. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh and Karnataka are the top five pulses producing States. Productivity of pulses is 764 kg/ha.

Cash Crops : Sugarcane and Oil Seeds Page 11 : Climatic Conditions,

o It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual
rainfall of 75-100cm.
o Medium and heavy soils where irrigation facilities are available are ideal for its cultivation.
 o It can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from the time of sowing to
harvesting.
o It is a long maturing crop planted between February and April. Harvesting begins in October
and November.

It is a soil-exhausting crop and thus needs regular application of manure or fertilisers. In the
latter half, temperature above 20°C combined with open sky helps
in acquiring juice and its thickening. Too heavy rainfall results in
low sugar content and deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous crop.
Irrigation is required in areas receiving lesser rainfall than the
prescribed limit. Short cool dry winter season during ripening and
harvesting is ideal.

Frost is detrimental to sugarcane. Therefore, it must be harvested

before frost season, if it is grown in northern parts of the country
where winters are very cold and frost is a common phenomenon. On
the other hand, hot dry winds are also inimical to sugarcane.

It can grow on a variety of soils including loams, clayey loams, black

cotton soils, brown or reddish loams and even laterites. In fact,
sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture. But
deep rich loamy soils are ideal for its growth.
Most oilseeds are grown as dry crops or in association with other crops e.g. mustard is grown with
wheat. It thrives best in the tropical climate and requires 20°-30°C temperature and 50-75 cm
rainfall. Isohyet of 100 cm marks the upper limit of groundnut cultivation. It is highly susceptible to
frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant water. Dry winter is needed at the time of
ripening.

Cash Crops : Sugarcane and Oil Seeds Page 12: Soil

Soil
Black soil is also known as black lava soil. This soil black in color. It is formed from lava rocks and is rich in

clay. Suitable Crops: It is ideal for growing crops such as cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, wheat, millets, and

oilseeds. Although this crop can be grown under varied geographical conditions, it prefers cool, moist climate

with about 20°C temperature and 75 cm rainfall. Clay loams, deep black soils and alluvial soils are best suited

for its cultivation. The soil should be rich in nitrogen, calcium and
phosphorus but it should not be either too acidic or too alkaline.
Sugarcane exhausts the fertility of the soil quickly and extensively
and its cultivation requires heavy dose of manures and fertilizers.-
Flat plain or level plateau is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation
because it facilitates irrigation and transportation of cane to the
sugar mills.

A well-drained loamy soil with neutral soil reaction (pH 6.5 to 7.5) and adequate nutrients and without
soil compaction is considered an ideal soil for sugarcane production. The soil should be loose and
friable with a minimum depth of 45 cm without any harmful salts and nutrient deficiency. Where the
soils are hard due to clayey structure, more elaborate preparatory cultivation practices like deep-
ploughing or chiseling would be necessary before formation of furrows. Sugarcane has the potential for
deep rooting to over 5 metres and the crop growing in deep soils have appreciable drought tolerance.
The soil should have a bulk density below 1.4 mg/m3 and porosity of about 50% which at field capacity
would be occupied by air and water in almost equal proportions. In soils with bulk density more than
1.5 mg/m3, there would be difficulties for the growth and spread of roots.

METHODS OF CULTIVATION – Page 13

Sugarcane is planted by three methods in different parts of India.

1. Flat planting:

In this method, shallow (8-10 centimeters deep) furrows are opened with a local plough or cultivator at a
distance of 75 to 90 centimeter. There should be adequate moisture in the field at the time of planting. The selts
are planted in them end to end taking care that one three budded selt falls in each running 30 centimeters length
of furrow. After these furrows are covered with 5-7 centimeters os soil and field is leveled by heavy planking. In
most part of northern India and some tracts of Maharashtra, cane is planted by this method.
2. Furrow planting:

In this method, furrows are made with a sugarcane ridger about 10-15 centimeters deep in northern India and
about 20 centimeters in south India. Selts are planted end to end in the furrows and covered with 5-6 centimeters
soil, leaving upper portion of furrows unfilled. Immediately after covering the selts into furrows. This method is
practiced in parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and in Peninsular India, particularly in heavy soils.

3. Trench Method:

In some coastal areas as well as in other areas where the crop grows very tall and the strong winds during rainy
season cause lodging of cane, trench method is adopted to save the crop from lodging. Trenches at a distance of
75-90 centimeters are dug with the help of ridger or by manual labour. Trenches should be about 20-25
centimeters deep. After this already prepared mixture of fertilizers (NPK) should be spread uniformly in the
trenches and mixed thoroughly in the soil. The selts are planted end to end in trenches. Gamma BHC 20 EC at
the rate of 5 liters in 800-1000 liters of water per hectare is sprayed over planted selts in trenches to control
termites and shoot and root borers. Immediately after this, trenches are filled up with loose soil as in case of flat
sowing. The tractor-drawn sugarcane planter is a very suitable device for planting cane in trenches.

The geographical conditions required for the growth of oil seeds are as under:-
1.Tropical climate.
2.Temperature ranging between 20-30 degrees50-75 cm of rainfall.
3.This crop does not withstand continuous drought, stagnant water.
4.Loamy red and yellow soil, black soil supports its growth.

Page 14 : Cotton -Climatic Condition

Cotton is the crop of tropical and sub-tropical areas and requires uniformly high temperature varying between
21°C and 30°C. The growth of cotton is retarded when the temperature falls below 20°C. Frost is enemy number
one of the cotton plant and it is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year. The modest
requirement of water can be met by an average annual rainfall of 50- 100 cm. However, it is successfully grown
in areas of lesser rainfall with the help of irrigation. Cotton is a tropical or sub-tropical crop grown in semi-arid
areas of the country (mainly in the Deccan Plateau).Hard-frost is injurious to cotton cultivation and it requires at
least 210 frost-free days. Only light-rainfall (50 to 100 centimetres) is preferred. Cotton can also be cultivated
under irrigated conditions.It requires high temperature and bright sunshine for its growth.Cotton requires a clear
sky during the flowering stage.A light well-drained soil capable of retaining moisture is ideally suited for the
cultivation of the crop. Black cotton soil is prefered. It is a Kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.

Soil
The crop is generally grown in medium to deep black clayey soil, but is also grown in sandy and sandy loam
soil through supplemental irrigation by farmers. Cotton is best grown in soils with an excellent water holding
capacity. Aeration and good drainage are equally important as the crop cannot withstand excessive moisture and
water logging. The major soil types suitable for cotton cultivation are alluvial, clayey and red sandy loam.
Cotton is grown both under irrigated and rain fed conditions. Being a cash crop, cotton is known for its intensive
cultivation

Methods of Cultivation and Distribution

Sowing: The seeds are sown by broadcast method or by drills.

Harvesting: The crop is harvested in October when the cotton balls ripen and burst into white, fluffy and shiny

balls of fibre. 

Processing: After the cotton has been picked, it is ginned. The seeds maybe crushed to yield oil. The cotton

fibre is baled for transport to the manufacturing regions. The fibres are washed and then combed to form a rope-

like mass of fibres known as sliver. The sliver is fed to the spindles and spun to make cotton yarn.

Distribution of cotton in India

Cotton occupies about 5 per cent of the total cropped area in India. The chief cotton-growing areas in India are:

(a)in the north-western Deccan on the fertile black cotton soils; (b) the central and southern Deccan of

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; and (c) in the Upper Ganges valley, where much of the cotton is grown with

irrigation. Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra and Punjab are the leading producers of cotton. 

Page 15 : Jute

Climate and Soils  

Jute requires a warm and humid climate with temperature between 24° C to 37° C.  Constant rain or

water-logging is harmful.  The new gray alluvial soil of good depth, receiving salt from annual floods,

is best for jute.  Flow ever jute is grown widely in sandy loams and clay loams.

Method of Cultivating 

Jute is generally sown in February on lowlands and in March-May on uplands. The crop takes 8- 10 months to

mature but different varieties take different time to mature. The harvesting period generally starts in July and

continues till October. The plants are cut to the ground and tied into bundles. Sheafs of jute stocks are then
immersed in flood water or ponds or stagnant water for about 2 to 3 weeks for retting. High temperature of

water quickens the process of retting. After retting is complete, the bark is peeled from the plant and fibre is

removed.

After this, stripping, rinsing, washing and cleaning is done and the fibre is dried in the sun and pressed into

bales. All this process is to be done by human hand for which/availability of plenty of labour at cheap rates is

very essential. Luckily, this labour is readily available because jute is cultivated in areas of high population

density.

Distribution

The cultivation of jute in India is mainly confined to the eastern region of the country

. The jute crop is grown in nearly 83 districts of seven states - West Bengal , Assam ,

Orissa , Bihar , Uttar Pradesh , Tripura and Meghalaya . West Bengal alone

accounts for over 50 percent raw jute production.

Tea – Page 16 Climatic Conditions

 Tea grows in a moderately hot and humid climate, which is preferred for better yield, crop distribution and
quality. An ambient temperature within 13°C and 28-32°C is conducive for growth of tea. Temperature
above 32°C is unfavourable for optimum photosynthesis. It is synergically disastrous for the crop if it is
accompanied by low humidity.
 In India, the temperature in winters is around or below 12°C and there is hardly any growth during this
period. This is called Winter Dormancy.
Soil

Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loams. However, virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron

content are considered to be the best soils for tea plantations. Relatively large proportion of phosphorus and

potash in the soil gives special flavour to tea as is the case in Darjeeling.
In order to increase the yield, proper dose of nitrogenous fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate should be given

to soil.

Method of Cultivation:

Tea gardens are set up on the cleared hill slopes where shade trees are planted in advance. Seeds are sown in the germination

beds and the saplings transplanted to the garden. The garden is regularly hoed and weeded so that tea bush grows without

any hindrance. Use of manures and fertilizers is a common practice in the gardens. Oil cakes and green manures are widely

used.

Pruning of the plant is an essential part of tea cultivation. It helps in maintaining the proper shape of tea bush to a height of

about one metre with about the same diameter. The aim of pruning is to have new shoots bearing soft leaves in plenty and to

facilitate the plucking of leaves by women labourers from the ground.

Distribution:

Tea cultivation in India is highly concentrated in a few selected pockets. Following three areas of tea cultivation

are identified according to their importance as tea producers and their location.

(1) North-Eastern India; (2) South India (3) North-West India.

Coffee Page 17 Climatic Conditions

Coffee plant requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying between 15°C and 28 °C and

rainfall from 150 to 250 cm. It does not tolerate frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30°C and

strong sun shine and is generally grown under shady trees. Prolonged drought is also injurious to

coffee. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries. Stagnant water is harmful and

this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600 metres above sea level.

Soil

Coffee plant requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying between 15°C and 28 °C and

rainfall from 150 to 250 cm. It does not tolerate frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30°C and
strong sun shine and is generally grown under shady trees. Prolonged drought is also injurious to

coffee. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries.

Stagnant water is harmful and this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600 metres

above sea level.

Methods of cultivation

Processing of coffee in India is accomplished using two methods, dry processing

and wet processing. Dry processing is the traditional method of drying in the sun

which is retains flavor producing fruit characteristics.

Distribution

Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for about 70 per cent of total coffee production

and 60 per cent of the area under coffee in India. This state also gives the highest yield of

10.3 quintals/hectare. Most of the 4,650 plantations are at about 1,370 meters above sea level

where annual rainfall is 125-150 cm. Kodagu and Chikmagalur account for over 80 per cent

of the state’s total output. The other important coffee producing districts are Shimoga, Hassan

and Mysore. Kerala is the second largest producer of coffee but lags far behind, accounting
only for about 23.27 per cent of the total production of the country. Its yield of 7.9

quintals/hectare is also low as compared to 10.3 quintals/hectare of Karnataka. Most of the

coffee plantations are at an altitude of 1,200 m where annual rainfall is over 200 cm.

Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing

districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer where India’s 6 per cent coffee is produced.

About half of Tamil Nadu’s coffee is produced in Nilgiri district.