Contents

1 Building Stones...............................................................................................................................................2
2 Properties of Building Stones:.........................................................................................................................2
3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF BUILDING STONES.........................................................................................................8
4 Requirement of Good Building Stone.............................................................................................................9
5 STONE DEFECTS DESCRIPTION......................................................................................................................11
6 DIFFERENT TESTS ON BUILDING STONES......................................................................................................11
7 WALLING SPECIFICATIONS............................................................................................................................13

1 Building Stones
Meaning of Building Stones:
A building stone may be defined as a sound rock that can be safely used in some situation in the construction
as a massive dressed or undressed unit. Stones are derived from the rocks which are naturally occurred as the
portion of earth’s crust.

2 Properties of Building Stones:

The physical, structural and other properties a rock should possess to be recommended as a building stone will
depend upon the type of construction and the situation within that particular construction where the stone is
intended to be used. Thus a stone to be used in flooring for a building need not possess all those qualities that
are must for a stone to be used in foundations and load bearing walls.
Similarly, stones required for making retaining walls need not have all the properties required for that intended
to be used in facing walls.
Therefore, it is safe to discuss various qualities governing the selection of building stones under three
subheadings:
a. Strength Characteristics,
b. Geological characters and
c. General characters.
(A) Strength Characteristics:
Stones, like all other solids, fail when subjected to loads beyond their strength. The failure takes place under
compressive, tension and shear forces at different values. It is, however, the compressive strength, which is
taken as the most important index property of stones.
i. Compressive Strength:
It is also sometimes referred as crushing strength of a stone and may be defined as the maximum force
expressed per unit area, which a stone can withstand without rupturing. Any force applied beyond the
compressive strength will cause a failure or rupture of the stone.
The compressive strength of a rock depends on a number of factors such as its mode of formation, its
composition, texture and structure, its moisture content and extent of weathering it has already suffered.
Igneous rocks being crystalline in character, compact and interlocking in texture and uniform in structure
possess very high compressive strengths compared to sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks have abundance of planes of weakness such as bedding planes, foliation,
schistosity and cleavage greatly affect the compressive strength of the respective rocks in magnitude and
direction.
Sandstone may show a very low compressive strength when loaded parallel to bedding planes than when the
same stone is loaded perpendicular to the same structure. Except for some varieties of massive sandstones,
limestones, quartzites, marbles and gneisses, most of the sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are inherently
weak in crushing strength.
The following values give a general idea of the compressive strength range for some common building stones:

ii. 2. Transverse Strength

It is defined as the capacity of a stone to withstand bending loads. Such loads are only rarely involved in
situations where stones are commonly used.
But when a stone is intended for use as a beam or as a lintel, its transverse strength becomes very critical
Transverse Strength is determined practically by loading transversely a bar shaped test specimen, generally 20
× 8 × 8 cm and supported at ends from below. The load at which the stone breaks (ruptures) is taken as V from
which transverse strength can be calculated. It has been found that in stones, transverse strength is generally
1/10th to 1/20th of their compressive strength values.
Shear Strength of a stone is also not commonly determined except when the stone is to be used as a column. It
has been observed that in important building stones the shear strength lies between 70-140 kg/cm 2.
iii. Porosity
The size, shape and degree of packing of the component crystals or grains in a rock give rise to its porosity.
Numerically it is expressed as the ratio between the total volume of the pore spaces and the total volume of the
rock sample and is expressed commonly in percentage terms.
Porosity (range) values for few common types of building stones are:

Low porosity is caused by interlocking crystals, angular grains of different sizes and uniformly distributed
cementing material in the rock. Conversely, the rock will be highly porous if composed of spherical or rounded
grains (e.g. sandstone) or if the cementing material is distributed unevenly or is of poor cementing value.
Absorption Value defines the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when immersed in water for 72 hours or
till saturation. It is generally expressed in percentage terms of original dry weight of the stone samples.
Samples of cube shape are made from the stone and dried at 100°C till they attain a constant weight, W.
These samples are immersed in water and are weighed after regular intervals of 8-12 hours, till they attain a
constant weight, S, which indicates their saturation with absorbed water.
Sandstones and limestones may show in some varieties as high absorption values as 10% or more. Selection of
such highly porous varieties of stones for use in building construction, especially in moist situations, would be
greatly objectionable. Presence of water within the pores not only definitely decreases the strength of the stone
but also makes them vulnerable to disintegration due to frost action in cold humid climates. iv. Density
It is defined as weight per unit volume of a substance, in this case a stone. But in the case of stones, the concept
of the unit volume has to be clearly understood. A cubic centimeter of a stone shall not always be made up
100% of solid matter. It may contain 1% to 25% of pore spaces (porosity) which may be empty, partly filled,
or wholly filled with water.
Accordingly, three types of density values may be differentiated in the case of rocks as follows:
• Dry Density:
It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely (oven) dried rock. Obviously it includes the volume of the
pore spaces present in the rock.
• Bulk Density:
It is density of the rock with natural moisture content. It is assumed that in such cases all the pore spaces are
not filled with water.
• Saturated Density:
It is the density of rock fully saturated with water. In most engineering calculations it is the bulk density that is
taken into consideration.
Bulk density values in grams/cubic centimeter for some common building stones are:
Granite – 2.7
Basalt – 2.9
Sandstone – 2.6
Limestones – 2.2 – 2.6
Knowledge of density values of stones helps in making an estimate of approximate strength values of the
stones and also in calculating the loads implied in stone masonry at different levels.
v. Abrasive Resistance:
It is more a qualitative than quantitative property and may be broadly defined as the resistance, which a stone
offers to rubbing action of one kind or another. This quality acquires considerable importance when a stone is
intended to be used in a situation where rubbing by natural or artificial causes may become a routine.
Thus stones used in paving along roads, in flooring in buildings, as lining in tunnels or facing stones in
building where sand loaded winds blow quite often are all exposed to rubbing action. Hence their resistance to
abrasion should better be known before use.
vi. Frost Resistance:
Many building stones show quick disintegration when used in situations where either frost forming climate
prevails in first case or intensive heating is involved in the second case.
Frost causes disintegration by expansion of water on freezing within the pores of rocks during winters; it’s
melting during summers and the process getting repeated year after year. This is called frost action as already
explained in weathering of rocks. Porous varieties of limestones and sandstones often show very poor frost
resistance.
vii. Fire Resistance
Fire resistance is especially determined when a stone is intended for use around stoves, heating places and in
the walls of kilns or furnaces. Ironically, many otherwise sound building stones like granites and other coarse
grained igneous rocks are poor in fire resistance. These may become unsuitable for use in heat intensive
situations.
Their poor fire resistance is due to their multi-mineral composition. Different minerals expand at different rates
on getting heated. The unequal expansion becomes the cause of internal stresses within the body of the rock
leading ultimately to its disintegration.
Similarly, some rocks, though made up primarily of one mineral, may also disintegrate when subjected to
heating conditions; limestones, for example, are made up of calcite that decomposes under temperatures
beyond 750°C. Only compact and massive sandstones and quartzites will prove durable around heating places.
(B) Geological Characters
i. Mineralogical Composition:
Rocks as we know are actually made up of smaller units, called minerals. Hence properties of rocks ultimately
depend on the composition and nature of packing in the rock. It has been found that rocks made up chiefly of
silica, especially quartz (SiO2), especially in the free form, are strongest in many respects. Quartzites,
sandstones and granites are examples of quartz-dominated strong rocks.
Carbonate rocks show a very wide variation in their engineering properties and hence each variety has to be
tested thoroughly for such properties before use in construction of some importance. Presence of minerals like
mica, gypsum, sulphides, glauconite, tremolite, flint, chert and clay, even in small proportions, in otherwise
sound rocks, destroy their inherent strength and quality. ii. Texture and Structure:
Texture defines the size, shape and mutual relationship of the mineral constituents of a rock whereas structure
determines the development of some typical features on a large scale in the rock mass as a whole.
Rocks may be coarse-grained, medium-grained or fine-grained and also equi-granular or inequigranular in
texture. Experience has shown that fine-grained, equi-granular textured rocks are, other things being same,
better building stones compared to coarse-grained and inequigranular rocks. In the latter case components of
different sizes behave differently under the imposed loads offering complex reaction.
Structurally speaking, such features as stratification, foliation, lineation, cleavage, joints, micro-joints and flow
structures have to be given due consideration before selection of a stone for construction. Very often these may
not be seen in the small-sized test specimen. The geology of the rock mass as a whole and in field occurrence
should be studied for their likely effects on the quality of these stones.
Most of these structures are to be treated as effective planes of weakness and when closely spaced, they make
obtaining proper-sized blocks from the rock mass very difficult if not impossible. When some blocks from
such rocks have to be used, they should be placed in such a way that the planes of weakness are not parallel to
the effective loads.
iii. Resistance to Weathering (Durability):
This refers to the rate at which a stone deteriorates under the attack of natural processes (i.e. it weathers).
A stone (e.g. granite) may remain fresh and untarnished when used in the interior of a building for hundreds of
years but the same stone used on the exterior of the same building may get badly pitted and tarnished within a
few decades. Similarly, limestone used in industrial towns may weather badly due to reactions with sulphurous
acid vapours polluting the air whereas the same rock used in temples and forts in cleaner climates will
remained fresh for centuries.
An engineer, especially a town planner has to bear in mind the compatibility of a stone proposed to be used in a
particular environment. Rocks are sensitive towards the environment in which they are placed. Their durability
which means their capacity to withstand the imposed loads without undergoing any deterioration depends on
the fact whether or not they have been used in an environment which is in tune with their geological characters.
Durability of a stone can be experimentally determined by subjecting the stone samples to disintegrating action
of sodium sulphate. Test specimens, generally of 5 cm side-cubes, are dried perfectly and weighed. They are
suspended in 14% solution of sodium sulphate decahydrate for 4 hours at 27 +/-2°C. These are taken out, and
oven dried at 100 +/-5°C. This makes one cycle. These samples are then subjected to 30 such cycles and loss of
weight determined at the end. Greater the loss in weight, poorer the durability of the stone under test.
(C) General Characters:
1. Cost:
It is as important a consideration in the selection of a stone for building consideration as its engineering
properties or geological characters. A stone may be quite suitable for use in a building but it may still not be
selected because of its high cost with respect to the place of construction.
Cost of a building stone depends on its availability, Grain and Hardway in Granites accessibility and
workability. Good quality building stones are not available everywhere. Their transport from a quarry at a
particular place to another place of construction might be a very costly affair compared to other materials such
as bricks or concrete. Rajasthan is rich in marble of good building qualities. Still these stones, though exported,
are not used as a common building stone in our own country or even in Rajasthan. They are quite costly
compared to other conventional building materials.
By workability of a stone is understood the ease in effort and the economy with which it can be extracted from
its natural place of occurrence and finally given a proper shape (called dressing). Harder and stronger rocks
require more effort and cost for their quarrying and dressing.
Quarry engineers often take advantage of natural structures of rocks such as stratification and jointing in
sedimentary rocks and rift and grain in igneous rocks to make quarrying easier and economical. However, the
overall economy in construction still remains a deciding factor for large scale use of stones in building
construction.
2. Colour:
It is the property of appeal (i.e. aesthetic) and gets importance only when a stone is to be used in situations
exposed to public view. Thus stones for use in foundations and dams or where they have to be given outer
plastering may be strong and durable and of any colour. However, in the case of walls in residential and
official buildings, dark colours are seldom used. White, red and pink, grey and green shades are the popular
shades of stone for residential buildings.
The colour of a rock is a geological character and depends on the mineralogical composition of the rock.
Granites are generally light coloured; sandstones occur in a variety of shades from grayish to white, red and
purple; limestones and basalts tend towards darker shades. Marbles occur in almost all shades ranging from
pure white to pink, red, green and black, depending upon the type of impurity present.

3 Important Building Stones:

Any type of rock that satisfies the above considerations may be used as a building stone. Some rocks, however,
occur abundantly whereas others are much rare. It can be said that these are the common rock types that are
commonly used in ordinary building construction.
Following is a brief account of general properties of these stones:
1. Granites
These are the most commonly used building stones of all the igneous rocks. They generally possess all the
essential qualities of a good building stone except for fire resistance. Granites show very high crushing
strength, low absorption value, least porosity, interlocking textures, variety of appealing colours and capacity
to get brilliant polish.
For common granite, general properties may be summarized as follows:

Granite is an igneous rock which is formed by the solidification of magma at a considerable depth from the
earth’s surface. It is hard and durable. It is available in different colors. The color of granite varies according to
the amount of feldspar in it. It can be polished nicely.
The compressive strength of granite is about 75 to 130 MPa. Its specific gravity lies between 2.63 to 2.75. Its
density is about 26 to 27 KN/m3.
Uses
Granite is used for large engineering projects such as the construction of bridge abutments, dams, offshore
structures, etc. It is also used for constructing steps, walls, flooring, etc.
2. Sandstones:
Massive sandstones consisting of closely interlocking angular grains of quartz and free from structural defects
find extensive use as building stones in all areas where they occur. Varieties rich in clay and iron are better
avoided. Quartzites having uniformly distributed siliceous cement are quite suitable under heavy loads.
3. Limestones:
These sedimentary rocks are also very extensively used as building stones at places of their occurrence but all
varieties are not suitable for this purpose. Limestones show great variation in their properties and appearance.
Thus in crushing strength, they may be softer than a good brick (less than 200 kg/cm 2) or may be as strong as
1000-1500 kg/cm2. A similar variation in other properties may also be observed in different types.
Use of limestones as facing stones, even if quite strong; should be avoided in situations where:
(i) The air is polluted with industrial gases, such as in industrial towns;
(ii) Along sea coasts where sea-water- rich winds can attack them directly.
The reason for first precaution is that sulphuric acid vapours contained in the industrial gases react with
calcium carbonate of limestone producing calcium sulphate (gypsum) crystals. This change involves an
increase in the volume and results in the disintegration of the surface layer of the rocks. Similarly, salt crystals
may be formed from seawater by absorption and evaporation on the rock surface and cause disintegration at the
surface.
3. Marble:
These are metamorphic rocks that are used for ordinary structural work as well as for decorative, monumental
and architectural designs. Marbles occur in different colours and textures. Their absorption value is generally
low. They have sufficient strength to bear building loads and at the same time can be given any desirable shape
because of their low hardness. Marble can take brilliant polish.
Marble belongs to the metamorphic category of rocks and it is formed when limestone is subjected to excessive
heat and pressure. This process of forming is called metamorphism. Marble is hard and compact in nature. It
occurs in different colors and also it can take a good polish. Its compressive strength is about 70 Mpa. The
specific gravity of marble is about 2.65.
Marble is used for flooring, facing works, steps, etc. It can be carved into required shape easily hence, it is used
for decorative and ornamental works of structures.

4. Slate:
It is another metamorphic rock characterized with a perfect slaty cleavage. It is used only as a paving and
roofing stone in ordinary type of construction in hilly terrain where it may be available. In India, slate deposits
occur at quite a few places of which Kangra (Himachal Pradesh), Pir Panjal (Jammu and Kashmir) and Rewari
(Rajasthan) may be mentioned.
5. Basalt and trap
Basalt and trap are also igneous rocks. These stones are also called as green stones or white stones or blue
basalt. They are hard and tough. It is difficult to work with this kind of rocks. The specific gravity of basalt and
trap varies from 2.6 to 3.0. They are having a high compressive strength of 150 to 190 MPa.
Uses
Basalt and trap used as railway ballast, aggregate in concrete, pavement material, etc. Yellow and red-colored
basalt and trap are used to construct decorative features in structures.
3. Syenite
Syenite is also an igneous rock which is hard and durable like granite. The structure of syenite is coarsegrained
and its crushing strength varies from 90 to 150 MPa. It is available in different colors but typically they are
light in color.
Uses
Crushed syenite is commonly used as aggregate in pavement construction and concrete making. It is also used
for external facings of building walls etc.
5. Chalk
Chalk is a sedimentary rock and it contains pure lime in it. It is very soft and easily can be converted into
powdered form. It is generally white in color and contains a porous structure.
Uses
Powdered chalk is used for manufacturing lime putty and also used as a pigment in Portland cement.
7. Caliche
Caliche also called as Kankar falls under the sedimentary category of rocks. It is the impure form of limestone.
It is porous in structure and irregular in shape. Its hardness varies from soft to hard.
Uses
Caliche or kankar is used as aggregate in pavement construction. It is also used to prepare hydraulic lime.
10. Quartzite
Quartzite also belongs metamorphic category which is formed by the metamorphism of sandstone under high
pressure and temperature. It is of crystalline structure with a granular texture. It is hard and brittle. It is not
easily workable. Its compressive strength is about 115 MPa.
Uses
Quartzite is used as road aggregate, concrete aggregate, etc. it is also used to construct retaining walls, rubble
masonry, stone pitching, etc.
11. Laterite
Laterite also belongs to the metamorphic category. It is porous and spongy in its structure. It is soft and
workable hence quarrying of laterite is easy. It has low crushing strength which is about 1.8 to 3.0 MPa. When
it is decomposed it turns into moorum which is widely used for road construction.
Uses
Laterite is used for rough stone masonry works, pavement construction works, etc.

12. Gneiss
Gneiss is another metamorphic rock formed by the metamorphosis of granite. It consists of foliated structure
hence it can be split into thin slabs along its bedding planes. It is strong and durable. Its crushing strength
varies from 206 MPa to 370 MPa with a specific gravity of 2.69.
Uses
Crushed gneiss used for pavement construction, rough stone masonry works, stone pitching, etc.

4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF BUILDING STONES

Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways: a.
Geological Classification
b. Physical Classification
c. Chemical Classification
[1] GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups:
{1} IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten magmatic condition of
the material of the earth. Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable. Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks
belonging to this category, Granites are formed by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the top. Hence
they have crystalline surface. The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results into non-crystalline and
glassy texture. Trap and basalt belong to this category.
{2} SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks disintegrates. The disintegrated material is
carried by wind and water; the water being most powerful medium. Flowing water deposits its suspended
materials at some points of obstacles to its flow.
These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and by heat. Chemical agents also
contribute to the cementing of the deposits. The rocks thus formed are more uniform, fine grained and compact
in their nature. They represent a bedded or stratified structure in general. Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones
etc. belong to this class of rock.
{3} METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo changes due to metamorphic action of pressure and
internal heat. For example, due to metamorphic action granite becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to
schist and laterite, limestone changes to marble, sandstone becomes quartzite and mudstone becomes slate. [2]
PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION
Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:
{1} STRATIFIED ROCKS
These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of stratification or cleavage. They can be easily
split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones.
{2} UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS
These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab.
Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of Rocks.
{3} FOLIATED ROCKS
These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only. The direction need not be parallel to each
other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.
[3] CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as:
{1} SILICIOUS ROCKS
The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of such rocks are granite, trap,
sand stones etc.
{2} ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS
The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard and durable but they are brittle.
They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of this type of rocks.
{3} CALCAREOUS ROCKS
The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin
while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.
5 Requirement of Good Building Stones
The following are the quality requirements of good building stones:
Strength
Generally, the building stones have a high strength so that they resist the coming load on them. Therefore no
need to check every time quality of the stones.
But when stones are used in large structures it becomes necessary to check the compressive strength of the
stone. The compressive strength of stones range is 60 to 200 N/mm2.
Durability
Stones are capable to resist the adverse effects of natural forces such as rain, heat, and wind. So they do not
deteriorate due to natural forces.
Hardness
Building stones are used in various places like pavements, floors, and apron of bridges. At that place come
abrasion forces due to the movement of vehicles and humans. So that it is important to test the hardness.
Toughness
The Toughness means their capacity to resist impact load which is developed due to vibration. So
that is necessary to test the hardness of stones.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity means it has high strength so that higher specific gravity values should be used in a
heavy structure. Such as the construction of dams, retaining walls, harbor, and docks. The range of specific
gravity is 2.4 to 2.8.
Porosity and Absorption
The porosity of building stone depends upon the formation of the parent/ main rock. If parent rock has a porous
structure, then rainwater and groundwater can easily enter into that porous space and damage the structure and
water absorption is directly proportional to the porosity. If stones are more porous then water absorption
capacity is more.
Dressing
Dressing means giving the required shape of the parent rock which is suitable/ needed for building
construction. When dressing of parent rock is easy then the cost of the dressing is less.
Appearance
In that case, when stones are used for facing works where appearance is prime role. At that place
enhances the beauty of the stones applying polish on it.
Seasoning
Seasoning of stones means the process of removing quarry sap. Lateritic types of stones should not be used
after 6 to 12 months of quarrying. Because they allow ridding of quarry sap by the action of nature.
Workability
The stones are workable it means they are easy to cutting, easy to dressing and giving shapes are also easy.
Cost
Cost is an important factor when selecting a building material because the material cost is directly proportional
to the cost of construction.
Fire Resistance
Building stones are free from a coefficient of thermal expansion. Such as iron oxides, calcium carbonate, and
minerals.
6 STONE DEFECTS DESCRIPTION
Common defects on stone material include cracks (or fractures), patches (or blotches), bands, lines, color
variations and pattern variations. The existence or size of these defects is the gauge to classify the quality grade
of the stone products. Crack
Also known as fracture. It is a separation of an object / material into 2 or more pieces under the force of stress.
Cracks are mainly caused in two ways: (1) natural cracks/fractures caused by mother nature in the raw material
itself at the quarry level (2) Man-made causes, this is primarily an isse during the production and handling
processes.
Patch
Patches are also referred to as blotches. It may or may not be same color as the stone, due to inherent
properties present in the mineral deposits. It occurs only due to natural causes & is uniquely
characteristic in that particular Block.
Band:
It is a continuous patch, which runs along the surface of the slab. If the size of a patch exceeds 30cm length and
2cm width it is considered a band. The appearance of a band is like a thick line running across the surface of
the slabs.
Line:
A line occurs due to inherent mineral properties in a slab. The size of a line can be 1-10mm in thickness and 1
foot to 10 feet in length.
Color variation:
Defined as non-uniformity of the color in a particular slab. It disturbs the pattern balance of the slabs. In certain
cases, slabs appear two-toned.
Pattern variation:
If the grain structure/pattern occurs in a way that appears contradictory to the acceptable norms, it is termed as
pattern variation.

7 DIFFERENT TESTS ON BUILDING STONES

To certain the required properties of stones, the following tests can be conducted:
a. Crushing strength test
For conducting this test, specimen of size 40 × 40 × 40 mm are prepared from parent stone. Then the sides are
finely dressed and placed in water for 3 days. The saturated specimen is provided with a layer of plaster of
paris on its top and bottom surfaces to get even surface so that load applied is distributed uniformly. Uniform
load distribution can be obtained satisfactorily by providing a pair of 5 mm thick playwood instead of using
plaster of paris layer also.
The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine is loaded at the rate of 14 N/mm² per minute. The
crushing load is noted. Then crushing strength is equal to the crushing load divided by the area over which the
load is applied. At least three specimen should be tested and the average should be taken as crushing strength.
b. Water absorption test
For this test cube specimen weighing about 50 grams are prepared and the test is carried out in the steps given
below:
 i. Note the weight of dry specimen as W1. ii.
Place the specimen in water for 24 hours. iii.
Take out the specimen, wipe out the
surface with a piece of cloth and weigh the
specimen. Let its weight be W2.
iv. Suspend the specimen freely in water and weight it. Let its weight be W3.
v. Place the specimen in boiling water for 5 hours. Then take it out, wipe the surface with cloth and
weigh it. Let this weight be W4

Then,
Percentage absorption by weight = (W2-W1)/(W1)x100
Percentage absorption by volume =W2-W1/W2-W3X100
Percentage porosity by volume = W4-W1/W2-W3X100
Density =W1/W2-W1
Specific gravity =W1/W2-W3
Saturation coefficient =Water absorption / Total porosity =W2-W1/W4-W1
Abrasion test
This test is carried out on stones which are used as aggregates for road construction. The test result indicate the
suitability of stones against the grinding action under traffic. Any one of the following test may be conducted
to find out the suitability of aggregates:

• Los Angeles abrasion test  Deval abrasion test

• Dorry’s abrasion test.
However Los Angeles abrasion test is preferred since these test results are having good correlation with the
performance of the pavements.
The Los Angeles apparatus consists of a hollow cylinder 0.7 m inside diameter 0.5 m long with both ends
closed.
It is mounted on a frame so that it can be rotated about horizontal axis. IS code has standardised the test
procedure for different gradation of specimen. Along with specified weight of specimen a specified number of
cast iron balls of 48 mm diameter are placed in the cylinder. Then the cylinder is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33
rpm for specified number of times (500 to 1000). Then the aggregate is removed and sieved on 1.7 mm. IS
sieve. The weight of aggregate passing is found.
The Los Angeles value is found as = Weight of aggregate passing through sieve/Original weight × 100.
The following values are recommended for road works:
For bituminous mixes – 30%
For base course – 50%
c. Impact test
The resistance of stones to impact is found by conducting tests in impacting testing machine. It consists of a
frame with guides in which a metal hammer weighing 13.5 to 15 kg can freely fall from a height of 380 mm.
Aggregates of size 10 mm to 12.5 mm are filled in cylinder in 3 equal layers; each layer being tamped 25
times. The same is then transferred to the cup and again tamped 25 times. The hammer is then allowed to fall
freely on the specimen 15 times. The specimen is then sieved through 2.36 mm. d. Acid test
This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the presence of calcium carbonate, which weakens the
weather resisting quality. In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken and kept in a
solution of one per cent hydrochloric acid for seven days. The solution is agitated at intervals. A good building
stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface intact. If edges are broken and powder is formed on the
surface, it indicates the presence of calcium carbonate. Such stones will have poor weather resistance.

8 WALLING SPECIFICATIONS
Stone

Unless otherwise noted, all masonry walls shall be coursed squared rubble walling with mortar
joints.

The sizes of stones for rubble walling shall be such that the length of stone does not exceed
three times its height. For course squared rubble walls blocks shall not exceed 300mm in height
and shall be not less than 150mm in height.

Where snacked rubble walls are specified, the sneaks shall not be less than 100mm square on the
exposed face.

Stone for masonry shall have a minimum compressive strength of 10N/MM. (Stone shall not be
required to be tested to failure). The density of stone for masonry shall be not less than 230kg/m3.
The drying shrinkage of stone shall not exceed 0.05%.

Samples of stone provided for testing shall be tested for the following in accordance with the
methods given in B.S. 2028, 1364 and the test results shall comply with the requirements of this
specification:
i. Compressive strength
ii. Density
iii. Drying shrinkage

The colour and texture of stone shall be uniform and consistent. Prior to delivering any stone to
site, the Contractor shall supply the Architect with a sample of stone in order that he may approve
the colour and texture. The Contractor shall ensure that sufficient suitable stone is available for the
whole of the project prior to ordering the stone.

Where cast stone including stone described as artificial stone, reconstructed stone, etc. is specified
the stone shall comply with the requirements of B.S. 1217.

Masonry shall be of stone having no irregular faces and only the back face if not visible shall be
left as from the saw.

Prior to ordering dry stone the Contractor shall demonstrate that the stone is durable. This may be
done by supplying details of buildings constructed with stone from the same quarry and which has
been exposed to the same environmental condition for at least ten years.

The maximum projection from the face of stone rubble walls shall be 20mm beyond the specified
face of the wall

The Contractor shall provide six samples of stone measuring 150mm x 150mm for testing prior to
delivering any stone to site. As work proceeds the Contractor shall provide six samples 150mm x
150mm x 150mm for testing from every 300m of work.
All stone shall be stacked on prepared dry area free of clinker, ashes and sulphate bearing strate.

Multi-Colouring Stone Walling

Stone for multi-coloured stone walling shall have at least three distinct colours but shall in any case
be to the approval of the Architect. A sample panel of walling shall be built and on approval of the
Architect will be the minimum standard for the works.

Wall Reinforcement
Where described walls and partitions shall be reinforced with a 25mm wide strip of No.20
S.W.G. hoop iron built in alternate horizontal joints in the wall centre. The reinforcement shall be
lapped and hooked at running joints, angles and intersections and carried at least 115mm into
abutting walls at junctions.

Wall Ties
To be 3mm diameter galvanized mild steel wire twisted butterfly wall ties.

Damp-Proof Courses
The bituminous felt sheeting for damp-proof courses shall be Hessian based bituminous felt
complying with B.S. 743 Type 4A weighing not less than 3.85kgs per square metre. The sheeting is
to be lapped 150mm at running joints and the full width of walls at angles.

Cement Mortar
Mortar described as cement mortar 1:4 shall be composed of 1 cubic metre (1498 kgs.) of Portland
Cement and 4 cubic metres of sand. Other mixes such as 1:3, 1:5 etc shall be similarly constructed.

Mixing of Mortar
The constituent materials shall be measured separately when dry in specially prepared gauge boxes of
sizes to give the proportions specified without consideration of the contents by ramming and
shaking. The mortar shall be mixed in an approved power driven mixer for not less than two minutes
per patch and using the minimum quantity of water necessary to obtain a working consistency. The
mixer shall be used within 30 minutes of mixing. No partially or wholly set mortar will be allowed
to be used or re-mixed.

Setting Out
The Contractor shall provide proper setting out roads and set out all work on some for course,
openings, heights etc., and shall build the walls, piers etc., to the widths, depths and heights indicated
on the Drawings and as directed by the Architect.

Building in Wood Frames

Openings for doors, ventilators etc., are to be set out and left unbuilt until the wooden frames
have been fixed in position.

Building in Metal Windows and Doors

Openings for metal frames are to be wide enough for the frames to fit without being forced into
position. Build the lugs into the joints of the walling and fill in the space between the walling and
frame with cement mortar well tamped into the channel of the frames and point all round externally.
All frames must be set plump and level and free from twist.

Walls to Receive Plaster & Similar Finishes

All faces of walls to be plastered etc., to have all projections dressed off and joints raked out as
key.
Laying and Jointing

All blocks shall be well wetted before being laid and the top of walling where left of shall be well
wetted before commencing building. Walls to be kept wet three days after building. All walls
throughout the works shall be carried up evenly in 200mm courses except where courses of less
depth are required to bring walling up to level of floors, windows and the like and where otherwise
described, no part being allowed to be carried up more than one metre higher at one time than any
other part and in such cases the joining shall be made in long steps so as to prevent cracks arising and
all walls shall be leveled round at each stage. Not more than 3 metre height of wall shall be laid in
any one day.

Blocks shall be bedded and jointed in cement mortar as described with beds and joints 10mm thick,
all flushed up and grouted solid as the work proceeds.

Bonding

The block shall be properly bonded together and in such manner that no vertical joint in any course
shall be within 115mm of a similar joint in the courses immediately above and below. All walling of
300mm thickness or less shall be built in single thickness of blocks. Walling exceeding 300mm in
thickness shall be built with through bounders not more than 1070mm apart in each course as
directed by the Architect

Alternate courses of walling at all angles and intersections shall be carried through the full
thickness of the adjoining wall. All perpends, reveals and other angles of the walling shall be built
strictly true and square.

Tolerance
All courses of walls shall be level with a maximum deviation of +/-3mm in any one metre length
and a maximum overall deviation of 10mm for length of wall exceeding 3 metres. Walls shall
be plumb with a maximum deviation of +/-3mm in any metre height of wall with a maximum
deviation of +/-10mm in the total height of the wall of any storey.

All corners of walls which are shown as being at right angles shall be square with a maximum
deviation of 3 in 1000. All walls shall be straight with a maximum deviation of +/-3mm in any one
metre length and a maximum overall deviation of 10mm in any length exceeding 3 metres.

All bed and vertical joints shall be an average of 10mm thick with a maximum deviation of +/-3mm
of blockwork and stone rubble walls. Joints for stone masonry walls shall be 6 mm +/-1mm thick.

Curing
All walls shall be maintained in a damp condition for at least 24 hours after laying. Walls under
construction shall be dampened by applying water with a brush and no hosing directly on to the wall
shall be permitted. When work ceases on any section of wall polythene or hessian shall be draped
over the wall for at least 24 hours. If hessian is used, it shall be maintained continuously wet.

Cavities
Cavity walls shall be of the overall thickness shown on the drawings.

Cavities above ground level between leaves of block or masonry shall be free of mortar droppings or
other debris. The Contractor shall take proper precautions to prevent mortar or debris entering the
cavity.

Cavities below ground level shall be filled with mortar for cavities up to 75mm wide and for cavities
over 75mm wide filling shall be concrete mix 1:3:6. Cavities shall be filled such that there is
maximum of three times the thickness of the thinner leaf of the wall filled with wet mortar or
concrete unless the wall is continuously supported for the depth.

Backfilling

Earth backfilling against walls shall be carried out such that the level of the backfill is always equal
on each side of the wall.

When a wall has filling material on one side only to a fill width of more than three times the wall
thickness, the wall shall be continuously supported during backfilling.

Backfilling shall not be carried out until at least seven days have elapsed since the laying of the
blocks or stone.

Pointing
Pointing of walls shall be prepared for painting by raking out all loose or friable material to a
minimum of 15mm to form a square recess. The joints shall then be wetted and new mortar shall be
forced into the joints and finished as directed.

Holes, Cutting and Chasing

All putlog holes shall be not less than one course deep and carefully filed with a block cut to fit size
of opening with beds and joints filled with mortar well tamped in after scaffolding is removed, and if
in faced walls to match facing.

Where walling is cut, holed or chased for conduits, pipes and the like all such cuttings etc., shall be
filled in with cement mortar (1:4) prior to the application of finishes