MPH 05 PDF

UNIT-1
Michelson Interferometer
Structure of the Unit
1.1 Aim
1.2 Apparatus
1.3 Diagram
1.4 Formula
1.5 Theory and description
1.6 Self learning exercise-I
1.7 Procedure
1.8 Observation
1.9 Calculations
1.10 Result
1.11 Discussion
1.12 Precautions and Sources of error
1.13 Self Learning Exercise-II
1.14 Glossary
1.15 Answers to Self Learning Exercises
1.16 Viva Questions
1.17 Answers to Viva Questions
References and Suggested Readings
1.1
1.1 Aim
Aim
To determine:
(1) Wavelength (λ) of sodium light,
(2) Difference between the two D-lines of sodium,
(3) Refractive index (μ) of mica sheet.
1
1.2 Apparatus
1.2 Apparatus
Michelson Interferometer, Sodium lamp, White light lamp, Mica sheet and
Spectrometer
1.3 Diagram
1.3 Diagram
Fig1: Ray diagram of Michelson Interferometer
1.4 Formula
1.4 Formula
Wavelength (λ) of sodium lamp is given by –
λ = 2(x2-x1)/N
Where
= Initial position of mirror of Michelson interferometer
= Final position of mirror of Michelson interferometer
= No. of fringes appeare or disappears at the centre of field corresponding to the
distance (x2-x1)
2
(1) The difference of two lines of sodium light (λ2-λ1) is given by
λ2-λ1= λ2av/2x
Where
= Average value of wavelength of sodium light (mean of and λ )
= distance between the two indistinctness position of mirror .
(2) Refractive index of mica sheet is given by –
μ = (d/t) +1
Where,
d = fringe shift after insertion of a mica sheet
t = thickness of mica sheet
1.5 Theoryand
1.5 Theory anddescription
description
This is an instrument designed by Michelson in which light from an
extended source is divided into two parts partial reflection. These beams are sent in
quite different direction against plane mirrors, when they are brought together
again to form interference fringes. The arrangement is shown schematically in Fig.
1. The main optical parts consist of two highly polished plane mirrors and
and two plane – parallel plates of glass and . Sometimes the rear side of
the plate is lightly silvered (shown by the heavy line in the figure) so that the
light coming from the source S is divided
into (1) a reflected and (2) a transmitted beam of equal intensity. The light
reflected normally from mirror passes through a third time and reaches
the eye as shown. The light reflected from the mirror passes back through
for the second time, is reflected from the surface of and into the eye. The
purpose of the plate called the compensating plate, is to render the path in
glass of the two rays equal. This is not essential for producing fringes in
monochromatic light but it is indispensable when white light is used. The mirror
is mounted on a carriage C and can be moved along the well-machined ways
or tracks T. This slow and accurately controlled motion is accomplished by means
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of the screw V which is calibrated to show the exact distance the mirror has been
moved. To obtain fringes the mirror and are made exactly perpendicular
to each other by means of screw shown on mirror .
Michelson Interferometer
Even when the above adjustments have been made, fringes will not be seen
unless two important requirements are fulfilled. First, the light must originate from
an extended source. A point source or a slit source, as used in the methods
previously described, will not produce the desired system of fringes in this case.
The reason for this will appear when we consider the origin of the fringes. Second,
the light must in general be monochromatic, or nearly so. Especially is this true if
the distance of and from are appreciably different. An extended
source suitable for use with a Michelson interferometer may be obtained in any one
several ways. A sodium flame or a mercury arc if large enough may be used
without the screen L shown in Fig. 1. If the source is small a ground glass screen or
a lens L will extend the field of view. Looking at the mirror through thye
plate one then sees the whole mirror filled with light . In order to obtain the
fringes, the next step is to measure the distances of and to the back
surface of roughly with a millimetre scale, and to move until they are the
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same to within a few millimetres. The mirror M2 is now adjusted to be
perpendicular to by observing the images of a common pin, or any sharp
point, placed between source and . Two pairs of images will be seen, one
coming from reflection at its back surface. When the tilting screws on are now
turned until one pair of images falls exactly on the other, the interference fringes
should appear. They will only appear sharp if the eye is focused on the back
mirror. , as the observer should look constantly at this mirror while searching
for the fringe.
Fig 2: Formation of circular fringes

When the fringes have been found, the adjusting screws are turned in such a way
as to continually increase the width of the fringes, and finally a set of concentric
circular fringes will be obtained. is then exactly perpendicular to .
Circular Fringes:
These are produced with monochromatic light when the mirrors are
in exact adjustment, and are undoubtedly the most important type of fringes
obtained with the Michelson interferometer. Their origin may be understood by
reference to the diagram of Fig.2. Here the real mirror M2 has been replaced by its
virtual image M2 formed by reflection in G1 and M2 is then parallel to M1. Owing
to the several reflections in the real interferometer, we may now think of the
extended source as being in back of the observer at in and to form two virtual
images L1 and L2 in M1 and M2. These virtual sources are coherent in that the
phases of corresponding points in the two are exactly the same at all instances. If d
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is separationM1, M2 then virtual sources will be separated by 2d. When d is exactly
an integral number of half wavelengths, i.e., the path difference 2d equal to an
integral number of whole wavelengths all rays of light reflected at an mirrors will
be in phase. Rays of light reflected at an angle however will in general not be in
phase. The path difference between the two rays coming to the eye from
corresponding points P1 and P2 is 2 Ɵ as shown in the figure (2). The angle
Ɵ is necessarily the same for the two rays when M1 is parallel to M2 , so that the
rays are parallel. Hence when the eye is focused to receive parallel rays (a small
telescope is more satisfactory here, especially for the large values of d) the rays
will rainforce each other to produce maxima for those angles Ɵ satisfying the
relation
2d Cos θ = ....................(1.5.1.1)
Since for a given n , λ and d the angle is constant, the maxima will lie in the
form of circle about the foot of the perpendicular from the eye to the mirrors. It can
easily be shown from Eq. 1 that the radii of the rings are proportional to the square
roots of integers, as in Newton’s rings. The intensity distribution across the rings
follows Eq. 3 in which the phase difference δ is given by
δ = 2π/λ 2 ..............(1.5.1.2)
With monochromatic light the circular fringes are visible for very large path
difference the limit being set only by the fact that no actual source gives perfectly
monochromic light. If there is even a small range of wavelengths present in the
light from the source, the fringes formed by the different components will be
differently spaced and will mask all interference at sufficiently large values of d.
Using the very nearly monochromic light of the red cadmium line, the fringes
remain visible up to path difference of about 50 cm, or d=25 cm. A study of the
change of clearness or “visibility” of the fringes with increasing path difference
gives information about the sharpness of a spectral line used for the source of light.
The larger the path difference over which the fringes remain clear, the more
monochromatic the light, or the sharper the line. This was one of the first uses to
which Michelson put his interferometer. Maxima and minima in the visibility
curve indicate that the line has a fine structure of two or more components. Thus, it
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is found that with light of the sodium D lines the fringes will become alternately
sharp and diffuse, as the fringes formed by the two positions of maximum
sharpness is about 1000, indicating that the wavelength of the D lines differ by
about one part in a thousand. Since Michelson’s method of interfering the structure
of lines has been superseded by a more direct method it will not be described in
detail here.
Fig3: Formation of various types of fringes

Starting with M1 a few centimetres beyond M2, the fringes system will have
the general appearance shown (a) of fig3 with the rings very closely spaced. If M1
is now moved slowly towards M2 so that d is decreased, Eq. (1) shows that a given
ring, characterized by given value of the order n, must decrease the its radius
because the product 2 Ɵ must remain constant. The rings therefore shrink
and vanish at the centre, a ring disappearing each time 2d decrease by λ or d by λ
or d by λ/2. This follows from the fact that at the centre Ɵ = 1 so that Eq. (1)
becomes
2d = (3)
To change by unity, d must change by λ/2. Now as M1 approaches M2
the rings become more widely spaced, as indicated in Fig.3 (b), until finally we
reach a critical position where the central fringe has spread out, to cover the whole
field of view , as shown in 3 (c). This happens when M1 and M2 are exactly
coincident, for it is clear that under these conditions the path difference is zero for
all angles of incidence. If the mirror is moved still farther it effectively passes
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through M2 and now widely spaced fringes appear, growing out from the centre.
These will gradually become more closely spaced as the path difference increase as
indicated in 3 (d) and 3(e) of the figure.
Localized Fringes:
If the mirrors M2 and M2 are not exactly parallel, fringes will still be
seen with monochromatic light for path difference not exceeding a few millimetres
. In this case the space between the mirrors is wedge- shaped, as indicated in Fig.
4. The two rays reaching the eye from a point on the source are now no longer
parallel, but appear to diverge from a point P near the mirrors. Thus to see these
fringes clearly, the eye must be focused on the back mirror M1.
Fig 4: Inclined mirrors

The localized fringes are practically straight, because the variation of the
path difference across the field of view is new due primarily to the variation of the
thickness of the “air film” between the mirrors. With a wedge – shaped film the
locus of points of equal thickness is a straight line parallel to the edge of the
wedge. The fringes are not exactly straight , however, if d has an appreciable
value, because there is also some variation of the path difference with angle. They
are in general curved and are always curved towards the thin edge of the wedge.
Thus, with a certain value of d, we might observe fringes shaped like those of Fig.
exactly straight , however , if d has an appreciable value, because there is also
some variation of the path difference with angle. They are in general curved and
are always curved towards the thin edge of the wedge. Thus, with a certain value of
d, we might observe fringes shaped like those of Fig. 3(g). Decreasing d, they,
move to the left across the field, a new fringing the centre of the field each time d
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change by λ/2. As we approach zero path difference, the fringes become straighter,
until the point is reached where M1 actually intersects M2, when they are perfectly
straight, as in 3(h). Beyond this point, they begin to curve in the opposite direction
3( ). The blank fields Fig 3(f) and Fig 3(j) indicate that this type of fringes cannot
be observed for large path differences.
White Light Fringes
If a source of while light is used , no fringes will be seen at all
except for a path difference so small that it does not exceed a few wavelengths. In
observing these fringes, the mirrors are tilted slightly as for localized fringes, and
the position of M1 is found where it intersects M2. With white light there will then
be observed a central dark fringe, bordered on either side by 8 or 10 coloured
fringes. This position is often rather troublesome to find using white light only. It
is best located approximately beforehand by finding the place where the localized
fringes in monochromatic light become straight. Then a very slow motion of M1
through this region using white light will bring these fringes into view.
The fact that only a few fringes are observed with white light is
easily accounted for when we remember that such light contains all wavelengths
between 4000 and 7500Å. The fringes for a given colour are more widely spaced
the greater the wavelength. Thus the fringes in different colour will only coincide
for d=0, as indicated in Fig. 4. The solid curve represents the intensity distribution
in the fringes for green light, and the broken curve that for red light. Clearly only
the central fringe will be uncoloured.
Fig4: Origin of white light fringes

The fringes of different colours will begin to separate at once on either side,
producing various impure colours which are not the saturated spectral colours.
After 8 or 10 fringes, so many colours are present at a given point that the resultant
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colour is essentially white. Interference is still occurring in this region, however,
because a spectroscope will show a continuous spectrum with dark bands at those
wavelengths for which the condition for destructive interference is fulfilled. White
light fringes are also observed in all of the other methods of producing interference
described above, if white light is substituted for monochromatic light. They are
particularly important in the Michelson interferometer, where they may be used to
locate the position of zero difference.
Application of the Michelson Interferometer:
The principal advantage of this form of interferometer over the earlier
arrangements for producing interference lies in the fact that the two beams are here
widely separated, and the path difference between them can be varied at will by
moving the mirror M1 or by introducing a refracting material in the path of one of
the beams. Corresponding to these two ways of varying the path difference, there
are two types of measurement which can be made with this interferometer. The
first is the accurate measurement of distance in terms of the wavelength of light,
which we shall discuss in this section. The second is the determination of indices
of refraction, which will be briefly referred to at the beginning of the following
section.
When the mirror M1 is moved slowly from one position to another,
counting the number of fringes in monochromatic light which cross the centre of
the field of view will give a measure of the distance the mirror has moved in terms
of λ, since by Eq. (3) we have, for the position d1 corresponding to the bright
fringe of order n1
2d1 =n1 λ (4)
And for d2, giving a bright fringe of order n2
2d2 =n2 λ (5)
Subtracting these two equations, we find
d1- d2= (n1- n2) λ/2 (6)
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Hence, the distance moved equals the number of fringes counted
multiplied by a half wavelength. Of course, the distance measured need not
correspond to an integral number of half wavelengths. Fractional parts of a whole
fringe displacement can easily be estimated to 1/10 of a fringe, and, with care,
to1/50. The latter figure then gives the distance to an accuracy of 1/100, or 5 x
107cm for green light.
A small Michelson interferometer in which a microscope is attached
to the moving carriage carrying M1 is frequently used in the laboratory for
measuring the wavelength of light. The microscope is focused in a fine glass scale,
and the number of fringes, n1-n2, crossing the mirror between two readings d1 and
d2 on the scale gives by Eq. 6. The bending of a beam, or even of a brick wall,
under pressure from the hand can be made visible and measured by attaching M1
directly to the beam or wall.
Determination of index of Refraction by Interference Methods:
If a thickness t of a substance having an index of refraction μ is introduced
into the path of one of the interfering beams in the , the
optical path in this beam is increased because of the fact that light travels more
slowly in the substance, and consequently has a shorter wavelength. The optical
path is now through the medium where it was practically t through the
corresponding thickness of (μ-1) t/λ. Thus the increase in optical path due to
insertion of the substance is ( − 1) . This will introduce ( − 1) /
extra wave in the path of one beam, so if we call the number of fringes by
which the fringe system is displaced then substance is placed in the beam, we have
(μ-1) t = ( )λ (7)
In principal a measurement of , t, and λ thus gives a determination of μ. .
In practice, the insertion of a plate of glass in the one of the beams
produces a discontinuous shift of the fringes so that the number cannot be
counted. With monochromatic fringes it is impossible to tell which fringe in the
displaced set corresponds to one in the original set. With white light, the
displacement in the fringes of different colours is very different because of the
variation of with wavelength, and the fringes disappear entirely. This illustrates the
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necessity of the compensating plate G2 in Michelson’s interferometer if white light
fringes are to be observed. If the plate of glass is very thin, these fringes may still
be , and this affords a method for very thin films.
For thicker , a practicable method is to use two plates of identical
thickness, one in each beam , and to turn once gradually about a vertical axis,
counting the number of monochromatic fringes for a given angle of rotation . This
angle then corresponds to a certain known increase in thickness T. This slow and
accurately controlled motion is accomplished by means of the screw V which is
calibrated to show they exact distance the mirror has been moved. To obtain
fringes the mirror M1 and M2 are made exactly perpendicular to each other by
means of screw shown on mirror M2.
Even when the above adjustments have been made, fringes will not be seen
unless two important requirements are fulfilled. First, the light must originate from
an extended source. A point source or a slit source, as used in the methods
previously described, will not produce the desired system of fringes in this case.
The reason for this will appear when we consider the origin of the fringes. Second,
the light must in general be monochromatic, or nearly so. Especially is this true if
the distance of M1 and M2 from G1 are appreciably different.
An extended source suitable for use with a Michelson
interferometer may be obtained in any one of several ways. A sodium flame or
mercury is if large enough may be used without the screen L shown in Fig. 1. If the
source is small a ground glass screen or a lens at L will extend the field of view.
Looking at the mirror M1 through the plate G1 one then sees the whole mirror filled
with light. In order to obtain the fringes, the next step is to distances of M1 and M2
to the back.
Where
d = fringes shift after insertion of a mica sheet
t= thickness of mica sheet.
1.6
1.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1: What is the interference of light? With suitable diagram. What is
superposition of waves?
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Q.2: Define type of interference phenomenon and also give its condition.
1.7
1.7 Procedure
Procedure
(A) For the wavelength of monochromatic Light
(1) The position of mirror M1 is adjusted by turning the drumhead so that the bright
spot of circular fringes appears at the centre of field of view. The micrometer
reading is noted.
(2) The mirror M1 is moved away, so that the good number of fringes (say 25 or
50) appears at the centre of the field. The micrometer reading is again noted.
(3) The process (2) is repeated to take the other readings.
(B)For the Wavelength of difference of two D-lines
(1) The interferometer is adjusted for circular fringes. The mirror M1 is moved till
there is maximum indistinctness of the fringe pattern, the micrometer screw
reading is noted.
(2) By further movement of mirror M1, the fringe pattern becomes clear. Again the
mirror is moved until position of maximum indistinctness is reached again. Note
the micrometer reading.
(3) The procedure is repeated for a number of consecutive positions of maximum
indistinctness.
(C) For Refractive Index of the mica Sheet
(1) The white light fringes are first obtained and cross wire is fixed on the central
dark fringe and reading is noted.
(2) Now a mica sheet of thickness‘t’ and refractive index is introduced in the
path of light from mirror M₂ to plate G₂ normally at the time, the actual path
covered by the beam which is reflected from M₂ becomes 2(M₂) + 2(n-1)t and the
white light fringe shift.
(3) Now the mirror M₁ is displaced through a distance ‘d’ to bring the central
fringe again on the crosswire. The distance is calculated.
(4) The thickness of mica sheet is measured by the spherometer.
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1.8
1.8Observation
Observation
(A) For the wavelength of monochromatic Light
The least count of the rough micrometer screw (R.M.S.)=........
The least count of the fine micrometer screw (F.M.S.)=........
S.No. No. of Position of mirror M1 (in cm) Difference Mean
fringes Main RMS FMS Total x for 100 Difference
appeared Scale reading reading fringes CE(x)
Reading (cm)
(cm)
100x
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(B)For the Wavelength of difference of two D-lines

S.No. Position of mirror M1 for max. Difference Mean Mean
indistinctness(in cm) between 3 Difference x (cm)
Main RMS FMS Total consecutive CE(x)
Scale reading reading position 3x (cm)
Reading fringes
(cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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(c) For Refractive Index of Mica Sheet
S.No. Position of M1 Position of M1 Distance Mean
before after travelled by Difference
introducing introducing M1 is(x-x₁) (x₂-x₁)(cm)
mica sheet mica sheet
(cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.9 Calculations
1.9 Calculations
1.10 Result
1.10 Result
(1) Wavelength of sodium lamp =
(2) Difference between two D lines =
(3) Refractive index of the mica sheet =
−
% = × 100
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1.11
1.11 Discussion
Discussion
1.12 Precautions
1.12 Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. No mirror and glass plate should be touched by hands.
2. In order to bring white light fingers the rough screen should be rotated slowly
and carefully.
3. Before using the white light first bring the straight lines fringes by sodium
light.
4. The screw behind mirror M2 should be rotated through a very small angle.
5. There should not be linear or lateral displacement of circular fringes when
viewed by eyes.
6. In the position of max. Indistinctness, the fringes should almost disappear.
7. There should be no disturbance near the experiment.
1.13 Self
1.13 SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1: Give the conditions of interference. Define dark and bright fringes.
Q.2: How can be obtaining the interference phenomenon.
1.14
1.14 Glossary
Glossary
Monochromatic light: A light having one wavelength is known as Monochromatic
light.
Circular fringes: Concentric circular fringes are produced with monochromatic
light when the interferometer is in normal position i.e. the image of in
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is exactly parallel to .
Localised fringes: When the mirror and the virtual mirror are not exactly
parallel but reflected waves are intersecting near , a wedge shaped air film is
formed between them. These are called as Localised fringes.
White-light fringes: When the surfaces are intersect then with a
white light source along the line of intersection we shall get central achromatic
bright fringe, known as White-light fringes.
Interferometer: It is primarily employed to determine the wavelength of light in
terms of some standard of length and vice-versa utilising the phenomenon of
ℎ .
1.15 Answers
1.15 AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Answers to Self Learning Exercise-I
Ans1: If two or more light waves of the same frequency overlap at a point, the
resultant effect depends on the phase of the waves as well as their amplitudes. The
resultant wave at any point at any instant of time is governed by the principle of
superposition. The combined effect at each point of the region of superposition is
obtained by adding algebraically the amplitudes of the individual waves.
Here the component waves are of the same amplitude.
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In other words, the phenomenon of redistribution of light energy due to the
superposition of light waves from two or more coherent sources is known as
interference.
Superposition of waves:
According to the principle of superposition-
When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and
at any instant may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would
be produced at the point by the individual waves if each were present alone.
It means that the resultant is simply the sum of the disturbances. The
principle of superposition applies to electromagnetic waves also and is the most
important principle in wave optics. In case of electromagnetic waves, the term
displacement refers to the amplitude of the electric field vector.
Interference is an important consequence of superposition of coherent waves.
Ans.2:
There are two types of interference:
(1) Constructive interference,
(2) Destructive interference.
(1) Constructive interference: At certain points, the two waves may be in phase.
The amplitude of the resultant wave will then equal to the sum of the amplitudes of
the two waves. Thus, the amplitude of the resultant wave
= + = .............(1)
Hence, the intensity of the resultant wave is
∝ = = .............(2)
It is obvious that the resultant intensity is greater than the sum of the intensities
due to individual waves.
> + =2 .............(3)
Therefore, the interference produced at these points is known as Constructive
interference.
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A stationary bright band of light is observed at points if constructive
interference.
In other words we can say that the points where maxima are obtained, interference
at that point known as constructive interference.
(2) Destructive interference: At certain other points, the two waves may be
opposite in phase. The amplitude of the resultant wave will then be equal to the
sum of the amplitudes of the two waves. Thus, the amplitude of the resultant wave
= + = ...........(4)
Hence, the intensity of the resultant wave is
∝ = ...........(5)
It is obvious that the resultant intensity is less than the sum of the intensities
due to individual waves.
< + =2 ...........(6)
Therefore, the interference produced at these points is known as
Destructive interference.
A stationary dark band of light is observed at points of destructive
interference.
In other words we can say that the points where minima is obtained, interference
at that points known as Destructive interference.
Let us assume two sources of light S1 and S2, as shown in figure 5 Which
are identical and produce harmonic waves of same wavelength and that the waves
are in the same phase S1 and S2 . Light from these sources travel along different
paths, S1P and S2P and meet at a point P. Now let S1P=r1 and S2P=r2, which are
different in length. Also, the medium in which waves are travelled, may be
different. As a result, the optical path lengths are different. If is the refractive
index of the medium in which first wave travelled, so the corresponding optical
path length is r1. Similarly for second wave corresponding wave length is r2.
Now the optical path difference is ( r1 - r2).
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Figure 5
If the optical path difference∆= ( r − r )is equal to zero or a
multiple of wavelength , then the waves arrive in phase at P
∆= m ............(7)
Where m is an integer and takes values, m=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ............, then the waves
are in phase and their overlapping at P produces constructive interference or
brightness.
If the optical path difference ∆= ( r − r ) is equal to an odd
integral multiple of half-wavelength, , then the waves arrive out of phase at P.
∆= (2m + 1) ............(8)
Where m is an integer and takes values, m=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ............, then the waves
are inverted with respect to each other and their overlapping at P produces
destructive interference or darkness.
Answers to Self Learning Exercise-II
Ans. 1: Conditions of interference:
(1) The waves from the two sources must be of the same frequency.
If the light waves differ in frequency, the phase difference fluctuates
irregularly with time. Consequently, the intensity at any point fluctuates with time
and we will not observe steady interference.
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(2) The two light waves must be coherent.
If the light waves are coherent, then they maintain a fixed phase difference
over a time and space. Hence, a stationary interference pattern will be observed.
(3) The path difference between the overlapping waves must be less than the
coherence length of the waves.
(4) If the two sets of waves are plane polarized, their planes of polarization must be
the same.
(5) The two coherent sources must lie close to each other in order to discern the
fringe pattern.
(6) The distance of the screen from the two sources must be large.
(7) The vector sum of the overlapping electric field vectors should be zero in the
dark regions.
Dark and Bright fringes: when the two or more waves of light are superposed,
the resultant effect is brightness in certain regions and darkness in certain regions.
The regions of brightness and darkness alternate and may take the form of straight
bands, or circular rings or any other complex shape. The alternate bright and dark
bands are called interference fringes.
The fringes which appear in bright regions are called as Bright fringes and which
appears in dark regions are called as Dark fringes.
Ans.2: The phase relation between the waves emitted by two independent light
sources rapidly changes with time and therefore they can never be coherent. If the
two sources are derived from a single source by some device, then any phase
change occurring in one source is simultaneously accompanied by the same phase
difference between the waves emerging from the two sources remains constant and
the sources are coherent. The methods used for crating coherent sources of light
can be divided into the following two classes:
(a) Wavefront splitting: one of the methods consists in dividing a light wavefront,
emerging from a narrow slit, by passing it through two slits closely spaced side by
side. The two parts of the same wavefront travel through different paths and
reunite on a screen to produce fringe pattern. This is known as interference due to
21
division of amplitude. This method is useful only with narrow sources, Young’ s
double slit, Fresnel’ s double mirror, Fresnel’ s biprism etc.
(b) Amplitude splitting: Alternately, the amplitude of a light wave is divided into
two parts, namely reflected and transmitted components, by partial reflection at a
surface. The two parts travel through different paths and reunite to produce
interference fringes. This is known as interference due to division of amplitude.
1.16 Viva
1.16 VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is the principle of Michelson Interferometer?
Q.2 Explain the role of plate G1 and G2?
Q.3 Why plate G1 is semi silvered?
Q.4 Describe construction and uses of sodium lamp?
Q.5 Define lateral displacement?
Q.6 Mention the various applications of the Michelson Interferometer?
1.17
1.17 Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: In Michelson interferometer, a beam of light from an extended source is
divided into two parts of equal intensities by partial reflection and refraction. These
beams travel in two mutually perpendicular directions and come together after
reflection from plane mirrors. The beams overlap on each other and produce
interference fringes.
Ans.2: In Michelson interferometer, G1 plate is working as beam splitting plate and
G2 plate is working as compensating plate.
Ans.3: G1 is semi silvered beam splitter plate because when beam incident on it
then it partly reflected a beam and partially transmitted a beam after splitting.
Then, both waves superimposed and giving the phenomenon of interference.
Ans.4: Sodium light is a source of monochromatic light. The wavelength of the
sodium light is 5893Å, which is the mean of two wave length 5890Å and 5896Å.
The use of sodium light is very much prominent. It is used in Michelson
interferometer, to produce Newton’s ring and in other phenomenon.
Ans.6: Michelson interferometer can be used to determine:
(1) The wavelength of a given monochromatic source of light,
22
(2) The difference between the two neighbouring wavelengths or resolution of the
spectral lines,
(3) Refractive index and thickness of various thin transparent materials,
(4) For measurement of the standard metre in terms of the wavelength of light.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Optics by A.K. Ghatak.
2. Optics by T.P. Pandya and B.K. Mathur.
3. Fundamental of optics by Jenkins and White.
23
UNIT-02
Fabry-Perot Interferometer
2.1 Aim
2.2 Apparatus
2.3 Diagram
2.4 Formula
2.7 Procedure
2.8 Observation
2.9 Calculations
2.10 Result
2.11 Discussion
2.14 Glossary
2.16 Viva Questions
2.1 Aim
Using Fabry-Perot Interferometer, determine
(i)Wavelength (λ) of sodium light,
(ii)Difference between the two D-lines of sodium light.
24
2.2 Apparatus
2.2 Apparatus
Fabry Perot interferometer, a convex lens, two optically semi silvered plane glass
plates, a source of monochromatic light and a screen, Micrometer.
2.3
2.3 Diagram
Diagram
Figure: 2.1
Figure: 2.2 Fabry-Perot Interferometer

25
2.4
2.4 Formula
Formula
In this experiment we use two formulas (1) for determining the wavelength of
sodium light is given by,
2( − )
=
Where
= Initial position of the plate of Fabry-Perot interferometer,
= Final position of the plate of Fabry-Perot interferometer,
= No. of fringes appeare or disappears at the centre of field corresponding to the
distance ( − ).
(2) ( ) The difference of two lines of sodium light (λ2-λ1) is given by
− =
4
Where
= Average value of wavelength of sodium light (mean of andλ )
= separation between the plates when maximum discordance occur.
( ) When the separation between the plates is further increased, then thickness
became now,
Hence
− =
2( − )
2.5 Theoryand
description
The Fabry-Perot interferometer is a high resolving power instrument, which
makes use of the ‘fringes of equal inclination’, produced by the transmitted light
after multiple reflections in an air film between two parallel highly reflecting glass
plates.
26
The interferometer consists of two optically plane glass plates A and B with
their inner surfaces silvered, and placed accurately parallel to each other. Screws
are provided to secure parallelism if disturbed. This system is difficult to
manufacture and is no more in use. Instead an etalon which is much more easily
manufactured is used. The etalon consists of two semi-silvered plates rigidly held
parallel at a fixed distance apart. The reflectance of the two surfaces can be as high
as 90 to 99.9%. Although both reflected and transmitted beams interfere with each
other, the Fabry-Perot interferometer is usually used in the transmissive mode.
S is a broad source of monochromatic light and is a convex lens (not
shown in figure 1.1) which makes the rays parallel. An incident ray suffers number
of internal reflections successively at the two silvered surfaces, as shown in figure
1.1. At each reflection a small fraction of the light is transmitted also. Thus, each
incident ray produces a group of coherent and parallel, transmitted rays with a
constant path difference between any two successive rays. A second convex lens L
brings these rays together to a point in its focal plane where they interfere. Hence
the rays from all points of the source produce an interference pattern on a screen
placed in the focal plane of L.
(A)Formation of Fringes:
Let be the separation between the two silvered surfaces and be the
inclination of a particular ray with the normal to the plates. The path difference
between any two successive transmitted rays corresponding to the incident ray is
2 . The condition for these rays to produce maximum intensity is given by
2 =
Where m is an integer. The locus of points in the source, which gives rays of
constant inclination, θ is a circle. Hence, with an extended source, the interference
patter consists of a system of bright concentric rings on a dark background, each
ring corresponding to a particular value of θ.
(B)Determination of Wavelength of Sodium Light:
When the reflecting surfaces A and B of the interferometer are adjusted exactly
parallel, circular fringes are obtained. Let m be the order of the bright fringe at the
27
centre of the fringe system. As at the centre = 0, we have
2 =
...............(1.5.2.1)
If the movable plate is moved a distance , 2 changes by λ and hence a bright
fringe of the next order appears at the centre. If the movable plate is moved from
the position and the number of fringes appearing at the centre during
this movement is N, then
. =( − )
2
or
2( − )
=
...............(2.5.2.2)
By the measurement of , and N, we can determine the value of λ.
(C)Determination of difference in wavelength of Sodium Light:
The light emitted by a source may consist of two or more wavelengths, as
lines in case of sodium. Separate fringes patterns corresponding to
the two wavelengths are not produced in Michelson interferometer. Hence,
Michelson Interferometer is not suitable to study the fine structure of spectral lines.
On the other hand, in Fabry-Perot interferometer, each wavelength produces its
own ring patterns are separated from each other. Therefore, Fabry-Perot
Interferometer is suitable to study the fine structure of spectral lines.
Difference in wavelengths can be found using coincidence method. Let
be two very close wavelengths in the incident light. Let us assume
that > . Initially , the two plates of the interferometer are brought into
contact. Then the rings due to coincide partially. Then the movable
plate is slowly moved away such that the ring systems separate and maximum
discordance occurs. Then the rings due to are half way between those due
to . Let be the separation between the plates when maximum discordance
occurs. At the centre
28
1
2 = = +
2
...............(2.5.3.1)
1
( − )=
2
=
2( − )
...............(2.5.3.2)
Using the value of in equation (1.5.3.1), we get
2 =
2( − )
Or
( − )= ≅
4 4
...............(2.5.3.3)
Now when separation between the plates is further increased, the ring systems
coincide again and then separate out and maximum discordance occurs once again.
If is the thickness now,
3
2 = = +
2
...............(2.5.3.4)
Form equation (1.5.3.4) and (1.5.3.1), we get
2( − ) = 2( − ) =( − ) +
...............(2.5.3.5)
Or ( − )=
( )
Using the above expression into (1.5.3.5), we obtain
2( − )=
( − )
29
2( − )= =
( − ) ( − )
...............(2.5.3.6)
2.6 Self
2.6 Selflearning
learningexercise-I
exercise-I
Q.1: How can you obtain coherent sources due to interference.
Q.2: What is the plane parallel film? Give suitable figure.
2.7
2.7 Procedure
Procedure
(A) For the Wavelength of Sodium Light:
(1) Set the cross-wires of the telescope on the centre of the fringe system.
(2) Record the least count and allied reading of micrometer screw. Now work the
micrometer screw, count the fringes sinking or rising say up to 100 each time.
(3) Again record the reading on micrometer scale. Calculate d cm as the difference
of two readings.
(4) The above processes are repeated to take the other readings.
(B)For the wavelength of difference of two D lines of the Sodium Light
(1) Now adjust the micrometer screw and set the view of interference pattern.
(2) Stop the telescope when system shows maximum intensity, record this reading
on micrometer scale.
(3) Now gradually continue to work the micrometer screw and note and record its
readings for minimum, then maximum intensities and so on.
(4) The procedure is repeated for a number of consecutive positions of maximum
intensities.
2.8
2.8 Observation
Observation
(A) For the Wavelength of the Monochromatic Light
The least count of the micrometer =........(in cm)
30
S.No. Number of Initial micrometer Final micrometer Differenc
fringes reading (A) reading (B) e
shifiting(say (in cm) (in cm) (B-A)
100)each (in cm)
MSR CSR TR MSR CSR TR
time
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(B) For difference of D lines of Sodium Light

Alternate Micrometer readings Distance moved by ∆λ( in
position of (in cm) screw between two cm)
consonance successive
or MSR CSR TR CON. DIS.
dissonance
31
Here MSR- Main scale reading CON.- Consonance
CSR- Circular scale reading DIS. – Dissonance
TR- Total reading
2.9 Calculations
2.9 Calculations
By putting all above given readings in the equations:
2( − )
=
− =
4
− =
2( − )
We get the wavelength of sodium light and difference between D- lines of sodium
light.
2.10
2.10 Result
Result
(1) Wavelength of sodium lamp =..........Å
(2) Difference between two D lines =.........Å
−
% = × 100
2.11
2.11 Discussion
Discussion
32
2.12
2.12 Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. No glass plate should be touched by hands.
2. There should not be linear or lateral displacement of circular fringes when
viewed by eyes.
3. In the position of max. Indistinctness, the fringes should almost disappear.
4. Too great a force should not be applied while adjusting the screws of glass
plates.
5. There should be no disturbance near the experiment.
6. It is necessary that the both mirrors should be accurately parallel.
2.13
2.13 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1: Give a brief description on Interference Filter.
Q.2: A shift of 200 fringes is observed when movable mirror of Fabry-Perot
interferometer is shifted by 0.0295 mm. Calculate the wavelength used.
2.14
2.14 Glossary
Glossary
Interference: The phenomenon of redistribution of light energy due to the
superposition of light waves from two or more coherent sources is known as
Interference.
Etalon: An etalon is a substandard for length. It consists of two mirrors, which are
plane-parallel and semi silvered on their front faces. The mirrors can be made
perfectly parallel by means of screws attached to them.
Haidinger fringes: When the fringes are produced in this case due to the
superposition of rays, which are equally inclined to the normal. These fringes are
called fringes of equal inclination. The fringes of equal inclination are known as
Haidinger fringes.
Coherence: It means the coordinated motion of several waves in a medium
maintaining a fixed and predictable phase relationship over a length of time.
Interference filters: An interference filter is an optical system that will transmit a
very narrow range of wavelengths and thus provides a monochromatic beam of
light.
33
2.15
2.15 Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Anwsers to Self Learning Exercise-I
Ans.1: The two sources are derived from a single source by some device, then any
phase change occurring in one source is simultaneously accompanied by the same
phase difference between the waves emerging from the two sources remains
constant and the sources are coherent. The phase relation between the waves
emitted by two independent light sources rapidly changes with time and therefore
they can never be coherent. The methods used for creating coherent sources of
light can be divided into the following two classes:
(a) By the method of splitting of wavefront: This method consists in dividing a light
wave front, emerging from a narrow slit, by passing it through two slits closely
spaced side by side. The two parts of the same wave front travel through different
paths and reunite on a screen to produce fringe pattern. This is known as
interference due to division of amplitude. This method is useful only with narrow
sources, Young’s double slit, Fresnel’s double mirror, Fresnel’s Biprism etc.
(b) By the splitting of amplitude of light wave: Alternately, the amplitude of a light
wave is divided into two parts, namely reflected and transmitted components, by
partial reflection at a surface. The two parts travel through different paths and
reunite to produce interference fringes. This is known as interference due to
division of amplitude.
Ans.2: A transparent thin film of uniform thickness bounded by two parallel
surfaces is known as a ℎ .
When light is incident on a parallel thin film, a small portion of it
gets reflected from the top surface and a major portion is transmitted into the film.
Again, a small part of the transmitted component is reflected back into the film by
the bottom surface and the rest of it is transmitted from the lower surface of the
film. Thin films transmit incident light strongly and reflect only weakly. After two
reflections, the intensities of reflected rays drop to a negligible strength. Therefore,
we consider the first two reflected rays only (fig. 2.1). These two rays are derived
from the same incident ray but appear to come from two sources located below the
film. The sources are virtual coherent sources. The reflected waves 1 and 2 travel
34
along parallel paths and interfere at infinity, this is a case of −
.
Fig: 2.1
The condition for maxima and minima can be deduced once we have calculated
the optical path difference between the two rays at the point their meeting.
Anwsers to Self Learning Exercise-II
Ans.1: An interference filter is an optical system that will transmit a very narrow
range of wavelengths and thus provides a monochromatic beam of light.
Interference filters are fabricated earlier as follows. A thin metallic film,
usually of aluminium or silver, is deposited on a glass substrate by vacuum
deposition technique. Then a thin layer of cryolite is deposited over this. The
structure is again covered by another metallic film. Another plate is placed over it
to protect the thin film structure. The filter is shown in figure 2.2. By varying the
thickness of the dielectric film, any particular wavelength can be filtered out.
However, the filtered light will have a narrow spectrum centred on the chosen
35
wavelength. By increasing the reflectivity of the surfaces, the transmitted spectrum
can be made narrow. But it is not possible to increase the thickness of metallic
films indefinitely, as they start absorbing the light.
Figure: 2.2
In modern versions metallic films are not used; instead dielectric films
are used. In all dielectric interference filter, layers of dielectric materials of
appropriate refractive indices are deposited. To obtain an interference filter, a
thick film of titanium oxide is deposited and then over it a film of dielectric
material with lower refractive index, such as magnesium fluoride is deposited, on
this again a thick film of titanium oxide is deposited. In this way alternately high
and low refractive index materials are deposited to obtain an interference filter.
Ans.2: Given that
Shift let ∆ = 0.0295 , and
No. of fringes N=200
We know that from the Fabry-Parot interferometer, we have
36
2∆
=
Now
2 × 0.0295
=
200
Or
= 2950Å
2.16
2.16 Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is the principle of Fabry-Parot Interferometer?
Q.2 What is the difference between the Fabry-Parot Interferometer and Etalon?
Q.3 Given mirrors are silvered on the inner surfaces, why?
Q.4 Mention the various type of application of Fabry-Parot Interferometer.
Q.5 What are the bright and dark fringes?
Q.6. Give the conditions of interference.
Q.7 What are the applications of thin film interference?
Q.8 What is etalon?
2.17
2.17 Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: The Fabry-Parot Interferometer is a highly resolving power instrument,
which makes use of the ‘fringes of equal inclination’, produce d by the transmitted
light after multiple reflections in an air film between two parallel highly reflecting
glass plates.
Ans.2: The interferometer consists of two optically plane glass plates M and N
with inner surfaces silvered but the etalon consists of two semi silvered plates. The
manufacture of interferometer is hard compare to the Etalon.
Ans.3: An incident ray suffers a large number of internal reflections, successively
at the two. At each reflection a small fraction of light is transmitted also. Thus each
incident ray produces a group of coherent and parallel, transmitted rays with
constant path difference between any two successive rays. So it use two silvered
glass plate.
37
Ans.4: There is some type of use of Fabry-Parot Interferometer, which is given
below:
(a) To determine the wavelength of monochromatic sodium light,
(b) To determine the difference between the wavelengths of sodium light.
Ans.5: When the two or more waves of light are superposed, the resultant effect is
brightness in certain regions and darkness in certain regions. The regions of
brightness and darkness alternate and may take the form of straight bands, or
circular rings or any other complex shape. The alternate bright and dark bands are
called interference fringes.
The fringes which appear in bright regions are called as Bright fringes and
which appears in dark regions are called as Dark fringes.
Ans.6: The conditions of interference are given as:
(1) The waves from the two sources must be of the same frequency.
(2) The two light waves must be coherent.
(3) The path difference between the overlapping waves must be less than the
coherence length of the waves.
(4) If the two sets of waves are plane polarized, their planes of polarization must be
the same.
(5) The two coherent sources must lie close to each other in order to discern the
fringe pattern.
(6) The distance of the screen from the two sources must be large.
(7) The vector sum of the overlapping electric field vectors should be zero in the
dark regions.
Ans.7: There is various type of application of thin film interference, which are:
(1) Measurement of small displacement,
(2) Testing of surface finish,
(3) Testing of a lens surface,
(4) Thickness of a thin film coating.
38
Ans.8: An etalon is a substandard for length. It consists of two mirrors, which are
plane-parallel and semi silvered on their front faces. The mirrors can be made
perfectly parallel by means of screws attached to them.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
39
UNIT- 03
Fresnel’s Biprism Experiment
3.1 Aim
3.2 Apparatus
3.3 Diagram
3.4 Formula
3.5 Theory and Description
3.6 Self Learning Exercise-I
3.7 Procedure
3.8 Observation
3.9 Graph
3.10 Calculations
3.11 Result
3.12 Discussion
3.13 Precautions and Sources of Error
3.15 Glossary
3.17 Viva Questions
3.1
3.1Aim
Aim
To determine the wavelength of a sodium light using Biprism method and to
determine the thickness of thin mica sheet using Biprism arrangement.
40
3.2
3.2Apparatus
Apparatus
Optical bench, sodium lamp, uprights Slit, Bi-Prism, convex lens, micrometer
eyepiece.
3.3
3.3Diagram
Diagram
Refracting
Base, cross
Screen
Biprism
Figure 1: Schematic sketch for fringes formation in Fresnel’s Biprism experiment.
Light Source
Slit
Lens
Bi-Prism
Lens
Eyepiece
With
cross
Figure 2: Experimental arrangement of Fresnel’s Biprism Experiment.
41
3.4
3.4Formula
Formula
(a) To determine the wavelength of given monochromatic light source:
The wavelength λ of the given monochromatic light source is given by the formula
in case of Biprism experiment.
=
Here:
β = fringe width,
d = distance between the two virtual sources,
D = distance between the slit and screen.
Also =
Here:
d1 = distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in one position.
d2 = distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in the second
position.
(b) To determine the thickness of Mica sheet:
=
−1
Here:
S = Shift in white fringe.
= refractive index of given mica sheet.
3.5
3.5Theory
Theoryand
andDescription
Description
(i)Interference of light waves: When two light waves from different coherent
sources travelling in same medium meet, then the distribution of energy due to one
wave is disturbed by the other in results on screen some points are much
illuminated and some are less. This modification in the distribution of light energy
due to super position of two light waves is called "Interference of light”.
42
(ii)Condition for interference: Interference is not possible in any two light
sources. Interference in the light waves occurs whenever two or more waves
overlap at a given point
Practically, to observe the interference pattern it is required that:
1) The sources should be coherent.
2) The sources should have identical wave lengths.
3) Both light sources should possess same or almost same amplitude.
Waves meet in the phase out of phase
Pattern of
Monochromatic light and
Light Source dark
fringes
Figure 3: Interference in light through two slits

(iii)Coherent Sources: Two sources will be coherent if the phase difference
between the lights coming from these sources is constant with time.
(iv)Methods to achieve Coherent sources: Two different light sources even
having same manufacture details, same power, and having same wavelength still
cannot be coherent, since in the most of cases light from the sources is in actual
molecular or electronic spectra. The molecules and electrons are randomly excited
43
and generate the photons. It is the reason that those all cannot be in same phase or
phase cannot be constant with time.
Practically the coherent sources are achieved by dividing the light from single light
source in two parts. There are two methods to archive the coherent sources on the
basis of this division of light:
a. By the division of amplitude: If the system designing in such a way that two
virtual coherent sources are achieved by division of the amplitude of single
monochromatic light source e.g. Interference through thin films, soap bubble,
Newton ring experiment, Michelson Interferometer etc.
b. By the division of wavefront: In such designing the wavefront actually
divided in two parts and single source split into two coherent sources e.g. Young’s
double slit experiment, Fresnel’s Biprism experiment etc.
i. Requirement of coherent sources for interference: The interference in
light waves occurs due to superposition of two waves, and when the two maxima
or two minima superimposed; we get bright fringes known as constructive
interference. The points where the maxima of one wave superimposed with
minima of other wave, we get dark bands or fringes on such points, it is known as
destructive interference.
Figure 4: Constructive Interference; waves meet in the phase.

44
Figure 5: Destructive Interference; waves meet out of phase.
(i)If the phase difference will not constant with time, on any point of the screen the
waves will meet in and out of phase in results the constructive and destructive
inference will happen on the same point and pattern will change with the time. This
change will so fast that the dark and bright fringes cannot be able to differentiate,
hence no pattern at all.
(ii)The amplitude of both waves must be same or almost same since otherwise
there will either bright or less bright fringes not dark fringes. The contrast will be
very poor in such case if the amplitude will not be same.
Resultant pattern
Figure 6: Destructive Interference if amplitudes of both waves are not same

45
(iii)Wave length should be identical of both of the waves for interference, this
condition is required because of the waves can be meet in same phase or out of
phase and constructive and destructive inference can be occur.
ii. Interference experiments to determine the wavelength of unknown
monochromatic light source: Various experiments based on the principles of
achieving coherent sources have been designed. These experiments are used to
observe this phenomenon. These experiments have several significant applications
in science and engineering such as measurement of wavelength of a light source,
the wavelength difference between two closely separated waves, the optical
flatness of surfaces, thickness of the thin film, refractive index of material etc.
various efficient systems are described as below:
a. Young’s Double slits experiment
b. Fresnel’s Biprism experiment
c. Michleson Interferometer
d. Fabri-Perot interferometer.
iii. Fresnel’s Biprism Experiment: Fresnel’s Biprism experiment is an
elegant method for studying the interference of a light. The Fresnel Biprism is a
variation on that theme which is Young’s Slits. The Fresnel Biprism overcomes the
difficulty associated with the extended secondary slits in young’s double slit
experiment by replacing them with “virtual slits”. In this experiment the coherent
sources are achieved by the division of wavefront of a single monochromatic light
source with the help of a Biprism.
iv. Biprism: A biprism essentially consist of two prisms, each of very small
refracting angle (0.5º to 1º) placed base to base.
Figure 7: Picture of Fresnel’s Biprism.
46
Fresnel constructed this structure by adding two prisms base to base but now a
days it constructed by shaping of a single rectangular glass slab.
Monochromatic light passing through a narrow slit, adjusted parallel to the
refracting edge, is allowed to fall symmetrically on the biprism. The division of the
incident wave front into two parts by the refracting edge B takes place as shown in
Fig. 1. The two emergent wave fronts appear to originate from virtual sources S1
and S2, which being derived from the same source S act as coherent sources. As a
result, interference fringes are observed in the overlapping region of the screen.
Figure 8: The formation of virtual sources by Fresnel's Biprims [4].

3.6Self
3.6 SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is Interference?
Q.2 What are the conditions to achieve interference?
47
Q.3 What are the coherent sources?
Q.4 Why the phase difference between two light source is require being constant
with time for interference?
Q.5 What do you understand by a fringe?
3.7
3.7Procedure
Procedure
Experimental set up:
(i) The height of the slit, Biprism and the eyepiece is adjusted at the same level.
(ii) The Biprism upright is placed near the slit.
(iii) The slit is adjusted narrow and vertical.
(iv) Slit is illuminated with given monochromatic light source.
(v) If refracting edge of the Biprism is parallel to the slit then looking through the
Biprism two clear images of the slit can be observed by moving the eyes
sideways. Otherwise if there is some fault in the adjustment, the images will
not appear as a whole to cross the edge. The Biprism is adjusted by rotating it
in its own plane to effect the sudden transition of the full image.
(vi) The eyepiece is placed near the Biprism. The Biprism is adjusted using screws
attached with its stand in such a way that fringes of light are clearly visible in
eyepiece. If the fringes are not seen then the Biprism is rotated in its cross
plane with the help of tangential screw till fringes are obtained.
Figure 9: Fringe pattern in Fresnel’s Biprism experiment.

(vii) The vertical cross wire is adjusted on one of the bright fringe at the center of
the fringe system and the eyepiece is moved away from the Biprism. In doing
so, if fringes give a lateral shift, it must be removed in the following way:
From any position, the eyepiece is moved away from the Biprism and at the
same time lateral shift is given to the Biprism with its base screw so that the
48
vertical crosswire remains on the same fringe on which it was adjusted. The
eyepiece is now moved towards the Biprism and this procedure is repeated for
few times till the lateral shift is removed.
Measurement of fringe width (β):
(i) The eyepiece is fixed around 100 cm away from the slit.
(ii)The vertical cross wire is set on middle (or corner left/right) of one of the bright
fringes and reading on eyepiece scale is noted.
(iii)The cross wire is moved on the mid (same selected corner left/right) of next
bright
fringe and the reading is noted. In this way observations are noted for about 20
fringes.
Figure 10: Measurement of fringe width (β).

Measurement of D:
(i) The distance between the slit and the eyepiece.
49
(ii) It is measured with the help of a meter scale on bench.
(iii)However, this value of D may not be the same as the actual distance between
the slit and the plane of the crosswire. The difference [Dactual–Dmeasured] is called
the bench error (Δ). Use the given value of Δ to obtain the actual value of D.
Measurement of d:
(i) For the measurement of d, the convex lens is placed between the Biprism and
eyepiece and ensured that it is sited near to the eyepiece.
(ii)The distance between the eyepiece and slit should be kept slightly more than
four times of the focal length of the lens. Meanwhile, the position of the slit and
the Biprism should not be changed.
(iii)The lens is moved towards the Biprism till two sharp images of the slit can be
observed through the eyepiece.
(iv)The distance between these two images is measured with help of the
micrometer attached with eyepiece. It is in actual d1.
(v)The lens is moved towards the Biprism till two images are again appeared. The
distance between these two images is d2.
(vi)At least two sets of observations for d1 and d2 are taken.
Figure 11: Measurement of d using a convex lens (www.mywbut.com).
Measurement of thickness of Mica sheet (t):
50
(i) To determine the thickness of transparent thin sheet (mica), the monochromatic
source is replaced by white light source.
(ii) In this case the fringe pattern consists of various colorful fringe patterns
corresponding to all wave length and the resultant of this is a central white
fringe surrounded by dark region.
(iii) The position of this central white fringe is recorded with help of micrometer
by focusing the cross wire of eye piece on it
(iv) Now mica sheet is introduced in the path of one wave in such a way that it
blocks the one half of biprism.
(v) The central white fringe is now shifted to another position of cross wire.
(vi) This ‘S1' is measured by the help of micrometer in the cross wire.
(vii)This experiment is repeated again by covering the other half part of biprism.
We can have the value of shift S2.
(viii)The mean value of shift ‘S’ can be determined accurately.
3.8
3.8Observation
Observation
(I)Measurement of fringe width (β):
Least count of the vernier scale = ……………………………
No. of Micrometer reading
Fringe Main Scale Micrometer Vernier Scale Total
(n) Reading Circular Scale Reading xn
1 Divisions 3 = 2 × L.C. 1+3
(cm) 2 (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
51
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Slope of plot between n and xn = ………………………… cm

Mean Separation of fringe width β = …………………… meter
(II) Measurement of (D):
D = ……………………… meter
(III) Measurement of (d):
S. Micrometer Reading in I position of Lens d1 (cm) Mean d1
No. M.S. V.S. Total (I2-I1) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
Image 1.
Image 2.
Image 1.
Image 2.
52
S. Micrometer Reading in II position of d2 (cm) Mean d2
No. Lens (I2-I1) (cm)
M.S. V.S. Total
(cm) (cm) (cm)
Image 1.
Image 2.
Image 1.
Image 2.
Mean d1 = …………………. Meter

Mean d2 = …………………. Meter
(IV)Measurement of shift (S):
Micrometer Reading Shift in Mean
M.S. V.S. Total white shift S
(cm) (cm) (cm) fringe (cm)
(cm)
1. Position of
White fringe without
Mica sheet
2. Position of S1 (2-1) =
white fringe while
mica sheet in one half
part of biprism
3. Position of S2 (2-1) =
white fringe while
mica sheet in other half
part of biprism
Shift due to Mica sheet S = …………………………… Meter
53
3.9
3.9Graph
Graph
Figure: graph between fringe number and position of corresponding fringe to

calculate the fringe width. (e.g. here Slope (β) = 1.28 × 10-4 meter).
3.10
3.10Calculations
Calculations
Sample calculations
Measurements are
1. D = 0.845 meter
2. d1 = 0.007 meter
3. d2 = 0.002 meter
-4
4. β = 1.28 × 10 meter
5. S = 22.77 × 10-3 meter
6. Given µ = 1.56
Distance between two virtual sources
=
= √0.007 × 0.002
54
= 14 × 10
= 3.74 × 10 meter
Wavelength of given unknown monochromatic source
=
3.74 × 10
= 1.28 × 10 ×
0.845
= 5.6653 × 10 meter = 5665.3 Å
Thickness of mica sheet
=
−1
22.77 × 10 3.74 × 10
=
0.845 1.56 − 1
= 0.18 mm
3.11
3.11Result
Result
(i) Wavelength of Sodium light = ………………………………………..Å
Standard value of wavelength of given source = 5893 Å
(ii) % Error = ……………………………………………………………….
(iii) Thickness of Mica sheet = ………………………………………. meter
3.12
3.12Discussion
Discussion
3.13
3.13Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
SourcesofofError
Error
1. Distance between the slit and the Biprism must be kept constant throughout the
55
experiment. After the initial adjustment to get sharp fringes with good contrast,
does not change the silt width, rotates the Bi-Prism.
2.Move the eyepiece only backward to observe the lateral shift. For removing
lateral shift, there is no other adjustment required except the lateral movement of
the birprsim. Occasionally, the eyepiece may have to be also moved laterally
(using the base screw) only to ensure that the fringe system is in its field of view.
3.During measurement of d1 and d2, do not keep the eyepiece at a very large
distance (>> 4f) from the slit, which results in a large difference in d1 and d2
leading to enhanced error in their product.
4.While measuring the fringe width, align the cross wire at the centre of a bright
fringe.
5.While measuring fringe width the cross wire must be moved only in one
direction to avoid error due to backlash.
3.14
3.14Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Why do you use Biprism in Fresnel Biprism experiment?
Q.2 Why it made so thin?
Q.3 How the two coherent sources are achieved by Biprsim?
Q.4 What is shape of Interference fringes in Fresnel’s experiment?
Q.5 If the eyepiece is made far away from birpsim what will be effect on the fringe
pattern?
3.15
3.15Glossary
Glossary
Monochromatic: the light with single frequency.
Eyepiece: The lens or group of lenses that is closest to the eye in a microscope,
telescope, or other optical instrument. Sometime attach with micrometer having a
cross wire for desired measurements.
Fringe: A bright or dark band caused by beams of light that are in phase or out of
phase with one another.
Mica: a shiny silicate mineral with a layered structure, found as minute scales in
granite and other rocks, or as crystals. It is used as a thermal or electrical insulator.
56
3.16
3.16Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Answers to Self Learning Exercise -I
Ans.1: If two waves from coherent sources having same wavelength meet, the
resultant pattern having higher intensity on some points and on points it is less, this
event is known as interference in optics.
Ans.2: The wavelength of both waves should be same, amplitude should be same
or almost same, and phase difference should be constant with time.
Ans.3: If Phase difference in waves coming from both sources is constant with
time called coherent sources.
Ans.4: If the phase difference will not be constant with time then the fringes will
follow the condition for bright and dark at the same position, and it will change so
fast
that pattern would not be observed.
Ans.5: Dark and bright bands on screen or eyepiece due to constructive and
Answers to Self Learning Exercise -II
Ans.1: To achieve virtual coherent sources.
Ans.2: It is thin because d should be small.
Ans.3: By the division of wave-front
Ans.4: Hyperbolic
Ans.5: Fringe width will be reduced.
3.17
3.17Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What do you mean by interference of light?
Q.2 What are the conditions to get interference pattern?
Q.3 How it will affect the interference pattern if there is large difference in
amplitude of two waves?
Q.4 Is there any loss of energy in the interference phenomenon?
Q.5 Why the wavelength should be same of both waves for interference?
57
Q.6 What are the different types of interference?
Q.7 Is interference possible in sound waves too?
Q.8 What are the coherent sources?
Q.9 Why the coherent sources are essential to get interference?
Q.10 How many methods to achieve coherent sources?
Q.11 What do you understand by interference fringes?
Q.12 What is a Bi-prism?
Q.13 Why it named so?
Q.14 Why are the refracting angles of the two prisms made so small?
Q.15 What is the purpose of the Bi-prism, in Fresnel’s Biprism experiment?
Q.16 What is the effect of changing the distance between the slit and Biprism on
the fringe –width?
Q.17 How do you measure d?
Q.18 How will you locate zero order fringes in Biprism experiment?
Q.19 How can you measure the thickness of mica sheet?
Q.20 Are the Biprism fringes perfectly straight?
3.18
3.18Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1:If two waves from coherent sources having same wavelength meet, the
resultant pattern will have higher intensity on some points and on some less,
this event is known as interference in optics.
Ans.2: Wavelength should be identical of both sources, amplitude should be same
or almost same, and both light sources should be coherent.
Ans.3: The contrast of pattern will be poor.
Ans.4: No, there is only redistribution of energy.
Ans.5: It is necessary to meet the waves in the phase and out of phase.
Ans.6: Constructive and destructive.
Ans.7: Yes, it is possible.
Ans.8: If two light sources having phase difference which is constant with time.
58
Ans.9: See theory (requirement of coherent sources)
Ans.10: Two, by division of wavefront, and by division of amplitude.
Ans.11: Dark and bright bands on screen or eyepiece due to constructive and
Ans.12: Biprism is some kind of prism which is used to split one real source into
two virtual light sources by division of wavefront of the light.
Ans.13: It was constructed by Fresnel by adding two prisms base to base.
Ans.14: It is thin because d should be small.
Ans.15: To achieve virtual coherent sources.
Ans.16: If it will increase (D = a+ b) the fringe width will decrease.
Ans.17: By introducing a convex lens (see procedure)
Ans.18: By replacing monochromatic light source by white light source.
Ans.19: See procedure.
Ans.20: No , actually they are they are hyperbolic in shape.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. B. K. Mathur, Introduction to Geometrical and Physical Optics. Kanpur : Gopal
Printing Press, 1959
2. S. Brij Lal, M N Avadhanulu & N Subrahmanyam, A text book of optics,S.
Chand,23rd revised Edition,2006
3. Russell Celyn Jones, An Interference of Light
4. W.L. Kee, K.B. Lim, Z.L. Tun, B. Yading, J. Electronic Imaging, Vol. 23,
page033005(2014)
59
UNIT-4
Fresnel’s Law
4.1 Aim
4.2 Apparatus
4.3 Diagram
4.4 Formula
4.5 Model Graph
4.8 Procedure
4.9 Observation
4.10 Graph
4.11 Calculations
4.12 Result
4.13 Discussion
4.14 Precautions and Sources of errors
4.16 Glossary
4.18 Viva Questions
4.19 Answers to Viva Questions:
4.14.1
Aim Aim
Verification of Fresnel’s law of refraction and reflection
60
4.2
4.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Light source, glass plate, Convex lens, Rotating stage, Polarizer, Photocell, and
Ammeter.
4.3
4.3 Diagram
Diagram
Fig. 1: The arrangement of Fresnel`s experiment.
4.4
4.4 Formula
Formula
Reflectance :
When electric fields E is parallel to the plane-of-incidence, than Fresnel`s
Equations for reflection and transmission coefficients:
61
cos( ) − cos( )
∥ =
cos( ) + cos( )
2 cos( )
∥ =
cos( ) + cos( )
= ∥ ,
∥ =
Brewster''s law: The angle of incidence for maximum polarization depends only
on the refractive index.
tan = =
Degree of polarization (P) :
−
=
+
Where: ni = Refractive index of incident medium ( air, n=1)
nt = Refractive index of refractive medium (glass, n=1.5)
θi = Angle of incidence
θt = Angle of refraction
θp = Brewster's angle or polarization angle
Imax = Maximum intensity
Imin = Minimum intensity
4.5
4.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
Reflectance:
cos( ) − cos( )
∥ = ,
cos( ) + cos( )
cos( ) − cos( )
=
cos( ) + cos( )
62
Fig. 2: Reflectance and transmittance. as a function of incident angle for air-
glass interface (ni =1, nt = 1.5).
Degree of polarization (P)
−
=
+
Fig. 3: Degree of polarization as a function of incident angle.

63
4.6
4.6 Theory
Theoryand
andDescription
Description
Light is an electromagnetic wave whose electric and magnetic fields oscillate
sinusoidally in space and time, perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of
propagation of the electromagnetic wave. In figure 4, the electric field Ex is along
the x-axis, and varies sinusoidally with z, at a given time. The magnetic field By is
along the y-axis, and again varies sinusoidally with z. Here the electric and
magnetic fields Ex and By are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction z of
propagation.
Fig.4: A linearly polarised electromagnetic wave, propagating in the z-direction

with the oscillating electric field E along the x-direction and the oscillating
magnetic field B along the y-direction.
The speed c of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is related to ε0 and μ0 (the free
space permeability and permittivity constants) as follows: c = 1/ (ε0 μ0)1/2. The
speed of light, or of electromagnetic waves in a medium is given by c = 1/ (εμ)1/2=
c/n . Where ε is the permeability of the medium and μ its permittivity and n= (ε\
ε0)1/2 is the refractive index of medium for nonmagnetic medium.
Table 1: Approximate value of refractive index (at wavelength of 589 nm) for
various Substances*
S. No. Material Refractive Index
1. Vacuum 1
64
2 Air 1.0003
3. Glass ~1.5
4. Water 1.33
5 Diamond 2.42
*Values vary with physical conditions--purity, pressure, temperature etc.
Polarized and unpolarized light
The direction of polarization of an electromagnetic wave is represented by
oscillations of its electric field. Figure 5 shows a common way of representing of
these vibrations. Figure 5(a) and (b) representing the two plane-polarized
components. Dots represent the end-on view of linear vibrations, and double-
pointed arrows represent vibrations confined to the plane of the paper.
Fig.5: Pictorial representations of side and end views of plane-polarized light

beams.
If the incoming light is unpolarized (sun, light bulb), one may imagine that there
are sudden, random changes in E occurring in time intervals of the order of 10-8s.
Every orientation of E is to be regarded as equally probable, in plane normal to the
direction of propagation (see fig. 6(a)). Because electric field is a vector quantity,
hence it can represent by two orthogonal components (Ex=E cos(θ), Ey=E sin(θ))
65
along two mutualy perpendicular directions( x, and y -axis) (fig 6(b)). So finally
the unpolarized light can be represented as two vibrations at right angles with equal
amplitudes but no coherence of phase (fig. 6(c)).
Fig.6: Pictorial representations of unpolarized light beams Each vibration can be

resolved in two components in the x and y directions.(c) Pictorial representations
of side views of an ordinary light
The Law of Reflection and Refraction
Suppose a light ray initially traveling within the lower-index medium ni (air) and
the ray entering a higher-index medium nt (glass) as shown in figure 7. (or reverse
of it also true). So according to law of reflection “The incident ray, the
perpendicular to the surface, and the reflected ray all lie in a plane called the
plane-of-incidence; the angle-of-incidence equals the angle-of-reflection or θi =
θr ” [1].
Fig.7: The incident, reflected, and refracted rays all lie in the same plane.
66
Here all the angles are measured from the perpendicular. Further we can see that
the ray entering into a higher-index medium, bends toward the normal (The reverse
is also true), called refracted ray that follows the Snell's Law.
sin( )
= =
sin( )
Here θi and θt are the angle of incidence and refraction respectively.
Here we did not consider the polarization state of incident light and we can’t get
any information about the incident, reflected, and transmitted intensities by simply
using Snell`s law. To answer these questions we need detailed study on reflection
and refraction and how these are related with vector nature of light (Polarization).
Polarization by reflection
When an unpolarized light is incident on a dielectric (like glass, water) at an angle,
then at interface of two medium (air and glass) there will always be a reflected ray
and a refracted ray. We can infer from figure 8(a) that the reflected ray from glass
surface is partially plane-polarized but for a certain definite angle, about 57° (Fig
.8 (b)) it is plane-polarized and this angle called polarizing angle where the
reflected and refracted rays are just 90° apart.
Fig.8 (a) Polarization by reflection and refraction, (b) Brewster's law for the
polarizing angle.
According to Brewster’s law, the angle of incidence ( = ) where maximum
polarization occur depends only on the refractive index or
67
tan = =
We know from dispersion relation, that the refractive index generally depends on
the wavelength, and Brewster`s angle depend on refractive index, hence Brewster`s
angle depends on wavelength of the incident light. But for ordinary glass the
refractive index does not change so much in whole visible spectrum, therefore the
polarizing angle does not change much for glass in visible spectrum.
The Fresnel Equations
The Fresnel equations describe the effects of the polarization direction of an
incoming electromagnetic plane wave on the reflection and transmission intensities
(or amplitudes) at interface between two different dielectric media. The reflected
and transmitted field amplitudes are related to the incident amplitude via the angles
of θt transmission and reflection θr. The amplitude reflection (or transition (t))
coefficient (r) defined as the ratio of the reflected (or transmitted) to incident
electric-field amplitudes. r =[E0r /E0i ] or t =[E0t /E0i ].
In this section we will assume that our dielectric mediums are linear, isotropic,
homogeneous, with μ ~ μo (like air, glass). So that we can use the simple form of
Fresnel`s equations.
Let E is perpendicular to the plane-of-incidence than Fresnel`s Equations for
reflection and transmission amplitude coefficients are:
cos( ) − cos( )
=
cos( ) + cos( )
2 cos( )
=
cos( ) + cos( )
And when E is parallel to the plane-of-incidence than Fresnel`s equations for
reflection and transmission amplitude coefficients are:
cos( ) − cos( )
∥ =
cos( ) + cos( )
68
2 cos( )
=
∥
cos( ) + cos( )
Figure 9 shows the amplitude coefficients of reflection , when E is parallel or
perpendicular to the plane-of-incidence as a function of incident angle for air- glass
interface (ni =1, nt = 1.5).
Fig.9: The amplitude coefficients of reflection as a function of incident angle for

air- glass interface (ni =1, nt = 1.5).
But the experimentally measurable quantity is the light intensities not amplitude.
Hence in particular, we are interested to determining the intensities of light that are
reflected and refracted. The reflectance R is the ratio of the reflected intensity to
the incident intensity which is equal to square of the amplitude coefficients of
reflection.
=
So reflectance gives information about how much light of incident will be reflect
for a given incident angle and material. When E is parallel to the plane-of-
incidence than reflectance is
( ) ( )
∥ = ∥ = ( ) ( )
…………… (1)
When E is perpendicular to the plane-of-incidence than reflectance is
69
( ) ( )
= = ( ) ( )
………… (2)
When there is no absorption than the total incident intensity is the sum of reflected
and transmitted intensities or
+ = 1 ⟹ = 1 − ……………….. (3)
So if we know the reflectance then we can calculate the transmittance. In figure 10
we can see the behaviour the reflectance and transmittance. as a function of
incident angle for air- glass interface (ni =1, nt = 1.5). The essential features of
reflectance curve are briefly described as follows. At normal incidence (θi=0)
about 4 % of the intensity of a beam of for both the polarizations is reflected. At a
particular angle of incidence (θp =56.3°) call Brewster`s angle , the reflected light
is completely plane-polarized (in electric vector perpendicular to the plane
incidence( = 15%, || = 0 %)).
In our experiment we will use a glass plate kept in front of unpolarized light source
(light bulb, see fig. 1 and 11). We know that if, the incoming light is unpolarized,
and in that case we can represent it by two orthogonal, equal-amplitude and
incoherent in polarized sates (see fig. 6). One polarization state is parallel to plane
of incident and other one is perpendicular to plane of incident. Here equal in
amplitude means that the incident intensity (Ii =Square of amplitude)) is equally
share by these two polarization states (parallel and perpendicular to plane of
incident) is
∥ = = /2
After incident on glass plate these to polarization states are reflected according to
equations (1) and (2). The amount of these reflected intensity can written as:
∥ = ∥ ∥ /= ∥ /2
= /= /2
Further the reflected light passes through a polarizer and detected with a photocell.
Photocell converted the light intensity in electrical current and it is measured by an
ammeter. The measured current is proportional to the intensity falling on the
photocell. We can see in figure 10, that the reflectance generally greater than or
70
equal to ∥ . Hence
= /2 ≥ ∥ = ∥ /2
Fig.10: Reflectance and transmittance. as a function of incident angle for air-

glass interface (ni =1, nt = 1.5).
To verify Fresnel`s law we will rotate the glass plate by means changing of
incident angle (10 20....80 degree) and corresponding to each incident angle we
have record the maximum (Imax ) and minimum ( Imin)value of current by rotating
the polarizer. We know that current will be maximum when reflected intensity
is parallel to polarizer axis. Similarly current will be minimum when reflected
intensity ∥ is parallel to polarizer axis.
∝ ∝ ∥
Plotting the Imax and Imin as a function of incident angle (θi) we can verify the
Fresnel`s law for a given glass plate.
Further we can see that the difference between the Imax and Imin is amount of
polarization of the reflected light. The degree of polarization P of the reflected
light can be calculated by using the Imax and Imin (intensities of the parallel and
perpendicular components).
71
( )=
The photocell current Imax and Imin depends on angle of incident, hence P also
depndet on incident angle of the light. At a particular angle of incidence (θp
=56.3°) call Brewster`s angle, the reflected light is completely plane-polarized
having electric vector perpendicular to the plane incidence ( R = 15%,
R || = 0 %)). Since R || = 0 , then Imin= 0 and P=1, this is the maximum
value of P. All other incident angles, expect Brewster`s angle, the P always less
than one. If we plot the P as a function of incident angle for glass then the
maximum of P versus θi curve gives the Brewster angle of the glass (see the
figure 3) .
Fig. 11: Experimental setup for Verification of Fresnel`s law of refraction and
reflection
4.7
4.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is the dimension of the refractive index?
Q.2 What is the refractive index of glass?
Q.3 What is the speed of light in a medium having a refractive index of ‘n’?
72
Q.4 Does the refractive index depend on wavelength (frequency) of incident
light?
Q.5 Does the refractive index of glass depend on the incident angle of light?
4.8
4.8 Procedure
Procedure
1. Arrange light source, lens, glass plate, polariser and the photocell, according to
figure 12.
1. Align the photocell such that the light after polariser falls on its full area
(Generally the photocell and polarizer are mounted on same arm).
2. After alignment, rotate the glass plate such that the angle between the incident
light rays and the normal of the surface of the glass plate is 10 degree.
3. Now rotate the arm containing photocell and polarizer, so that the light
reflected light from glass plate fall on photo cell through polarizer (see figure 1
and 11).
Fig.12: The arrangement of Fresnel`s experiment.

4. Now rotate the polarizer about its own axis, and take the reading of maximum
current (Imax) and minimum current (Imin ) of ammeter .
5. Now take the reading of maximum current (Imax) and minimum current (Imin ) of
ammeter for different incident angles (i.e. 20,30,40,50,60,70, and 80) repeating
the steps 3 to 5.
73
6. Plot the graph between Imax, Imin and θi.
7. Plot the degree of polarization (P) versus different values of θi .
−
=
+
8. Find out the value of incident angle corresponding to the maximum value of P,
this angle called as Brewster angle θp.
9. Find out the tan (θp) and compare it with refractive index of the glass plate.
4.9
4.9 Observation
Observation
Least count of rotating stage = …………… (Degree)
Refractive index of glass plate=.................... (Given).
Table 2: For Fresnel’s relations and degree of polarization
Incident Photo cell −
=
S. No. angle Current (μA) +
(degrees) I I
max min
1. 10
2. 20
3. 30
4. 40
5. 50
6. 60
7. 70
8. 80
4.10 Graph
4.10 Graph
Plot the graphs on graph paper.
74
4.11
4.11 Calculations
Calculations
Model Calculations:
Suppose the maxima of P versus θi curve occur at θi = 560
Hence Brewster angle is (θp) = 560
So tan (θp) = refractive index of glass plate = tan (56) = 1. 48
4.12
4.12Result
Result
(i) The reflected intensities plots from glass plate are shown figure (...........)
.These curves are consistence with Fresnel’s law of reflections.
(ii) The degree of polarization for reflected light from glass plate is shown in
figure (.........) gives the Brewste angle θP=...degree.
(iii) The refractive index for glass plate is = tan (θP) =......
4.13
4.13 Discussion
Discussion
4.14
1. Glass plate should be cleaned.
2. Do not touch the glass plate and polarizer otherwise the finger print affect the
reflection efficiency.
3. The intensity of light source should be constant.
4. Take more reading near polarization angle.
5. The reflected light from glass plate should be fall on photocell properly.
75
4.15
4.15 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Does the refractive index of glass depend on the polarization of incident
light?
Q.2 A medium having refractive index ‘n’ always changes the frequency (in
vacuum) ‘f0’ of the light when it travel into the medium.
Q.3 A medium having refractive index ‘n’ always changes the wavelength ( in
vacuum) ‘λ0’ of the light when it passing through the medium.
Q.4 Does the refractive index depends on temperature and pressure?
Q.5 How much percentage of light is reflected by glass upon normal incident?
4.16 Glossary
4.16 Glossary
Photocell: A transducer used to detect and measure light and other radiations.
Dispersion: Separate (light) into spectral rays.
Quasi: Partly similar
4.17
4.17 Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: The refractive index is a dimensionless quantity.
Ans.2: ng~1.5
Ans.3: v=c/n
Ans.4: Generally refractive index depends on wavelength called dispersion of
light.
Ans.5: No
Ans.1: No
Ans.2: No, frequency remain same
Ans.3: Wavelength and velocity changes.
Ans.4: Yes.
Ans.5: 4%
76
4.18
4.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is the nature of the light wave?
Q.2 Which event of light of light support that light is a transverse wave?
Q.3 What is the Snell's Law?
Q.4 What do you mean by unpolarized light?
Q.5 What do you mean by plane-of-incidence?
Q.6 Do electromagnetic waves carry energy like other waves?
Q.7 What do you mean by plane of polarization of EM wave?
Q.8 What are coherence light sources?
Q.9 What do you mean amplitude reflection coefficient?
Q.10 What is the Brewster`s law?
Q.11 Does the Brewster`s angle depends on the wavelength of incident light?
Q.12 What percentage of incident light is reflected from glass plate, when
θi= θB ?
Q.13 What is the value of polarization angle for glass?
Q.14 What are the parallel and perpendicular components of reflectance for
normal incidence of light?
Q.15 What is the relation between reflected, incident intensity and reflectance?
Q.16 What is the percentage of transmitted light from air-glass interface upon
normal incident?
Q.17 What is the angle between reflected and refracted rays when θi= θB,?
Q.18 Is it true that the incident unpolarized light is reflected at 900 is partially
polarized?
Q.19 What do you mean by degree of polarization?
Q.20 What is the value of the degree of polarization (P) at θi= θB.
4.19
4.19 Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Light is a transverse electromagnetic (EM) wave
77
Ans.2: Polarization of light.
( )
Ans.3: . ( )
= =n
Ans.4: For unpolarized light, every orientation of E is to be regarded as equally
probable, in plane normal to the direction of propagation.
Ans.5: Law of Reflection maintains that the incident ray, the perpendicular to the
surface, and the reflected ray all lie in a plane called the plane-of-
incidence.
Ans.6: Yes
Ans.7: The direction of polarization of an electromagnetic wave is represented by
oscillations of its electric field.
Ans.8: The light sources having same frequency (monochromatic) and their
relatively phase difference should be zero or remain constant with time.
Ans.9: The amplitude reflection coefficient (r) defined as the ratio of the reflected
to incident electric-field amplitudes. r =[E0r /E0i ]
Ans.10: Brewster`s law correlate the polarization angle with the refractive index
of the medium or
tan = ⁄ =
Ans.11: Yes, As the refractive index is a function of the wavelength, and
Brewster`s angle depend on refractive index, hence Brewster`s angle
depends on wavelength of the incident light.
Ans.12: 15 %
Ans.13: 56.30
Ans.14: ∥ = =
Ans.15: =
Ans.16: 96%
Ans.17: 900
Ans.18: No, because at θ = 0 and 900, the reflectance ∥ = , hence
reflected light at 00 and 900 is always unpolarized.
78
Ans.19: =( − )⁄( + )
Ans.20: P=1
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, “Fundamentals of Optics” 4th Ed., The Mcgraw-
Hill Companies, Inc., USA (2001).
2. Eugene Hecht, “Optics” 4th Ed., Addison Wesley, San Francisco, CA (2002).
79
UNIT-5
Hartman’s Formula
5.1 Aim
5.2 Apparatus
5.3 Diagram
5.4 Formula
5.7 Procedure
5.8 Observation
5.9 Graph
5.10 Calculations
5.11 Result
5.12 Discussion
5.13 Precautions and sources of error
5.14 Self learning exercise-II
5.15 Glossary
5.16 Answers to self learning exercises
5.17 Viva questions
5.18 Answers to viva questions
5.1 Aim
Determine the wavelength of Neon light taking Hg source as a standard source
applying Hartman's formula.
80
5.2
5.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Constant deviation prism, spectrometer, condensing lens, travelling microscope,
mercury lamp, camera, photographic plate, developer film folder and finer.
5.3
5.3Diagram
Diagram
Diagram
Figure 1: Block diagram of the experimental setup
5.4 Formula
5.4 Formula
The Hartmann dispersion formula, which is valid over a restricted wavelength
interval, is given by:
81
( )= +
−
The Hartmann constants are defined as below:
−
( − )− ( − )
−
= −
( − )−( − )
−
−
=
1 1
−
− −
= −
−
5.5 Theory
5.5 Theoryand
andDescription
Description
Refraction:
The bending of a wave when it enters a medium with different speed is known as
refraction. When a light ray passes from a fast medium to a slow medium, it bends
towards the normal to the boundary between the two medium. The amount, by
which the light ray bends, depends upon the index of refraction of the two medium
and can be described by Snell's law.
Snell's law
The law of refraction states that the sine of the angle of incidence (i) and the sine
of the angle of refraction are in constant ratio to each other.
The refracted ray lies on the opposite side of the normal from the incident ray. The
incident ray, surface normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.The law
of refraction is also known as Snell's law. The constant in the Snell's law is the
ratio of the refractive indices of the two materials.
82
Figure 2: The law of refraction
Dispersion: Variation of n with λ

The index of refraction can be easily measured and this is closely related to the
speed, the study of the variation of speed with wavelength (or frequency) can be
studied by the index of refraction as a function of the wavelength (or frequency).
With visible light, we call it normal dispersion when the medium’s index of
refraction decreases gradually as the wavelength increases. The graphical display
of n vs. λ is called a dispersion curve.
Cauchy’s equation
In 1836, Cauchy explained the curve of normal dispersion by an equation.
83
Cauchy’s equation is an analytical form for the dependence of the refractive index
on the wavelength λ.
( )= + + +⋯
where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength, B, C, D, etc., are coefficients
that can be determined for a material by fitting the equation to measured refractive
indices at known wavelengths. This equation represents the curve in visible region
with considerable accuracy.
With th knowledge of values of refractive index n for three different wavelengths,
the three constants can be found out.
It is also quite accurate and sufficient to include only two constants. The two term
form of the above equation is:
( )= +
On differentiating above equation with respect to λ,
=−
The above equation shows that the dispersion varies with the inverse cube of the
wavelength. The negative sign in the equation is due to the negative slope of the
dispersion curve.
Constant deviation spectrometer
A constant deviation prism is used in the constant deviation spectrometer. A prism,
when is used in a spectrometer, is always used in minimum deviation position. The
construction of a constant deviation prism is shown below:
This prism, which is a single piece, can be seen as composed of three different
pieces. Two 300 prism PQR and QST and a reflecting prism PRS. If a light ray AB
incidents at an angle i, for certain i, BC is perpendicular to PR, it gets totally
reflected at PS and undergoes deviation of 900. By using geometry, it can be
shown that the emergent ray is perpendicular to the incident ray.
84
Figure 3: Constant deviation prism.
The two 300 prisms can also be thought as a 600 prism. Minimum deviation occurs
when the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence.
A light ray deviated through 900 by constant deviation prism passes through a
position of minimum deviation. This principle is used in constant deviation
spectrometer.
The Hilger Wavelength Spectrometer (Constant Deviation Type)
The Hilger wavelength spectrometr is a constant deviation type spectrometer. It
uses a "constant deviation prism" (described in the section above) in place of a
normal prism. In this, both the telescope and collimator are rigidly fixed. The
spectrum can be obtained only by rotating the prism. As a result of this, the
construction of this type of spectrometer is extremely convenient and mechanically
sound.
85
Figure 4: Hilger Wavelength Spectrometer.
[REF: The Hilger wavelength spectrometer manual]
Figure 5: Drum
86
The prism table on which the prism stands is rotated with the help of fine steel
screws. A drum is fixed to these screws [Figure5 ]. With the help of this drum, the
wavelength of the lines in the spectrum can be read directly. The index is indicated
in the helical slot. The drum is in the side of the eyes in the most recent
instruments so that the wavelengths of the lines can be read off without quitting the
eyepiece. The point of the micrometer screw is of hardened steel, and is
permanently fixed before the screw thread is cut.
The telescope and collimator both are rigidly fixed to the cast iron base, and the
whole is screwed to a strong cast iron tripod. The design is extremely strong and
simple; and the accuracy is as great as that obtained by the use of very high class of
divided circle spectrometer.
Sources:
In this experiment, Mercury and Copper sources are used. A brief description of
these sources is given below:
Mercury Vapour Lamp
A high pressure mercury-vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp, which consists of a
quartz discharge tube enclosed in a glass bulb. The tube contains a few milligrams
of mercury and around 25-50 torr of pure argon as a buffer gas to carry the
discharge while the lamp warms up. It uses an electric arc which produces light
through vaporized mercury. The glass bulb is internally coated with fluorescent
phosphor which converts the UV radiation emitted by the tube into visible light.
The internal pressure in these bulbs, while in operation, is around one atmosphere.
Their operation requires special assembly. They also require electrical ballast. The
warm period for these bulbs to reach at their full output is around 4 – 7 minutes.
At room temperatures, Mercury in the glass tube is in the liquid form. For the arc
to start and the electricity to conduct, the mercury in the tube needs to be vaporized
and ionized. This lamp like other lamps also needs a starter. This starter is also
contained in the lamp.
In addition to the mercury, the lamp is also filled with the argon gas at the low
pressure. When the lamp is switched on, full voltage is applied on the two
electrodes and a discharge passes between two. This leads to the ionization of the
87
gas. As the lamp warms up, the mercury in the lamp gradually vaporizes and the
pressure insides increases.
Figure 6: A Typical High Pressure Mercury Lamp

[REF:http://www.lamptech.co.uk/Documents/M1%20Introduction.htm]
The resistance of Mercury vapor lamp decreases as the current through the tube
increases. If the lamp is directly connected to the power lines, the current through
it will start increasing and the lamp will be destroyed. Hence it needs an electrical
ballast to limit the operating current through it.
Copper arc lamp
In a copper arc lamp, two copper rods are used to produce the arc. They are
separated in the beginning. Once they are connected to the dc supply, and the
electrodes are brought together, the tips touch each other and then they are
removed away.
88
Figure 7: Carbon Arc Lamp
[REF: http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html]
An electric discharge passes through air having copper atoms in excited states
between two electrodes. This gives the characteristic spectrum of copper.
5.6
5.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is the definition of refraction?
Q.2 How do you define the refractive index?
Q.3 What is the unit of refractive index?
Q.4 List out the factors on which the refractive index of a medium depends.
Q.5 The bending of a beam of light when it passes obliquely from one medium to
another is known as _______.
89
a. Reflection
b. Refraction
c. Dispersion
d. Deviation
5.7Procedure
5.7 Procedure
1. All the instruments must be aligned at the same level so that the light which
emerges out of the source passes through the condensing lens and focuses
completely on the slit. For the spectrums of mercury and copper, the settings of
the whole apparatus should remain the same.
2. Put the copper source on and change the position of condensing lens so that a
sharp focus on the slit is obtained. There are two screws in the collimator: one
is to put the slit on or off and the other is to change the width of the spectral
lines. Another system is provided to vary the length of the line.
3. By doing these settings and using the drum, a very neat and sharp spectrum of
copper may be obtained.
4. The position of condensing lens has been made in such a way that when the
mercury source is put on, a sharp focus is obtained on the slit similar to that of
the copper source.
5. After this, use the photographic film to obtain the photograph of our spectrum.
The copper arc spectrum is obtained in roughly 30 seconds and the mercury
spectrum is obtained in around 5 seconds. By developing and fixing the film,
the spectrum pattern can be seen on the film.
6. Use the comparator to compare copper with respect to the mercury. By using
any three wavelengths of mercury spectrum and with the help of Hartman’s
dispersion formula, all the wavelengths of copper can be obtained.
7. Error should be calculated for the copper wavelengths between the values
obtained and the standard values.
5.8
5.8 Observation
Observation
Least count of comparator =
90
S.No. Symbol of Comparator Observed Corresponding Error
spectrum reading (cm) wavelength wavelength (A0
)
(A0) (A0)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
91
5.95.9 Graph
Graph
Plot the graph on graph paper
5.10
5.10Calculations
Calculations
5.11
5.11Result
Result
Model Result:A good agreement has been found between the calculated and
corresponding standard copper wavelengths. Thus Hartman’s dispersion formula
is verified. A curve is also drawn between error and standard between
wavelengths.
5.12
5.12Discussion
Discussion
Model discussion:In this experiment we have proved the validity of Hartmann’s

formula. The lines from Mercury source has been used as the standard. The
observed wavelength of Copper spectrum lines are very close to the literature
values. A wide range of wavelengths from 2300 A0 to 6000 A0 have been observed
using the photograph arrangement.
92
5.13
5.13 Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
SourcesofofError
Error
1. The source (mercury lamp or copper arc lamp) should be placed at axis of the
collimator so that best resolution and best intensity is obtained.
2. The width of the slit should be adjusted to the minimum.
3. The exposure time for the mercury spectrum should be around 5 seconds and
for copper spectrum should be around 30 seconds.
4. The slit should be clean.
5.14
5.14 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 How does dispersion of light take place?
Q.2 Why does the dispersion take place only in prism and not in a glass slab?
Q.3 What is the difference between wave refraction and dispersion?
Q.4 What is difference between normal and anomalous dispersion?
Q.5 What is the angle of minimum deviation?
5.15
5.15 Glossary
Glossary
Normal dispersion : It occurs where shorter wavelengths travel slower than longer
wavelengths.
Anomalous dispersion : occurs when shorter wavelengths travel faster than longer
wavelengths.
5.16
5.16 Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: When the light passes from one medium to another medium of different
density, it deviates from its original path. This is known as refraction.
Ans.2: Refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to
the speed of light in a medium.
Ans.3: Refractive index is the ratio of velocity of light in two media and hence it
is a mere number without any unit.
Ans.4: The refractive index of a medium depends on
a. the nature of the medium
93
b. the colour or wavelength of the incident light
Ans.5: (b) refraction
Ans.1: In Physics, 'dispersion' is the property by which light is spread out
according to its color as it passes through an object. For example, when you shine a
white light into a prism, all of the different colors of light are bent different
amounts, so they spread out and make a rainbow. This works because of the fact
that different colors of light actually have different wavelengths. (The wavelength
is the distance between the peaks in the wave.) Light interacts with the molecular
structure of the prism differently depending on its wavelength. So different
wavelengths of light are bent different amounts.
Ans.2: When a beam of light travelling in one material enters a new material, and
when it is perpendicular to the common surface, it goes straight into the new
material without bending. When the beam enters at an angle it is bent. The amount
of bending is related to the relative indices of refraction. Now it turns out that the
index of refraction of most materials is dependent on the wavelength of light.
Hence different wavelengths are bent by different amounts; hence dispersion.
In a slab of glass the effects on the beam due to the entrance and exit angles cancel
out. In a prism these effects do not cancel out due to the different entrance and
exit angles
Ans.3: Refraction refers to any bending of waves due to a change in speed. When
water waves move through different depths, the wave is said to be refracted.
Dispersion is the frequency dependence of refraction. In the case of light being
refracted by a prism, dispersion means that the higher frequency light bends more.
In short, refraction is the bending of light, and dispersion is the frequency
dependence of this behavior.
Ans.4: Normal dispersion occurs where shorter wavelengths travel slower than
longer wavelengths. Anomalous dispersion occurs when shorter wavelengths travel
faster than longer wavelengths
Ans.5: When a light ray enters into a transparent material, it gets deflected. This
deflection depends on both the refractive index of the material and the incident
94
angle. When a light ray passes through a prism, it gets deflected twice: first at the
entrance and then at the exit. The total of these two deflections is called as the
deviation angle. The angle of deviation depends upon the refractive index of the
prism, angle of prism and the angle of incidence. There is an angle of incidence at
which the sum of the two deflections is a minimum. The deviation angle at this
point is is called the "minimum deviation" angle, or "angle of minimum deviation.
5.17
5.17 Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 Define wavelength.
Q.2 What is the law of reflection?
Q.3 What is index of refraction?
Q.4 What is Snell’s law?
Q.5 What do you understand by dispersion?
Q.6 What is Hartmann dispersion formula?
Q.7 What is a dispersion curve?
Q.8 What is normal dispersion?
Q.9 What is anomalous dispersion?
Q.10 What is a spectrometer?
Q.12 How does refractive index change with wave length?
Q.12 How does the deviation depend on the angle of the prism?
Q.13 What is a dispersion relation?
Q.14 What is a constant deviation prism?
Q.15 What are the examples of the constant deviation prism?
Q.16 Why Mercury vapor lamp is called a line source?
Q.17 What are the wavelengths present in a Mercury source?
Q.18 What are the advantages of a Mercury source?
Q.19 What is the use of the drumhead in the constant deviation spectrometer?
Q.20 Which spectrometer is better: an ordinary prism spectrometer or a constant
deviation prism spectrometer?
95
5.18
5.18 Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: The distance between two points or particles in the same phase—i.e.,
points that have completed identical fractions of their periodic motion is known as
wavelength.
Ans.2: According to the law of reflection, the angle of incidence equals the angle
of reflection.
Ans.3: The speed of light in vacuum divided by the speed of light in a medium is
known as the index of refraction for that medium.
Ans.4: When a wave passes between two given medium, the ration of Sine of
angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant. This law is known
as Snell’s law.
Ans.5: Dispersion is the phenomenon which gives the separation of colors in a
prism.
Ans.6: Hartmann dispersion formula is a semi empirical formula which relates
the refractive index n and the wavelength by the relation:
( )= +
−
Where, A, B, and C are empirical constants.
Ans.7: A graph showing the dependence of the frequency on the wavenumber for
dispersive waves is known as dispersion curve.
Ans.8: In the case of normal dispersion, dn/dω> 0 and dn/dλ< 0
Ans.9: In the case of anomalous dispersion, dn/dω< 0 and dn/dλ> 0.
Ans.10: A spectrometer is an instrument used to analyze the spectrum of a source
of light.
Ans.11: Higher the wave length, smaller is the refractive index.
Ans.12: Greater the angle of the prism, more the deviation is.
Ans.13: A dispersion relation relates the wavelength or wave number of a wave to
its frequency.
Ans.14: A constant deviation prism is a prism which has the property that the
96
minimum deviation is always at the same angle.
Ans.15: Pellin-Broca prism and Abbe prism are the examples of constant
deviation prism.
Ans.16: The Mercury vapor lamp is called as a line source as it emits radiation
only at well-defined wavelengths.
Ans.17: The wavelengths present in a Mercury source are: 257.7 nm, 313.0 nm,
365.0 nm, 404.7 nm, 407.8 nm, 435.8 nm, 546.1 nm, 577.0 nm, and 579.1 nm.
Ans.18: The advantages of a Mercury source are its intensity and stability. Also it
provides a monochromatic beam at each wavelength.
Ans.19: In a constant deviation spectrometer, the prism table can be rotated using
a drum. This drum is attached to the table. The head of this drum is calibrated for
the known wavelengths. Hence with the help of it, wavelengths can be measured
directly.
Ans.20: A constant deviation prism spectrometer.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. B. L. Worsnop and H. T. Flint, Advanced Practical Physics for Students (1951)
2. The Hilger wavelength spectrometer manual
3. A Simple ation Formula for the Prismatic Spectrum, Hartmann, J.
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 8, p.218, 11/1898.
4. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill,
Inc. (1981)
97
UNIT-6
Babinet Compensator
6.1 Aim
6.2 Apparatus
6.3 Diagram
6.4 Formula
6.7 Procedure
6.8 Observation
6.9 Calculations
6.10 Result
6.11 Discussion
6.14 Glossary
6.16 Viva Questions
6.1 Aim
To (i) analyze elliptically polarized light.
(ii) determine the phase difference introduced between ordinary and
extraordinary rays.
98
6.2 Apparatus
6.2 Apparatus
Babinet compensator, the source of sodium light, quarter wave plate, polarised, the
source of white light .
6.3 Diagram
6.3 Diagram
Polariser Quarter wave plate

Figure1
FIGURE 2: BABINET COMPENSATOR
99
6.4
6.4 Formula
Formula
(i) The initial phase difference between two components of the elliptic vibration
is given by ;
( − )= /
Where, L is the micrometer reading for the shift with elliptically polarised light
is the micrometer reading for a phase change or path change /2
(ii) The ratio of the axis is given by –
Ɵ= /
Where a & b are the semi major & minor axes .
Ɵ is the relation of analyses for complete extinction
(iii) (μe-μo) , the value of birefringence may be obtained by the relation ,

( − )= /2
Where, t is the thickness of the doubly refracting plate λ is the wavelength of
monochromatic light used.
is the extra phase introduced by the doubly refracting plate. (It’s value is
determined by calibration part)
6.5 Theoryand
description
Quarter wave plate used for the production or analysis of elliptically or
circularly polarised light is suitable only for the particular wavelength for which it
is meant, but the Babinet compensator can be used for wide range of frequencies.
It is made of two wedges of quartz of equal acute angles. The wedges are
cut that for one of the wedges the optic axes is parallel and for other perpendicular
to the rectangular sides of the wedges opposite to the acute angles , Thus optic axes
of two wedges are mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in figure3. Two
wedges form a rectangular quartz block. A cross wire of a line is fixed in front of
the upper wedge & a micrometer screw is attached to the wedge to give it a relative
motion the other. The arrangement affords a means to change t or the block.
100
Consider a point on compensator where the upper & lower edges have thickness t1
and t2 respectively. If plane polarised monochromatic light, polarised by placing a
Nicol or Polaroid between source & the compensator, is made to fall normally on
the compensator. It is broken up into E & O (Extraordinary & ordinary) vibration
travelling with different velocities (o faster in the uniaxial crystal) in passing
through upper wedge. If the plane of vibration is inclined at an angel of 45 degree
to the optic axis & vibrations will be along & over perpendicular to the optic axis .
The E & O vibrations suffer a path difference given by –
t1 (μe-μo)............where μo<μe
Where μe, μo, ve , vo are refractive indices and velocities for E&O vibrations
respectively .The status of affairs is refused in the lower wedge and the path
difference in & vibrations is given by –
-t2 (μe-μo) ............where μe >μo
Hence total path difference introduced by the compensator
∆= (t1-t2 ) (μe-μo)
The change in phase can be studied by the means of an analysing Nicol usually
provided with the apparatus.
The thickness of the compensator along perpendicular lines to the longer
edge of the wedge is the same & corresponding to definite but variable optical
thickness for a central ray(t1-t2 =0);optical path difference between O & E is zero &
incident vibrations is transmitted as such . Consequently a carve fringe is observed
along the central ray with two crossed Nicols. The condition for fringes is given by
– δ =0, ±2π, ±4π ...±2mπ
Where m is integers.
The sign represent both sides with respect to t1=t2i.e. central ray. Hence a central
black fringe is an indication of correct setting. Along other rays, where maximum
brightness occurs. The phase difference as given by –
δ = ± (2m+1)π
The condition shows that planes of incident and transmitted vibrations are inclined
at angle to each other, hence vibrations are transmitted by crossed Nicols. In the
101
intermediate position for the phase difference between ±2mπ and ± (2m+1)π the
transmitted light is circularly or elliptically polarised. Hence the state of
polarisation along the compensator worries, & the variation gives rise to a series of
alternate & bright straight bands. Bands can be seen with the help of low power
microscope. If of 45 degree to the optic axes, the band will not be sharp, because
above conditions are not fulfilled exactly; correct setting will indicate the correct
inclination of incident vibrations to optic axis.
The optical thickness of plate can be varied by working micrometer screw
which gives relative displacement to two wedges. The bands shift laterally. Thus
any desired band can be brought under crosswire.
FIGURE 3
A Babinet compensator placed between crossed polariser and analyser.
102
Let the angels motion of the screw be o to replace a dark band and the
corresponding linear motion of the wedge. The phase change or path change will
be respectively. In this way the micrometer can be calibrated in terms of phase
difference.
Central black band can be easily rotated by using while light. It is because for
δ=0, t1=t2, the central band is dark fringed by coloured bands on either sides.
The fig (3) shows the production of bright & dark bands by a Babinet compensator
placed between crossed polarised & analyser.
6.6
6.6 Self
Selflearning
learningexercise-I
exercise-I
Q.1: What are retarders? Give suitable diagram of wave plates.
Q.2: Give the classification of the wave plates.
6.7
6.7 Procedure
Procedure
(A) Caliberation of micrometer in terms of phase difference:
(1) Place a polarised between the monochromatic source of light and the
compensator view the series of bright and dark bands through the low power
microscope provided with the instrument. Rotate – the compensator & analyser to
get a fine pattern of bright and dark bands.
(2) Now work the micrometer screw and bring one of two dark bands under the
indicator line. Take the reading of the micrometer. Again work the screw to bring
the next dark band under the indicator line. Note the reading of micrometer. Find
the difference of two readings.
(3) Repeat it for other consecutive bands & find the average displacement. This
gives the value of linear displacement of the wedge for radians phase or path.
(B)To determine the initial phase difference (ϕ-α)between the components f

elllipitical vibrations:
(1) Insert a Polaroid between the white light source and compensator obtained a
system of crowded band with central dark band. Rotate the compensator and
analyser to get a fine system of coloured bands. Bring the central dark band under
the indicator line by working the screw. Note the reading of micrometer.
103
(2) Insert a quarter wave plate between the compensator and Polaroid to get
elliptically polarised light. The central band shifts from the indicator line. Now,
the micrometer is worked again to bring the central band under the indicator line.
Note the reading find out the difference of two readings.
(3) Knowing the past (A), find the phase difference corresponding to the above
difference.
(C)To determine the ratio of axes:
(1) Get a pattern of fine bright and dark bands with monochromatic light by
inserting a Polaroid between the compensator and the source. Being a dark band
under the indicator line by working the micrometer.
(2) Let be the distance through which the micrometer screw is shield to replace
one dark band by other. Now, shift the micrometer through. The indicator line
shifts a little from the dark band.
(3) Insert the quarter wave plate between the compensator and Polaroid to get
elliptically polarised light.
(4) Now, rotate the compensator so that indicator returns to the same dark band and
clamp it. Note its reading on micrometer.
(5) Next, rotate the analyser keeping the compensator in the same position to make
the dark band under the indicator line as black as possible. Note this reading of the
analyser by means of the pointer provided with it. If the analyser now rotated
through the angle Ɵ, the bands will disappear. The tangent of Ɵ will be the ratio
of the axes of the elliptical polarisation.
Repeat experiment with different orientation of plate.
See figure to understand the basis of determination.
(D) To determine the value of the birefringes ,the difference between the
refractive indices of crystal for ordinary and extraordinary:
(1) Insert a Polaroid between the between the source of monochromatic light and
the compensator and obtain fine system of bright and dark bands.
(2) Work the screw to bring a dark band under the indicator line. Note the reading
104
, Insert a doubly refractive plate, with its optic axis parallel to its faces, between
the compensator and polariser. The fringe system shifts, i.e. the dark band is no
more under the indicator.
(3) Work the micrometer to bring dark band under the indicator. Note rotation of
the micrometer, Reduce the rotation of the screw to the phase. It gives the value of,
the extra phase introduced by the change. Use relation (3) to find. Note the
thickness of the plate.
Use a quarter or half wave plate.
6.8
6.8Observation
Observation
(1) Calibration of micrometer in terms of phase or path difference:
(Monochromatic light used, white light used to detect central band)
Least count of the screw =........
Thickness ‘t’ =.........
S.NO. Micrometer Difference Mean of 3 Linear Value of
reading for of 3 bands bands displacement x (cm)
central band (cm) (cm) (cm) wedge of 2x
(cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
105
(2) For initial phase difference (ϕ-α) of elliptic vibration
S.NO. Micrometer Micrometer Difference Mean Phase
reading without reading with L=(x-x’)cm (cm) difference
plate (cm) plate (cm) (ϕ-α)
= /
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(3) Ratio of axes / and direction of axes:

S.NO Reading of bright Reading of dark Difference Mean
band of analyser ( band of
cm ) analyser( cm )
1.
2.
3.
4.
106
(4) Difference ( − ):-
S.NO. Micrometer reading Micrometer Difference Phase diff.
with dark band reading with same Mean
under crosswire dark band with
without plate (cm) plate (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.9 Calculations
6.9 Calculations
.
.
.
.
.
.
6.10
6.10 Result
Result
1. Phase difference (ϕ-α) =
2. Birefringes =
3. Ratio of the axes a/b =
Standard values –
μe =1.55336
μo =1.54425
μe-μo =0.00911
107
−
% = × 100
6.11
6.11 Discussion
Discussion
6.12
6.12 Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1.Calibration of micrometer in terms of wavelength should be made.
2.Analyser should be rotated only in one direction in clockwise or anticlockwise.
3.Take the measurements accurately.
4.Polariser, analyser and quarter wave plate should not be touched by hands.
6.13
6.13 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1: How can you produce elliptically polarized light using quarter wave plate?
Q.2: Give the analysis of elliptically polarized light using Babinet compensator.
6.14
6.14 Glossary
Glossary
Retarders: Retarders are a class of optical elements that serve to change the state
of polarization of an incident wave.
Quarter wave plate: A quarter wave plate is thin plate of irefringent crystal having
the optic axis parallel to its refracting faces
Half wave plate: A half wave plate is a thin plate, having the optic axis parallel to
its refracting faces
Polarizer: These are the optical devices necessary to produce polarized light from
unpolarized light.
Polarisation: A process in which we get the light which has acquired the property
of one sideness is called a polarised light, and the process is known as Polarisation.
108
Optic axis: A line passing through any one of the blunt corners and making equal
angles with three faces which meet there is the direction of optic axis.
Uniaxial Crystals: The crystals having one direction along which the two refracted
rays travel with the same velocity are called as uniaxial crystal.
Biaxial crystals: In these types of crystals, there are two optic axes along which the
refracted rays travel.
Double refraction: A ray of light is incident on the face of the crystal and it travels
along the principal section or perpendicular to optic axis then the ray split into two
rays, named as e-ray and o-rays. This phenomenon is called as Double refraction.
6.15
6.15 Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Retarders are a class of optical elements that serve to change the state of
polarization of an incident wave. The operation of a retarder is very simple. When
plane polarized light is incident on a retarder, it splits the light into two plane
polarized light waves and one of the wave’s lags behind the other by a known
amount. Upon emerging from the retarder, the two waves superpose on each other
to produce a wave, which is of a different state of polarization.
Figure 4: Retarders
109
A quarter wave plate and a half wave plate are two important retarders. As calcite
is brittle and difficult to handle in the form of thin slices, it is not generally used to
make retarding plates. Retarders are frequently made from quartz but more often
they are made using the biaxial crystal mica.
Ans.2: Mainly there are two types of retardation plates or wave plates which are
given below:
(1) quarter wave plate:
A quarter wave plate is thin plate of irefringent crystal having the
optic axis parallel to its refracting faces and its thickness adjusted such that it
introduce a quarter wave ( ) path difference ℎ
between the e-ray and o-ray propagating through it.
When a plane polarized light wave is incident on a birefringent crystal

having the optic axis parallel to its refracting face, the wave splits into e-wave and
o-wave. The two waves travel along the same direction but with different
velocities. As a result, when they emerge from the rear face of the crystal, an
optical path difference would be developed between them. Thus, for a quartz wave
plate
( − ) = ................(1)
= ( )
................(2)
A quarter wave plates introduces between e-ray and o-ray a phase difference
given by
2
= Δ = = 90°
2
A quarter-wave plate is used to produce elliptically and circularly polarised
light. It converts plane polarized light into elliptically or circularly polarised light
depending upon the angle that the incident light vector makes with optic axis of the
quarter wave plate.
110
(2) half wave plate:
A half wave plate is a thin plate, having the optic axis parallel to its
refracting faces and its thickness chosen such that a half-wave path
difference ( ℎ 180°) between e-ray and o-ray.
When a plane polarized light wave is incident on quartz crystal having the
optic axis parallel to its refracting faces, it splits into two waves: ordinary wave
and extra ordinary wave. The two waves travel along the same direction inside the
crystal but with different velocities. As a result, when these waves emerge from the
rear face of the crystal, an optical path difference would be developed between
them
( − ) = ................(3)
= ( )
................(4)
A half wave introduces a phase difference between ordinary ray and extra
ordinary ray, which is given below
2
= Δ = = 180°

Ans.1: Production of Elliptically Polarized Light:
A quarter wave plate and a polarizer are the optical devices necessary to produce
elliptically polarized light from unpolarized light. Unpolarized light is first
converted to plane polarized light by allowing it to pass through a polarizer (a
Polaroid sheet or a Nicol prism). The plane polarized light is then made incident on
a quarter wave plate (see figure 1). The quarter wave plate or the polarizer is
rotated such that the electric vector E of plane polarized light wave makes an angle
(≠45°) with the optic axis of the quarter wave plate. The incident ray divides
into o-ray and e-ray of amplitudes cos . The rays travel along the
same direction in the crystal with different velocities. The two rays are polarized in
orthogonal planes. They are in phase at the front face but progressively get out of
phase as they travel through the crystal. When they emerge out of the crystal they
111
will have a path difference of or a phase difference of 90°. When they combine,
they produce elliptically polarized light.
Ans.2: Analysis of Elliptically Polarizer light:
Using the compensator, we can determine the characteristics of elliptically
polarized light.
Figure5
Let the compensator be placed between crossed polarizer N₁ and analyser N₂, as
shown in figure5. Let the transmission axis of polarizer be oriented at 45° with
respect to the optic axis of wedge ABC of the compensator. At midpoint R the
light emergent from the compensator is plane polarized in the same plane
transmitted by N₁ and therefore it will be extinguished by the analyser N₂.
Similarly, at distances from the midpoint for which the retardation is 1 , 2 , 3 ,
.............m , and the emergent light is plane polarized in the same plane as
transmitted by N₁ and hence will be extinguished by the analyser. So the field of
view is crossed by a series of equidistant parallel dark bands.
- - /2 0 /2
centre
112
At positions between them, where the path difference corresponds to an odd
multiple of /2,that means /2, 3 /2, 5 /2, .............(2m+1) /2, the transmitted
light is plane polarized. The analyser transmits the light completely and those
regions will be dark while others will be coloured.
When we use white light source, the compensator is adjusted at that
position in which the central dark band under a cross wire and the micrometer
reading is noted. The micrometer screw is turned through an angle at which the
compensator introduces a phase difference of /2 at cross wire. Then elliptically
polarized light is made to be incident on the compensator. The central dark band is
shifted with respect to the cross wire. The compensator is rotated through an angle
in its own plane until the central dark band is on the cross wire. The axes of the
incident elliptically polarized light are parallel to the optic axes of the wedge of the
compensator.
6.16 Viva
6.16 VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1: Define the polarisation of light.
Q.2: How the polarisation phenomenon connected to light waves?
Q.3: What is difference between polarized and unpolarized light?
Q.4: Define longitudinal waves.
Q.5: Give the definition of plane of vibration.
Q.6: Give the definition of double refraction.
Q.7: What is the optic axis?
Q.8: Give the definition of uniaxial and biaxial crystals.
Q.9: Differentiate between o-ray and e-ray.
Q.10: Give the principle of Babinet compensator.
6.17
6.17 Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: A process in which we get the light which has acquired the property of one
sideness is called a polarised light, and the process is known as Polarisation.
Ans.2: When we study the polarisation phenomenon, we get that light waves are
transverse waves.
113
Ans.3: The unpolarised light is symmetrical about its mean position or the
direction of propagation while in case of plane polarised light, there is lack of
symmetry about the direction of propagation.
Ans.4: A wave in which particles of medium oscillate to and fro along the
direction of wave propagation is called a longitudinal wave.
Ans.5: A plane, which contains the optical vector E and the direction of
propagation, called as plane of vibration.
Ans.6: A ray of light is incident on the face of the crystal and it travels along the
principal section or perpendicular to optic axis then the ray split into two rays,
named as e-ray and o-rays. This phenomenon is called as Double refraction.
Ans.7: A line passing through any one of the blunt corners and making equal
angles with three faces which meet there is the direction of optic axis.
Ans.8: The crystals having one direction along which the two refracted rays travel
with the same velocity are called as uniaxial crystal. In biaxial crystals, there are
two optic axes along which the refracted rays travel.
Ans.9: (1) Ordinary ray obeys the conventional laws of refraction, whereas the e-
ray does not confirm to them.
(2) Both o-ray and e-ray is plane polarized.
(3) O-ray travels with same speed in all directions within the crystal while E-ray
travels with different speed within the crystal.
(4) The refractive index corresponding o-ray has a constant value while the
refractive index corresponding e-ray varies from direction to direction.
Ans.10: A compensator is an optical device whose function is to compensate a
path difference( ). It is used in conjunction with a polarizer and analyzer
combination to investigate elliptically polarized light.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
114
UNIT-7
Verification of Malus Law
7.1 Aim
7.2 Apparatus
7.3 Diagram
7.4 Formula
7.5 Model Graph
7.8 Procedure
7.9 Observation
7.10 Calculations
7.11 Graph
7.12 Result
7.13 Discussion
7.16 Glossary
7.18 Viva Questions
7.1
7.1 Aim
Aim
To verify the Malus law (cosine square law) for a plane polarized light with the
help of photovoltaic cell: The dependence of the intensity of light when passed
115
through a set of polarizer’s as a function of their relative orientation.
7.2 Apparatus
7.2 Apparatus
The experimental set-up consists of the following:
(i) Optical Bench.
(ii) Incandescent Lamp with box.
(iii) Double convex lens (50 mm diameter & Focal length 10 cm)
(iv) Polarizer and Analyzer with tube.
(v) Photovoltaic cell with collimated house: is used to measure light intensity.
(vi) Microammeter (0-50 μA).
All the components can be mounted on an optical bench with proper alignment.
7.3
7.3 Diagram
Diagram
Convex Polarizer Analyzer
Photovoltaic
Light source
Microammeter
Optical
Fig.1. Diagram of optical Bench Arrangement for the Malus Law
Fig.2. Experimental Arrangement of OMEGA TYPE ES-266
116
7.4
7.4 Formula
Formula
According to Malus Law, When light beam passes through a set of polarizers (the
first one is called the polarizer and the second the analyzer), the intensity of
transmitted light is a function of the angle θ between the polarizing directions of
the polarizer and the analyzer. This statement is known as Malus Law.
If unpolarized light beam of intensity I0 is incident on a polarizer then plane
polarized light beam of intensity I0/2 is transmitted by it. Let us now denote I0/2 by
Imax. After that plane polarized light pass through an analyzer, the output intensity
is proportional to cos2θ. Thus the output intensity of light beam transmitted
through the analyzer given by
I0 2
I output  I max cos 2θ  cos θ
2
Where θ is the angle between the planes of the polarizer and the analyzer
We consider two special cases;
Case (i) If θ = 0° axes are parallel I output  I max  I 0 2
Case (ii) If θ = 90° axes are perpendicular I output  I min  0
Case (iii) If θ = 180° axes are parallel I output  I max  I 0 2
Case (iv) If θ = 270° axes are perpendicular I output  I min  0
Thus, we observe two position of maximum intensity and two position of
minimum intensity when we rotate the analyzer with respect to the polarizer.
To verify Malus law, the light from analyzer is made to enter in photovoltaic cell
which is connected to a microammeter. The photovoltaic cell is connected to
microammeter. The reading of current deflection (Φ) in microammeter is directly
proportional to the intensity falling on photovoltaic cell. According to cosine law
Φ  cos 2θ
and the deflection of microammeter Φ is calculated as
since 50 μA corresponds to Φ = 90°, therefore
90
1μA 
50
117
For Example, if reading of current deflection in microammeter is 25 μA then
90
25μA   25  45
50
7.5
7.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
Using Malus Law
I output  I max cos 2 θ
and the trigonometric identity,
cos 2θ 1
cos 2θ  
2 2
so that we can rewrite the first equation in the linear form
Current Deflection (Φ)
cos2θ
Fig.9. Verification of Malus Law
I0 I
I output  cos 2θ  0
2 2
which is similar to the equation straight line y = mx+c. Hence, we plot a graph
between Φ (current deflection in microammeter) and cos2θ (θ is the angle between
transmission axis of polarizer and analyzer) it comes out to be a straight line, thus
verifying cosine law.
7.6
7.6 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave (EM), in which electric field and a
magnetic field oscillating in phase and perpendicular to one another. Both fields
also oscillate perpendicularly to the direction of motion, and therefore, the light is a
transverse wave.
118
As we know that light is produced (e.g. incandescent light from a candle or a light
bulb) by Transition of excited (hot) electrons and atoms from high energy level to
low energy level. Hot electrons and atoms which are oriented in random directions,
so that the light is unpolarized. This means that the electric field associated with
the wave oscillates in random directions (though always at right angles to the
direction of the propagation of the light). So there is no particular direction for
polarization.
Unpolarized
Transmission
Light
axis
I0
θ
Polarizer
I  I0 2
Analyzer
I0 2
I cos θ
2
Fig.3. Polarization of Light
When the electric field of a light wave is oriented in a particular direction, that is to
say, not in random directions, we say the light wave is polarized. The just means of
Polarization is ‘orientation’. Polarization is the property of light waves that
describes the orientation of their oscillation. Polarization occurs only in transverse
waves.
A polarizer is a filter device which transmits light in a particular direction. This
direction is called as the “axis” of polarization. If unpolarized light is incident upon
an “ideal” polarizer, only half will be transmitted through the polarizer. Since, in
reality no polarizer is “ideal”, so less than half the light will be transmitted. The
transmitted light is polarized in one plane.
If this polarized light is incident upon an analyzer, the axis of which is oriented
such that it is perpendicular (θ = 90°) to the plane of polarization of the incident
119
light, no light will be transmitted by the analyzer.
However, if the analyzer is oriented at some angle, there will be present some
component of the electric field of the polarized light that lies in the same direction
as the axis of the analyzer, thus some light will be transmitted through the analyzer
(see the bottom figure).
Case (i): If θ is zero, the analyzer is aligned with the polarizer, and the value of
cos20 is one. Thus the intensity transmitted by the analyzer is equal to the light
intensity that passes through the polarizer. In this case maximum intensity will pass
through the analyzer.
Case (ii)
If θ is 90º, the analyzer is oriented perpendicular to the plane of polarizer, and the
cos2 (90º) gives zero. Thus, no light is transmitted through the analyzer. In this case
minimum intensity will pass through the analyzer.
Polarization can be obtained by following ways:
(a) By selective absorption
When light passes through certain materials, then light waves whose polarization
(E-field) is parallel to polarizing axis, are transmitted without absorption but light
wave whose polarization is perpendicular to the polarizing axis are completely
absorbed (i.e., light waves transmit along a certain transmission axis) and this
process is called polarization by absorption.
Polarizing materials are made of long chain molecules/atoms that are aligned
parallel to each other.
Unpolarized light
Polarizing axis
Polarizer Polarized light along
Fig.4. Polarization by absorption
120
The long chain molecular structure of a polarizer causes the component of electric
field perpendicular to the polarizing axis to be absorbed and polarized (transmitted)
along the polarizing axis. For an ideal polarizer intensity of emerging light from
polarizer is reduced by half.
1
I Polarized  I Unpolarized  cos 2 θ   I Unpolarized
2
In general, the input is unpolarized light wave and the output is polarized light
(linear, circular, elliptical states). This process is done by absorption (dichroism),
birefringence, reflection, or scattering.
(b) By reflection
When ordinary light (Sunlight) incident on reflecting surface such as glass, plastic,
mica etc will be reflected back and gets partially or completely polarized. As a
result the reflectance varies with the direction of polarization.
At a particular angle of incidence is such that the angle between the reflected ray
and refracted ray is 90°, in this condition reflected light will be completely
polarized (only the component with its E field parallel to the surface is reflected).It
is called the polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle and is given by
n2
tanθ B 
n1
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two mediums. If the first medium
is air (n1=1), the Brewster angle is equal to θ B  tan -1 n 2 .
Incident light Reflected light
n1 θB
90°
n2 Refracted light
Fig.5. Polarization by reflection
121
(c) By Scattering
When unpolarized sunlight falls on air molecules (O2, N2), the light wave is
absorbed and then quickly re-emitted in all directions. This process is called
scattering. After scattering of sunlight from small particles of air molecules, the
scattered light will be completely plane polarized if it is scattered by 90° (i.e.,
perpendicular to the plane of scattering) from incident light.
y
Linearly
Linearly
Polarized light
Polarized light
Unpolarized
90° Unpolarized
light
θ
z
Partially
Polarized light
Fig.6. Polarization by scattering

For example Light wave is propagating in the z-direction has polarization occurs in
the x-y plane.
(d) By Double refraction
Certain transparent crystalline materials such as calcite (Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3), mica, quartz (Silicon Dioxide, SiO2) etc. which produces two images of
an object are caused by double refraction. The phenomenon of refraction in which
incident ray splits into two refracted rays (ordinary and extraordinary) is called as
122
birefringence and materials showing this phenomenon are called birefringent. The
two refracted rays of light are plane polarized in mutual perpendicular planes and
travels at different speeds in the material, i.e., the speed of light depend both on the
polarization and direction of travel of the light.
Unpolarized
ray
o-ray
e-ray
Fig.7. Birefraction in crystal

There are some particular direction in which the ordinary (O) and the extra
ordinary (E) rays travel with same velocities. This direction is called as optic axis.
The crystals having one optic axis are called as uniaxial crystals meanwhile, the
biaxial crystals having two. Quartz and calcite are uniaxial axial crystals while
mica, feldspar, borex and topaz are biaxial crystals.
In some birefringent, the extra-ordinary ray move faster than ordinary ray are
called negative crystal, conversely is the case for positive crystal quartz is the
positive crystal while calcite is the negative crystal.
4.1 Photovoltaic (Solar) Cell
A photovoltaic cell is the basic device which generates electricity when it is
subjected to optical irradiation. The basic building block of this device is called as
the solar cell. In general a solar cell that includes both solar and non-solar sources
of light (such as photons from incandescent bulb) is termed as photovoltaic cell.
The photovoltaic cell is based on the principles of photovoltaic effect.
Light is composed of photons (bundles of radiant energy).when photons strike on a
PV cell, the energy of the photons is absorbed by a semiconducting material of
123
cell. This absorption of photon energy creates charge carriers (electron-hole pairs)
generating electrical power.
Photons from light source
Front contact
N- Type
Silicon
PN- junction
Load
P- Type
Silicon
Back contact
Fig.8. A photovoltaic cell

7.7
7.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is polarization?
Q.2 Is candle light polarized?
Q.3 What is “Malus’ Law”?
Q.4 Explain how a polarizer and an analyzer can be arranged so that no light exits
the analyzer.
Q.5 When unpolrized light is incident on the polarizer, what is the intensity of
transmitted light?
7.8
7.8 Procedure
Procedure
Preliminary Setup:
The experimental arrangement is shown in fig. Polarizer and analyzer are fitted
with ends of metallic tube and mounted with the optical bench. Both are capable to
rotate around the common axis indecently. The angle of rotation can be read by the
124
circular scale provided with each of them. The light detector used here is a
semiconductor solar cell. When light falls on the solar cell it produce a current and
it depends on the amount of light falling on detector. i.e., the measured current
deflection is as an estimation of the light intensity
Procedure:
1. The experimental setup is arranged as shown in the figure.1. In this
arrangement, the light source S, convex lens, Polarizer P, Analyzer A and the
window of Photovoltaic cell must be at the same height (common axis).
2. Now switch on the incandescent bulb. Light from the bulb S rendered
parallel with the help of convex lens L is allowed to fall on polarizer P and then on
analyzer.
3. For any orientation of the polarizer P, the polarized light passes through
analyzer A. The analyzer A is rotated till there is maximum deflection recorded in
the micro-ammeter i.e., Adjust the analyzers for maximum transmission of light. The
position of analyzer is noted on the circular scale. The corresponding micro-
ammeter current deflection is also recorded. The position of analyzer corresponds
to θ = 0 (here θ is the angle between Planes of transmission of polarizer and
analyzer.)
4. The analyzer A is rotated through a small angle, say 10o and then the steady
micro-ammeter deflection is noted.
5. The experiment is repeated by rotating the analyzer through 10o degree each
time and noting down the corresponding micro-ammeter deflection till it become
practically zero.
7.9 Observation
7.9 Observation
Angle of Microammeter
Φ
rotation Current
S.No. cosθ cos2θ cos 2θ
(Analyzer) deflection
θ μA Φ
125
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
…
7.10 Calculations
7.10 Calculations
Model calculations
Angle of Microammeter
rotation Current deflection
S.No. cos2θ
(Analyzer)
μA Φ
θ
1 0 50 90 1.0000
2 10 49 88.2 0.9698
3 20 47 84.6 0.8828
4 30 44 79.2 0.7499
5 40 41 73.8 0.5867
6 50 39 70.2 0.4130
7 60 37 66.6 0.2500
126
8 70 36 64.8 0.1169
9 80 35 63.0 0.0301
10 90 36 64.8 0.0000
11 100 37 66.6 0.0301
12 110 39 70.2 0.1169
13 120 42 75.6 0.2500
14 130 45 81.0 0.4130
15 140 47 84.6 0.5867
16 150 49 88.2 0.7499
17 160 48 86.4 0.8828
18 170 48 86.4 0.9698
19 180 47 84.6 1.0000
20 190 45 81.0 0.9698
21 200 42 75.6 0.8828
22 210 40 72.0 0.7499
23 220 37 66.6 0.5867
24 230 34 61.2 0.4130
25 240 32 57.6 0.2500
26 250 32 57.6 0.1169
27 260 33 59.4 0.0301
28 270 35 63.0 0.0000
29 280 37 66.6 0.0301
30 290 39 70.2 0.1169
31 300 41 73.8 0.2500
32 310 44 79.2 0.4130
33 320 46 82.8 0.5867
34 330 47 84.6 0.7499
35 340 48 86.4 0.8828
36 350 48 86.4 0.9698
37 360 47 84.6 1.0000
7.11 Graph
7.11 Graph
127
θ Vs I
100
90
Current Deflection (I)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Angular Rotation (θ)
Φ Vs cos2θ
120
100
80
Φ
60
40
20
0
0 0.0301 0.1169 0.25 0.413 0.5867 0.7499 0.8828 0.9698 1
cos2θ
7.12 Result
7.12 Result
The graph between current deflection in microammeter (Φ) and cos2θ comes a
straight line. This graph verifies the Malus law (the cosine square law).
7.13
7.13 Discussion
Discussion
128
7.14 Precautions
7.14 Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
(1) Experiment must be performed in the dark room to avoiding interfere of extra
light.
(2) Alignment of all mounted objects should not be disturbed during experiment.
(3) Intensity of light source should not change throughout the experiment.
(4) Light bulb, polarizer, analyzer, convex lens and solar cell must be at the same
height.
7.15
7.15 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Mention the name of methods of producing plane polarized light.
Q.2 Write the name of devices for producing polarized light.
Q.3 What is the shape of the plot of light intensity versus cos2θ?
Q.4 An unpolarized light beam with an intensity of I0 = 20 W/m2 is incident on a
pair of polarizers. The polarizer has its transmission axis aligned at 60° from
the vertical. The analyzer has its transmission axis aligned at 30° from the
vertical.
(a) What is the intensity of the light when it emerges from the polarizer?
(b) What is the intensity of the light when it emerges from the analyzer?
Q.5 Is the sound wave polarized? Explain.
7.16 Glossary
7.16 Glossary
Polarizer:A polarizer is a filter device which transmits light in a particular
direction.
Birefringence:The phenomenon of refraction in which incident ray splits into two
refracted rays (ordinary and extraordinary) is called as birefringence and materials
showing this phenomenon are called birefringent.
129
7.17
7.17 Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Polarization is the property of light waves that describes the definite
direction of vibration of the electric vector relative to the direction of propagation
of the wave.
Ans.2: No
Ans.4: The angle between polarizer and analyzer must be 90°.
Ans.5: Half intensity of the unpolarized light.

Ans.1: by reflection, by refraction, by double refraction and by selective
absorption.
Ans.2: Glass slide, Nichol Prism, Tourmaline plate etc.
Ans.3: Straight line.
Ans.4: (a) 10 W/m2 (b) 2.5 W/m2
Ans.5: No. Because the sound wave is a longitudinal wave and it cannot be
polarized. In longitudinal wave, the oscillations are parallel to the direction of the
propagation of the traveling wave. On the hand, the transverse wave vibrations are
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the wave.
7.18
7.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 The phenomenon of polarization proves that light is a:
(A) monochromatic (B) longitudinal
(C) transverse (D) particle nature
Q.2 Can human eyes distinguish between unpolarized and polarized light?
Q.3 Define the unpolarized light.
Q.4 Draw the pictorial diagrams of polarized light.
Q.5 A light wave is passing through a polarizer. Which component of electric
field will be absorbed?
130
Q.6 Define transmission axis.
Q.7 Define the polarization states. Give its name.
Q.8 What is the polarization state of a light wave whose E- vector is described
as
E x  E 0 sin (kz  ωt)
E y  E 0 cos (kz  ωt)
Q.9 Define polarizer.
Q.10 Give the example of polarized light.
Q.11 When plane polarized light is passed through an analyzer, it emerges out
with minimum intensity. if the analyzer is rotated through 90° then intensity
of emerging light will be?
Q.12 A sunlight ray is reflected by air-water interface. At what angle the sunlight
would be completely polarized. (nwater=1.333)
Q.13 Does the Brewster angle depend on the wavelength of light wave?
Q.14 Does a monochromatic light is essential for the completely polarized
reflected wave (polarization by reflection) at a time? Explain.
Q.15 If a light ray incident perpendicular on the glass sheet. Will it polarize?
Q.16 An unpolarized light wave incident on two orthogonal polarizers. What will
be output intensity through the both polarizers?
Unpolarized
Light
Polarizer
Analyzer
131
Q.17 Write a short note on Nicol Prism.
7.19
7.19 Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: transverse
Ans.2: No
Ans.3: An ordinary light in which electric vector oscillates in many planes i.e.,
vibrations occur in random direction (vibrating up-down, left-right, diagonally
back and forth, in each and every direction) is referred to as unpolarized light.
Ans.4: Viewing Unpolarized Vertically Horizontally

polarized polarized
Position
Viewed head on
(when wave
coming toward
viewer)
Viewed from side
Ans.5: Perpendicular to the polarizing axis

Ans.6: The transmission axis is a fixed direction on the Polarizer where light wave
is transmitted through the Polarizer if its electric vector is parallel to the
transmission axis and light is absorbed if its electric vector is perpendicular (along
the molecular chain direction) to the transmission axis.
Ans.7: The trajectory of the tip of the electric vector at a specific point composes a
certain pattern, termed as polarization pattern or polarization state.
(a) Linearly polarization: A plane light wave is said to be linearly polarized.
(b) Circular polarization: A result of superposition of two waves of same amplitude
with orthogonal linear polarizations, and 90° difference in phase.
132
(c) Elliptically polarization: A result of superposition of two waves of different
amplitude with orthogonal linear polarizations, and 90° difference in phase.
Ans.8: taking square of the above equations, we get
E 2x  E 20 sin 2 (kz  t )
E 2y  E 02 cos 2 (kz  t )
Now adding the above equations, we get

E 2x  E 2y  E 02 sin 2 (kz  t )  cos 2 (kz  t )
E 2x  E 2y  E 20
This equation represents a circle; therefore, light wave will be circularly polarized.
Ans.9: polarizer is an optical element is used to change an ordinary light
(unpolarized) to polarized light. Polarizing materials are made of long chain
molecules that are aligned parallel to each other.
Ans.10: Laser light
Ans.11: Maximum
Ans.12: A reflected ray is fully reflected at Brewster angle.
n 2 1.333
tanθ B    53
n1 1
Ans.13: Yes, because refractive index depends on the wavelength of light.
Ans.14: Yes, monochromatic light is essential for the completely polarized
reflected wave in polarization by reflection because refractive index of material
varies with the wavelength of incident light.
Ans.15: No, it will be completely unpolarized.
Ans.16: According Malus law
I0 2 I
I output  cos θ  0 cos 2 90  0
2 2
Ans.17: Nicol prism is an optical device used to produce and analyze the plane
polarized light. It is made from very pure calcite whose length is nearly three times
its breadth or thickness. It works on a principle of double refraction.
A calcite crystal is carefully shaped and cut along the proper direction in two parts.
133
After that two parts policed and rejoined using a thin layer of transparent glue
(Canada balsam) whose refractive index lies between the refractive index of o-ray
and e-ray of calcite.
Referencesand
References andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. H.S.Palsania, Sardar singh, “Practical Physics”. College Book House, Jaipur
(2014).
2. Omega electronics manual, “ Malus Law 9 cosine square law) for plane
polarized light by photovoltaic cell”. OMEGA TYPE ES – 268.
3. Gupta & Kumar, “Practical Physics”.Pragati Prakashan Merrut.
4. R.K.Shukla, Anchal Srivastava, “Practical Physics”. New Age International (P)
Ltd. New Delhi (2006)
5. N. Subrahmanyam, Brij Lal, M.N. Avadhanulu, “ A Textbook of OPTICS”. S.
Chand & Company Ltd. New Delhi (2012).
6. B. Somnathan Nair, “ Electronic Devices and Applicationas”. Prentice Hall of
IndiaPrivate Ltd. New Delhi (2002).
7. Eugene Hecht, “ Theory and Problems of Optics”. Tata Mc Graw Hill
Education Private Ltd. New Delhi (2011).
134
UNIT-8
Determination
Determinationof Wavelength
of Wavelengthof Laser using
of Laser
(I)Diffraction
using Grating
(I)Diffraction (II)Ruler
Grating (II)Ruler
Part-(I) Wavelength of Laser using Diffraction grating
8.1A Aim
8.2A Apparatus
8.3A Diagram
8.4A Formula
8.5A Theory and description
8.6A Self learning exercise-I
8.7A Procedure
8.8A Observation
8.9A Calculations
8.10A Result
8.11A Discussion
8.12A Precautions and Sources of error
8.13A Self Learning Exercise-II
8.14A Answers to Self Learning Exercises I&II
8.15A Viva Questions
8.16A Answers to Viva Questions
Part-(II) Wavelength of Laser using Ruler
8.1B Aim
8.2B Apparatus
8.3B Diagram
8.4B Formula
135
8.5B Theory and description
8.6B Self learning exercise-III
8.7B Procedure
8.8B Observation
8.9B Graph
8.10B Calculations
8.11B Result
8.12B Discussion
8.13B Precautions and Sources of error
8.14B Self Learning Exercise-IV
8.15B Answers to Self Learning Exercises III&IV
8.16B Viva Questions
8.17B Answers to Viva Questions
Glossary
Part-(I) Wavelength of Laser using Diffraction grating

8.1A
8.1A Aim
Aim
To determine the wavelength of He-Ne laser by studying the different pattern due
to a diffraction grating and to find out its angular spread.
8.2A
8.2AApparatus
Apparatus
He-Ne laser, diffraction grating, stands, a screen with a graph paper pasted on it,
metre-scale and a travelling microscope.
8.3A
8.3ADiagram
Diagram
Diffraction pattern is shown in the diagram.
136
FIGURE: 8.1
FIGURE: 8.2
8.4AFormula
8.4A Formula
For determining the wavelength of monochromatic beam
( )
=
where = wavelength of monochromatic beam,
= angle where principal maxima is formed,
( + ) = the grating constant,
n = order of principal maxima.
8.5A
8.5ATheory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
When a monochromatic beam of wavelength λ is diffracted by a diffraction
grating, the nth order principal maxima is formed at an angle Ɵ given by
( + ) =
Where (a+ b) is the grating constant.
137
( )
= ..........(8.5.1)
When laser light is incident on the diffraction grating and diffraction pattern is
obtained on the screen formed by a graph paper, sinƟ can be obtained for
different order maximas as shown in Fig.1.
From the figure 1, we have
sin =
+
= ≫
Substituting sinθ for different orders in the above equation, λ can be obtained.
Angular Spread :
When laser light is directly incident on a screen kept at a distance D, it shows a
circular spread of diameter d (Fig.2). The angular spread of the laser beam is given
by
= ..........(8.5.2)
is expected to be very small.
Special Features of Laser Beams:
Intensity:
The energy of the laser beam is concentrated in a small region. This
concentration of energy accounts for the high laser beam intensity. Thus, even an
ordinary laser of nearly a few watts would have more intensity than a 100 W
ordinary lamp. The intensity of the ordinary beam may be compared with the laser
beam with the following example.
In the case of laser, the output power varies between
10 10 . since one photon of visible light represents nearly
10 of energy, thus
Photon output per second = ≈ 10 10 ............(1)
138
According to black body radiation, emissive power for the frequency and
( + ) for a non-laser source is given by
Emissive power = × ћ ............(2)
² ²
If the width of the line emitted in visible range (wave length = 6000Å) be 1000Å
at temperature 1000K, here we consider ℎ .
2 × 3.14 × 3 × 10
=2 =
6000 × 10
=3.14× 10
and = 18.84 × 10
Substituting the values in equation (2), we get
Number of photons emitted per square centimetre per second=10
.....(3)
Thus, from equations (1) and (2), it may be concluded that it takes a fairly large
and hot body to generate as much visible light as is produced by even the smallest
laser.
Monochromaticity:
The light emitted by laser source is much more monochromatic than that
of a conventional monochromatic source. The monochromaticity of the
conventional light source and that of the laser may be understood in terms of
bandwidth with prism experiment.
The bandwidth of white light is as wide as the whole visible spectrum of
about 300 nm, after dispersing from prism [figure 1a] . If a conventional
monochromatic light is incident on the prism, the bandwidth of the component of
red light reduces to nearly 10 to 20 nm [figure 1b]. But the prism will have no
discernible effect on the red light emitted from the laser because the bandwidth is
vanishingly smaller compared with that of the conventional monochromatic light
[figure 1c]. The bandwidth of He-Ne laser is in the range of nearly 1nm.
139
Figure 1: Comparative monochromaticity of laser beam.
A comparative bandwidth diagram of the conventional source and laser
source has been shown in figure 2. it may be noted, however, that even a laser
cannot be perfectly monochromatic, because optical source will violate the
uncertainty principle. Quantitatively, the degree of monochromaticity of light is
characterized by the spread in frequency of a line-by-line width . The degree of
non-monochromaticity of a wave may be defined as its relative bandwidth given
by
∆
Bandwidth = .............(1)
Figure2:Comparative bandwidth of laser source and Conventional source.
140
Where v₀ is the central frequency of light beam. According to the
uncertainty principle, cannot be zero. Thus, we can conclude that the laser
beam has a higher degree of monochromaticity and has a smaller bandwidth
compared to the ordinary monochromatic source.
8.6A
8.6A Self
Selflearning
learningexercise-I
exercise-I
Q.1: How is a four-level laser better than a three-level laser? Give examples of
each.
Q.2: What is the wavelength of laser light from?
(i)Ruby laser and (ii)He-Ne laser?
How are the two lasers different?
Q.3: Which of the two lasers is better? Why?
Q.4: What is population inversion? How is it achieved?
Q.5: Why is population inversion necessary for laser action?
8.7A
8.7AProcedure
Procedure
1. Mount a diffraction gratingon a stand and illuminate it with the laser beam
coming from the He-Ne laser source. Place a graph paper pasted on a screen S
vertically at a distance of 1 to 2m from the grating. Adjust the distance of screen
from the grating till a sharp diffraction pattern in the form of several bright spots
(maxima) with a pencil.
2. Measure the distance L between the grating and the screen with a metre scale.
Also measure the distance of maxima x from the central maximum with the help
of the scale on the graph-paper or a travelling microscope.
3. Remove the diffraction grating and measure the diameter d of the direct spot on
the screen kept at a distance D from the laser source.
4. Repeat step 3 for different distances of the screen from the laser .
5. Calculate the angular spread Ɵ=d/D.
8.8AObservation
8.8A Observation
(I)Measurement of Wavelength
Number of lines per inch on the grating, N=......
141
Grating constant (a+ b) = 2.54/N=.....cm
Distance of screen from the grating , L=.....cm
S.No. Order of Distance of sin ( + )

diffraction maxima =
=
n from central +
spot,
(cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean =.........cm
=..........Å
Note: If L>>x , take = in above table.
(II) Measurement of Angular Spread
Angular spread
S. No. Distance D (cm) Diameter d (cm) Ɵ=d/D
1.
2.
3.
8.9ACalculations
8.9A Calculations
142
8.10A
8.10AResult
Result
( ) Wavelength of He-Ne laser light=..........Å
Actual value =6328Å
% Error=.........%
( ) Angular spread of laser beam, Ɵ=......rad.
=.......degree
8.11A
8.11ADiscussion
Discussion
8.12A
8.12APrecautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. Do not stare at the laser source directly as it may cause damage to the eye.
2. The graph used as the screen should be vertically straight.
3. The diffraction grating should be very near to the laser source.
8.13A
8.13A Self Learning Self Learning Exercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1: In He-Ne laser, lasing is through neon gas. What is then the role of helium ?
Q.2: What is coherence?
Q.3: What is temporal coherence?
Q.4: What is spatial coherence?
8.14A
8.14AAnswers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
ExercisesI&II
I&II
Ans.1: Three – level= Ruby laser
143
Four - level= He-Ne laser
Ans.2: ( ) 6943 Å ( ) 6328 Å
Ruby laser is a three-level solid state laser whereas He-Ne is a four- level
gas laser. Ruby laser has a pulsed output whereas He-Ne laser has a continuous
output.
Ans.3: He-Ne laser. The output of ruby laser is in the form of pulses. He-Ne laser
is better than ruby laser as ( ) it has continuous output. ( ) Being a four-level
laser, laser action is fast in it and ( ) its active material is relatively cheaper.
Ans.4: Population inversion is the non-equilibrium condition of a materials
where the number of atoms in the upper energy level exceeds the number of atoms
in the lower energy level. Population inversion is achieved by pumping energy
from some external sources.
Ans.5: When light propagates through the laser material, a photon may get
absorbed by hitting an atom in the lower level or may stimulate an excited atom in
the upper level. Laser light is produced by the latter process which will dominate
only when the number of atoms in the upper level is more than that in the lower
level or when population inversion is there . If population inversion is not there ,
the material will absorb light rather than emitting light.
Ans. 1: In He-Ne laser, helium serves as a buffer gas and helps in the excitation of
neon atoms. Since He-atoms are much lighter than Ne-atoms, electrons transfer
energy more readily to He-atoms. The excited He-atoms in turn transfer their
energy to Ne- atoms.
Ans.2: A wave which is appears to be a pure sine wave for an infinitely large
period of time or in an infinitely extended space is said to be a perfectly coherent
wave. In such a wave, there is a definite relationship between phase of the wave at
a given time and at a certain time later or at a given point and at a certain distance
away. No actual light source, however, emits a perfectly coherent wave. Light
waves which are pure sine waves only for a limited period of time or in a limited
space are partially coherent waves.
144
Ans. 3: The oscillating electric field ‘E’of a perfectly coherent light wave would
have a constant amplitude of vibration at any point, while its phase would vary
linearly with time. As a function of time, the field would appear as shown in figure
(1). It is an ideal sinusoidal function of time.
FIGURE 1
However, no light emitted by an actual source produces an ideal
sinusoidal field for all values of time. This is because when an excited atom returns
to the initial state, it emits light pulse of short duration such as of the order of
10 second for sodium atom. Thus, the field remains sinusoidal for time
intervals of the order of 10 second after which the phase changes abruptly.
Hence, the field due to an actual light source will be as shown in figure 2.
FIGURE 2
145
The average time-interval for which the field remains sinusoidal (i.e.,
definite phase relationship exists) is known as “coherence time” or “temporal
coherence” of the light beam and is denoted by. The distance for which the field
is sinusoidal is given by
=
Where c is the velocity of light in vacuum. L is called the “coherence
length” of the light beam.
Ans.4: The spatial coherence is the phase relationship between the radiation
fields at different points in space. Let us consider light waves emitting from a
source S(figure 1). Let A and B be two points lying on a line joining them with S.
The phase relationship between A and B depends on the distance AB
and on the temporal coherence of the beam. If AB<<L (coherence length), there
will be a definite phase relationship between A and B, i.e. there will be high
coherence between A and B. On the other hand, if AB>>L, there will be no
coherence between A and B.
FIGURE 1
8.15AViva
8.15A VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1: What is diffraction of light?
Q.2: Give the classification of diffraction of light.
Q.2: What is the population inversion?
Q.3: What is the pumping?
Q.4: How many types are producing population inversion?
Q.5: What is optical pumping?
146
Q.6: What is direct conversion?
Q.7: What is semiconductor Laser?
8.16A
8.16AAnswers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: For diffraction phenomenon we assumes that light travels in the form of
waves and bends round the corners of an obstacle. This phenomenon of deviation
of light from rectilinear propagation and bending round the cornered of an obstacle
is known as Diffraction of light.
Ans.2: Depending upon the position of source the phenomenon of diffraction of
light is divided into the following two classes, which is given below:
(1) Fresnel’s class of diffraction,
(2) Fraunhoffer class of diffraction.
Ans. 3: Under ordinary conditions of thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms in
the higher energy state is considerably smaller than the number in the number in
the lower energy state. Reverse of this is known as population inversion.
Ans.4: The method of producing population inversion is called pumping. The
population inversion can be achieved by exciting the medium with suitable form of
energy.
Ans. 5: There are five types of producing population inversion or pumping, which
is given below:
(1) Optical pumping,
(2) Electric discharge,
(3) Inelastic atom-atom collision,
(4) Direct conversion,
(5) Chemical reactions.
Ans.6: If we supply luminous energy to the medium for causing population
inversion, then the pumping is called the optical pumping.
Ans.7: It is a method of producing population inversion. A direct conversion of
electrical energy into radiant energy occurs in light emitting diodes (LEDs). This
method of pumping occurs in SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS.
147
Part-(II) Wavelength of Laser using Ruler
8.1B
8.1B Aim
Aim
To determine the wavelength of He-Ne laser source with a mm. Ruler acting as a
reflection grating.
8.2B
8.2BApparatus
Apparatus
A He-Ne laser, a steel or plastic ruler with mm markings, an upright stand, a
screen and a metre scale.
8.3B
8.3BDiagram
Diagram
FIGURE 8.1
8.4B
8.4BFormula
Formula
= ×
²
Since are known, can be easily determined.
8.5B
8.5BTheory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
If a laser beam is incident on a ruled scale at a large angle of incidence, the beam
covers a large number of engravings. The ruler acts a reflections grating with a
grating element equal to the spacing between the two successive engravings, if a
screen is kept at a large distance (2 m) from the point at which the laser beam
strikes the ruler, a diffraction fringe pattern is observed on it consisting of a
148
number of bright spots (maxima) with dark spaces (minima) between them. The
first spot marked as n=0 is due to pure reflection while the other spots with
n=1,2,3,......are due to different from the grating.(Fig.8.1.).
Path difference between the rays from Q and P, reaching at XY on the screen S is
∆= ( + )−( + )
=( + + )−( + + )
In fig. 8.1, BL perpendicular to AY and AK perpendicular to QB so that QK = PA
and BX = LY. So
∆= − ..............(1)
In ∆ , ∠ = , ℎ =
Also in ∆ ,∠ = , ℎ = .
So equation (1) becomes
∆= (sin − sin ) ..............(2)
But sin = sin − =
And sin = sin − =

So equation (2) becomes,
∆= ( − ) ..............(3)
Now, since angles and are small, ≃ ≃
So = 1− =1−
²
And = 1− =1−
²
So ∆= ( − )
∆= {1 − −1 + }
² ²
= ..............(4)
For XY to be a bright fringes,
= , = 0, 1, 2, ............
149
Or = ..............(5)
Where and are respectively the distances of the first and the (n+ 1)th spots
on the screen from the point O(Fig.8.1).
Note: (n+ 1)th spot on the screen is actually the nth maximum due to diffraction and
the first spot is due to pure reflection of the laser beam.
Let be respectively the distances of the n₁th and n₂th maxima, then
²
− = ..............(6)
²
− = ..............(7)
Subtracting (6) − (7), we get
2 ²
− =( − )
Or =
² ( )
Hence of a graph is plotted between the order of maxima n-along x-axis and square
of their distances along y-axis, we get a straight line with a slope .
( )
= ×
²
Since are known, can be easily determined.

8.6B
8.6BSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-III
Exercise-III
Q.1: What is gaseous laser? Define with suitable diagram.
Q.2: Give the construction of the He-Ne laser.
8.7B
8.7BProcedure
Procedure
1. Keep a steel ruler horizontally on an upright.
2. Fix the He-Ne laser close to it so that the laser beam is incident on the ruler at a
large angle of incidence (angle between the laser beam and normal to the ruler).
Switch on the laser.
3. Fix a screen vertically on a stand and place it at a large distance (2 ) from
the point where the laser beam hits the ruler.
150
4. Adjust the angle of tilt of the laser and the distance of the screen till you get a
sharp and well defined diffraction pattern in the form of bright diffraction spots
on the screen.
5. Mark the centre of the bright spots with a soft pencil. First spot (lowest) is due
to reflection, 2nd spot is due to diffraction of order n=1, 3rd spot due to
diffraction of order n=2 and so on.
6. Measure the distance D between the screen and the region where the laser
strikes the ruler.
7. Remove the scale without disturbing the laser and the screen and mark the
position of the direct spot of the laser beam.
8. Choose the mid-point of the first spot (point A in Fig.8.1) and the direct spot
(point B in Fig.8.1). This mid-point is the point O in Fig.8.1.
9. Measure the distances x of all the spots from the point O with the help of metre
scale.
10. Plot a graph between the order of maxima, n ,along − and along
− .
8.8B
8.8BObservation
Observation
Distance between the adjacent engravings on the ruler, d=....mm.=...cm.
Distance between the screen and the point where the laser beam strikes the ruler,
D=....cm.
Order of maxima n Distance of nth ( )
S.No. maximum (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
151
Note: Remember that the bright spot with n=1 is the second spot above the direct
spot and the spot above it correspond to n =2,3,...
8.9B
8.9BGraph
Graph
Model Graph
FIGURE 8.2
8.10B
8.10BCalculations
Calculations
The graph between n and is shown in Fig.8.2.
Slope = =......( )
= ×
=.........cm
=.........Å
8.11B Result
8.11B Result
The wavelength of the He-Ne laser =......Å
Actual value=......Å
% Error = ......%
152
8.12B Discussion
8.12B Discussion
8.13B Precautions and Sources

8.13B of errorand Sources of error
Precautions
1. Laser beam should be tilted to strike the ruler at a large angle of incidence.
2. Care should be taken to distinguish between the spot due to reflection and the
spots due to diffraction.
3. Laser beam should be horizontal and not tilted.
4. The slit should be vertical.
5. The laser beam should be kept normal to the incident beam.
6. The distance of minima should be measured accurately.
8.14B
8.14BSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-IV
Exercise-IV
Q.1: Describe the working of He-Ne laser.
Q.2: Why is it necessary to use a narrow tube in a He-Ne laser?
8.15B
8.15BAnswers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Answers to Self Learning Exercise-III
Ans.1: He-Ne laser is also known as gaseous laser. Ruby laser does not generate a
continuous laser beam. To overcome this difficulty, Javan, Bennett and Harriot
reported a gas laser, which emits continuous laser beam rather than in pulses. It
uses a mixture of helium (He) and neon (Ne) gases. Its operation involves four
energy levels-three in neon and one in helium. The excitation of helium and neon
atoms to higher energy states is performed by means of radio (high) frequency
electromagnetic field.
Ans.2: It consists of following parts:
153
(1) A working substance in the form of a mixture of helium and neon gases in the
ration 7:1 at total pressure of 1nm of Hg.
(2) A resonant cavity of quartz tube of about 0.5m length and 5mm diameter.
There are two windows W1 and W2 made optically flat and cemented at Brewster’s
angle to the tube axis for specific wavelength . The ends of the cavity are
enclosed by two concave mirrors, M1 and M2, one perfectly reflecting and other
partially reflecting.
FIGURE 1: He-Ne LASER

(3) An exciting source for creating a discharge in the tube. It is generally a radio
frequency high voltage source such as a Tesla coil and is applied by means of
metal bands around the outside of the tube.
Answers to Self Learning Exercise-IV
Ans.1: The working of the He-Ne laser is based on the fact that the neon has
energy levels very close to metastable energy levels of helium. He-Ne gas lasers
can operate into three distinct spectral regions in the red 6328Å, in the near
infrared around 1.15 m and in the infrared at 3.39 m. the partial energy level
diagram of He-Ne is shown in figure 1, which explains the origin of these lines.
When electromagnetic energy is injected into the tube through metal bands by
means of a radio frequency high voltage source, helium atoms get excited to
metastable state. The excited helium atoms collide with unexcited neon atoms and
154
resonant energy transfer takes place so that neon atoms get excited to a specific
energy level. Helium atoms after transferring energy return to the ground state
FIGURE 2: Partial energy level of He-Ne gas LASER along With transitions.
The laser action takes place only in neon-atoms while helium in the mixture serves
the only purpose to enhance to excitation process.
When population inversion has occurred in Ne- atoms, they return to
lower energy states emitting the photons. The photons emitted parallel to the axis
of tube bounce back and forth between polished mirrors and stimulate emission of
the same wavelength from other excited Ne-atoms. Thus, the photons get
multiplied and a powerful, coherent, parallel laser beam emerges from the partially
reflecting end of the tube.
Ans.2: A narrow discharge tube is necessary for the rapid dexcitation of atoms by
collision with the walls. With a tube of large diameter, the probability of collisions
of atoms with the walls decreased and less atoms are available at the ground level
for further excitation. This can cease the laser action in due course.
8.16B
8.16BViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1: In optical pumping, what is the source of energy?
Q.2: How can you produce population inversion by chemical reactions?
Q.3: What is LASER?
155
Q.4: Give two applications of laser.
Q.5: What is the use of laser in medical field?
8.17B
8.17BAnswers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: In optical pumping, the light is luminous nature. It is usually comes form of
short flashes of light.
Ans.2: In chemical conversion, energy comes from a chemical reaction without
any need for other energy sources. From chemical energy we produce the
population inversion.
Ans.3: It is a device by which an intense, monochromatic, collimated and highly-
coherent light beam can be obtained.
Ans.4: (1) Laser is used for three-dimensional photography or holography.
(2) Lasers can be extremely useful tool in controlled fusion research (Laser-
fusion).
Ans.5: The laser beam is used in delicate surgery as cornea grafting. With laser
beam, the surgery is completed in much shorter time. The laser beam is also used
in the treatment of kidney, stone, cancer and tumour and in depositing and cutting
the blood cells in brain operations.
Glossary
Glossary
Laser: It is a device by which an intense, monochromatic, collimated and highly-
coherent light beam can be obtained.
Population Inversion: Population inversion is the non-equilibrium condition of a
materials where the number of atoms in the upper energy level exceeds the
number of atoms in the lower energy level.
Spatial Coherence: The spatial coherence is the phase relationship between the
radiation fields at different points in space.
Pumping: The method of producing population inversion is called pumping. The
population inversion can be achieved by exciting the medium with suitable form of
energy.
156
Optical Pumping: If we supply luminous energy to the medium for causing
population inversion, then the pumping is called the optical pumping.
Referencesand
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Laser and Non-linear Optics by B.B. Laud.
2. Atomic and Molecular Spectra: Laser by Raj Kumar.
3. Laser Physics by Peter W. Milonni and Joseph H. Eberly.
4. Laser physics and its application by L.V. Tarasov.
157
UNIT-9
LED Characteristics and Determination of
Planck’s Constant
9.1 Aim
9.2 Apparatus
9.3 Diagram
9.4 Formula
9.5 Model Graph
9.8 Procedure
9.9 Observation
9.10 Graph
9.11 Calculations
9.12 Result
9.13 Discussion
9.16 Glossary
9.18 Viva Questions
9.1 Aim 9.1 aim
Study of LED characteristics and determination of Planck’s constant.
158
9.2 Apparatus
9.2 Apparatus
(i) Light Emitting Diodes (LED) with different colours.
(ii) Digital multimeter (used as an ammeter)
(iii) Voltmeter (with 0.1 V increments)
(iv) Resistors (100 - 200 Ω)
(v)Variable Power supply (Low voltage)
(vi) Bread board
(vii) Banana plug
(viii) Connecting wire (jumper wire)
9.3 Diagram
9.3 Diagram
V
V
Resistor
Ammeter
+ –
Variable DC power
Figure 1
159
9.4
9.4 Formula
Formula
e [ Vth (2)  Vth ( 2)]
Slope of Curve ( h ) 
(f 2  f1 )
9.5
9.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
Energy
(Joule)
E2
E1
f1 f2 Frequency (Hz)
9.6 Theoryand
description
Quantum mechanics born by Planck’s law and Planck’s constant (symbolized by
‘h’) is its seed. It is a fundamental physical constant which is used to describe the
energy of photon (quanta).It also exhibits the connection between the particle like
nature and wavelike nature of the radiation.
The energy of photon is given by relationship
En = nhν,
where n is an integer, ν is the frequency, and h is called Planck’s constant.
h  6.6261  10 34 J - S
There are several methods used to determine the Planck’s constant. Light emitting
diode (LED) is one of the best electronic devices to measure the Planck’s constant
160
in lab. The current – voltage (I-V) characteristics of LED are to be used to
determine the Planck’s constant in last few years.
Light Emitting Diode (LED):
LED Plastic case (dome)

Reflector
LED Chip
Anode Cathode
Fig.2 LED construction

A semiconductor chip is encapsulated by special type of transparent plastic (called
as epoxy lens of LED) material inside light emitting diode. In LED, the
semiconductor chip is mounted in a reflected cup in order to improve the light
output. The transparent plastic case encloses the LED frame which provides high
resistance against moisture (environmental effect) and mechanical strength.
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a simple pn junction semiconductor diode that
converts electrical energy into light energy of a certain wavelength (color). The
phenomenon of spontaneous emission of light takes place when it is connected in a
circuit and operated in a forward biased direction.
161
Light output
contact
P- Type
Silicon + + + + + +
+
+ + + + +
PN- junction –
– – – – – –
– – – – –
N- Type
Silicon
contact
Fig.3 Light output form LED junction
When sufficient electrical energy (threshold voltage) supplied to the LED and
current starts to flow (i.e, p- side of the junction is connected to the positive
terminal of a battery and the n side to the negative terminal), electrons gain enough
energy to cross over the junction and enter into the p region (i.e., electrons are
attracted by positive charge due to columbic forces). Afterward they recombine
with holes within the device and lose their energy by emitting photons of light. As
the p region is lightly doped, only few numbers of holes cross over to the n region
than the more numbers of electrons diffuse to the n region. Such process is termed
as radiative recombination. Recombination takes place in the depletion region
(active region) and photons are emitted in random direction.
This effect is called electroluminescence (emission of light when the device is
supplied with some electrical energy).
Energy diagram:
(A) Zero bias (no bias) condition:
Energy diagram for zero bias is shown below.
162
CB p n+
– – – – – –
Eg – – – – – –
Fermi level
+ + + + +
VB
No Bias
Figure:4
(B) Forward bias condition
CB – – Flow of electrons
– – – – – – –
–
– – – – – –
Eg Recombination
+ + + + + + Light emission
+
Flow of holes +
+
VB p n+
+ –
Figure5
When apply the certain voltage across the device (Under forward condition), the
majority carriers from both sides (electrons in n-type and holes) cross the depletion
region and entering the other side.
Upon entering, the majority carriers become minority carriers ( for example, the
electrons as minority carries in the p- region and holes as minority carries in n-
163
region) and they recombine with that side of majority carries. The recombination
process causes light to be emitted.
The wavelength of emitted photons is decided by the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor materials.
hc
E  hf   eVth

where
h = Planck’s constant
λ = wavelength of emitted photons
Vth= Threshold voltage
c = velocity of light
e = electron charge
Above the threshold voltage, the excess electrical energy create more photons- the
LED gets brighter. Given this, by measuring both the threshold voltage Vth and the
wavelength of emitted photons of light, we will able to determine the Planck’s
constant h.
eVth 
h
c
Table.1. Approximate threshold voltages of LED of different wavelength
LED colour Vth (volt)

Red 2.2
Yellow 2.2
green 3.5
Blue 3.6
Purple 3.6
White 3.6
164
LED characteristics:
I-V characteristic of Light emitting diode is same as an ordinary diode in which
current flows only in one direction. When low bias voltage is applied across the
LED, then current starts to flow through it and LED starts to glow with emission of
little light. As further increasing the bias voltage the current becomes larger and
LED gets bright and bright. The graph between current and voltage can be plotted
as shown below.
ID(mA)
IR
Red Green Blue
VD(Volts)
Vth
Figure:6
I-V characteristics of LEDs
9.7
9.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is the standard value of Planck’s constant?
Q.2 LED stands for what?
Q.3 Define threshold voltage.
Q.4 Is LED voltage operated device?
Q.5 The threshold voltage for a light emitting diode is 2.2 volts. What is the
wavelength of the LED? What is its color?
165
9.8
9.8 Procedure
Procedure
The basic experimental circuit for the determination of Planck’s constant
is shown below as. This circuit consists of a power supply (6 volt DC), a
limiting resistor and blue, green, red, IR LEDs.
VD
Variable DC Limiting
power supply resistor
Ammeter
Figure 7 :Circuit for IV characteristics

The IV characteristics are used to determine Planck’s constant. The value of
threshold voltages can be obtained from IV characteristic of different LEDs (From
the extrapolation at I = 0 of the linear portion of the IV characteristic curve of the
LED). When plotting the curve between energy ( E  eVth ) verses frequency (f) of
the emitted light, we get a straight line whose slope is equal to Planck’s constant
(h), see fig below.
Energy
(Joule)
E2
E1
f f Frequency
166
e [ Vth (2)  Vth ( 2)]
Slope of Curve ( h ) 
(f 2  f1 )
9.9 Observation
9.9 Observation
LEDs Wavelength Frequency Threshold Energy

Colour voltage
Blue
Green
Orange
Red
IR
Determination of wavelength
The wavelength of the LED can be determined by LED diffraction by grating
method.
x
x
D
θ
Screen
Grating
Slit
LED source
Figure 8: Experimental setup for determining wavelength of light from LED.
167
The experimental arrangement is shown in fig. The LEDs light is allowed to fall on
grating via slit and the diffraction pattern ( in form of dots) is obtained on the
screen. Now using the spacing of the diffraction grating, we can calculate the
wavelength of LEDs light. formula used
mλ = d sinθ
where m = order of diffraction
d= spacing
and
x
  tan 1  
D
x= distance between pattern and central spot
D= distance screen and grating
Repeat the procedure for all LEDs.
LEDs x D x
  tan 1   λ
D
Blue
Green
Orange
Red
IR
Mean value of Planck’s constant (hmean)

h(blue)  h(green)  h(orange)  h(red)  h(IR)
h  ....... J - sec
5
Average value of Planck’s constant (h) =………………… J-sec
168
9.10
9.10 Graph
Graph
Plot the required graph on graph paper and obtain the slope.
9.11
9.11 Calculations
Calculations
9.12
9.12 Result
Result
The measured value of Planck’s constant h =
The standard value of Planck’s constant h =6.62×10-34 J-s
h Standard  h exp
% error in the experiment =  100
h Standard
9.13 Discussion
9.13 Discussion
9.14
9.14 Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
light.
169
(3) Threshold voltage must be observed carefully.
(4) The reading of ammeter and voltmeter must be stable while
measuring.
(5) Do not connect LED directly without limiting resistor.
9.15
9.15 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 What is the function of slit ?
Q.2 What do you understand by the order of diffraction?
Q.3 What is grating ?
Q.4 The threshold voltage of LEDs is 2 volt. What is its color of light?
Q.5 If the diffraction grating has 800 lines per mm, x = 5 cm, and D = 0.5 m, what
is the wavelength of the light source?
9.16
9.16 Glossary
Glossary
LED: Light Emitting Diode
Electroluminescence: emission of light when the device is supplied with some
electrical energy is called electroluminescence.
Threshold voltage: Minimum voltage applied to the device(LED) and current
starts to flow.
9.17
9.17 Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Planck’s constant h  6.6261  10 34 J - S
Ans.2: Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Ans.3: When sufficient electrical energy (threshold voltage) supplied to the LED
and current starts to flow (i.e, p- side of the junction is connected to the
positive terminal of a battery and the n side to the negative terminal),
electrons gain enough energy to cross over the junction and enter into the p
170
region (i.e., electrons are attracted by positive charge due to columbic
forces).
Ans.1: It acts as narrow vertical light source.
Ans.2: wavelength of LEDs light λ then formula used
mλ = d sinθ
where m = order of diffraction
Ans.2: Diffraction grating is an arrangement that is equivalent in its action to
number of parallel slits of the same width. Laboratory grating normally has
15000 lines per inch. Gratings are constructed by ruling fine grooves with
a diamond point on a plane glass surface to make a transmission grating.
Ans.4: Wavelength of the light
hc 12420 0
 = A
E 2
= 6210A 0 Red
9.18
9.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is LED?
Q.2 What are the some major sources of error in the experiments?
9.19 Answers
9.19 AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a simple pn junction semiconductor
diode that converts electrical energy into light energy of a certain
wavelength (color). The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of light
takes place when it is connected in a circuit and operated in a forward
biased direction.
Ans.2: Refer section 9.14
171
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. H.S.Palsania, Sardar singh, “Practical Physics”. College Book House, Jaipur
(2014).
2. Gupta & Kumar, “Practical Physics”.
3. Omega electronics manual, “Determination of Planck’s constant by solar cell”.
OMEGA TYPE ES – 214.
4. Omega electronics manual, “LASER Diffraction experiment”. OMEGA TYPE
ES – 361.
172
UNIT-10
Stefan's
Stefan’s Constant
10.1 Aim
10.2 Apparatus
10.3 Diagram
10.4 Formula
10.5 Model Graph
10.8 Procedure
10.9 Observation
10.10 Graph
10.11 Calculations
10.12 Result
10.13 Discussion
10.16 Glossary
10.18 Viva Questions
10.1
10.1 Aim
To determine the value of Stefan's constant.
173
10.2 Apparatus
10.2 Apparatus
A metallic hemisphere , blackened silver disc, steam chamber, thermometers, low
resistance or ballistic galvanometer, heater, rheostat, stop watch, connection wires.
10.3 Diagram
10.3 Diagram
Figure 1. A schematic view of the experimental set up used for the

determination of Stefan’s constant.
174
10.4
10.4 Formula
Formula
The rate of emission of radiant energy per unit area from a blackbody is:
R = σ(T14 – T24) W/m2
Where σ is Stefan’s constant,
T1 (K) is the temperature of blackbody and
T2 (K) is the temperature of the surrounding.
The rate of rise of temperature of blackened silver disc due to the radiation
received by it from a hemispherical enclosure is equal to Stefan’s constant.
W/m2K4
Where,
m is the mass of the disc in kg,
S is the specific heat of the material of the disc in J/kg.K,
A is the area of the disc in m2,
T1 is the temperature of steam chamber (blackbody) in K,
T2 is the temperature of disc in K,
is the rate of rise of temperature of disc at steady temperature T2 in K/sec.
10.5
10.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
175
10.6
10.6 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
This law states that the rate at which a perfectly black body emits the radiant
energy is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Thus,
E=σT4
where, σ is a constant known as Stefan’s constant.
A body which emits or absorbs all types of electromagnetic radiation is called a
black body. The term ‘black body’ was first coined by the German physicist
Kirchhoff during 1860’s. At constant temperature, the electromagnetic radiation
emitted by a Black body is called Black body radiation. The intensity of this
electromagnetic spectrum depends only on the temperature of the Black body.
According to Stefan- Boltzmann law, the energy radiated per unit area per unit
time by a body is given by,
= (1)
Where R = energy radiated per area per time,
ℇ = emissivity of the material of the body,
σ = Stefan’s constant = 5.67x10-8 Wm-2K-4,
and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
For an ideal black body, emissivity Є=1, and hence equation (1) becomes,
= (2)
The experimental set up used in the present experiment uses a blackened silver disc
which absorbs radiation from the metallic hemisphere as shown in the figure 1. If
T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the disc and the hemisphere in the steady state,
the net heat transfer to the disc per unit time is given by,
= ( − ) (3)
176
where A is the area of the disc and ΔQ= (Q1-Q2).
Now, we have another equation from thermodynamics for heat transfer as,
= (4)
Where ‘m’ mass of the disc, S specific heat of the copper, dT/dt is the change in
temperature per unit time.
Equating equations (3) and (4),
( − )= … (5)
Hence,
= (6)
Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a device which is used to measure temperature. It consists of
two dissimilar metals which are joined to form two junctions. Both the junctions
are kept at different temperatures.
177
The hot or measuring junction is connected to the body whose temperature has to
be measured and the other junction, which is colder, is connected to a body of
known temperature.
Seebeck Effect
When two different metals or semiconductors are joined to form two junctions and
they are kept at different temperatures (One junction hot and other junction cold),
heat flows from the hot junction to the cooler one and a voltage difference is
produced between the two substances. The e.m.f. thus produced is called thermo
e.m.f. and the resulting current is known as thermoelectric current .This effect is
known as Seebeck Effect.
Prevost's Heatexchange principle
Unless a body is at absolute zero temperature, it emits thermal radiation. If a body
is placed in a surrounding where the temperature of surrounding is lower than that
of the body, it emits radiation at a faster rate than the rate it absorbs the radiations.
As a result of this the temperature of the body starts decreasing until a stage of
equilibrium is reached. This is known as Prevost’s theory of heat exchange.
Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmittivity
If Q is the total amount of energy incident on the surface of a body, it will be partly
absorbed (QA), partly reflected (QR) and partly transmitted (QTR).
QA+ QR + QTR = Q
+ + =1
α+ρ+τ=1
α is called absorptivity, which is the fraction of incident radiation which is
absorbed,
ρ is known as reflectivity and is the fraction which is reflected and
τ, the fraction which has been transmitted is known as transmissivity or
transmittance.
A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the incident radiations. Thus for a
perfectly black body α = 1 and ρ = τ =0.
178
10.7
10.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What do you mean by Stefan’s constant?
Q.2 What is Prevost’s theory of heat exchange?
Q.3 State Stefan’s law?
Q.4 Why the upper face of the disc is blackened?
Q.5 Explain the principle and working of a thermocouple?
10.8 Procedure
10.8 Procedure
1. Measure the diameter d and the mass m of the blackened silver disc D and
the room temperature T0.
2. Put the one junction (J1) into a beaker containing cold water. Use a
thermometer to read the temperature of the water. Solder the other junction
(J2) of the thermocouple to the lower surface of the disc.
3. As shown in the figure 1, attach a low resistance galvanometer in series with
a variable resistance in the thermocouple circuit.
Calibration of the galvanometer:
4. The chamber S has to be kept at room temperature T0. No steam should be
passed into it. Open the shutter and put the disc at the centre of the
hemisphere H. The temperature of the junction J2, which is attached to the
disc is now T0.
5. Adjust the galvanometer so that the spot reads zero on the scale.
6. Pour some hot water in the beaker which has junction J1 in it. This will heat
the junction J1. Measure its temperature and corresponding deflection in the
galvanometer θ.
7. Increase the temperature of water by repeating the step 6. Take a number of
observations for different temperatures T of junction J1 and the
corresponding deflection in the galvanometer θ. Do this step until the
temperature of water rises 20-25 oC above the room temperature i.e. (T-T0)
~20-25 oC.
179
8. Plot a graph between (T-T0) and θ. This is the calibration curve of the
galvanometer. It will be a straight line (Figure 2).
Measurements of the temperature of the silver disc D:
9. Lower the disc and close the hole of the shutter. Pass the steam in the steam
chamber. Fill the beaker with the junction J1 with cold water (at T0).
10. When the chamber attains the steady state (i.e. the readings of T1 and T2
becomes steady), remove the shutter and insert the disc in the hole.
Simultaneously start the stop watch. With the rise in the temperature of the
disc, the deflection in the galvanometer will also be increased. Note down
the reading of the galvanometer every 10 seconds. In this case junction J2
gets heated. Reverse the connections of galvanometer if the zero of the scale
is not at the centre of the scale.
11. Plot a graph between θ and t. The shape of the curve should be as shown in
the figure3.
12. Choose a point C in the beginning of the graph in figure3. In this case
=
The deflection corresponding to the point C is denoted by θc.
13. From the figure 2, determine the difference in the temperature (T-T0)
corresponding to the deflection θc.
14. From the plot of between (T-T0) and θ we can determine
( )
= =
15. The rate of rise of the temperature of the disc can be determined from the
following relation:
=
16. T is given by T = (T1+ T2)/2

17. Thus the Stefan’s constant can be determined by substituting all the values in
the formula
180
10.9
10.9 Observation
Observation
1. Diameter of the disc (d) = …….cm = ……..m
2. Mass of the disc (m) = …….kg
3. Specific heat of the material of the disc(S) = ……..Jkg-1K-1
4. Room temperature T0 =…..oC = …..K
5. Joule’s mechanical equivalent J =
6. Thermometers reading
T1 = …oC = ….K, T2 = …oC = ….K
Temperature of blackened metal hemisphere T = (T1+T2)/2 oC = ….K
Table for the relation between (T-T0) and θ

S. No. Temperature (T) Difference in the Deflection of
of hot junction temperatures galvanometer
(J1) (T – T0) (θ)
(in K) (in K) (in divisions)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
181
Galvanometer deflection (θ) versus time (t)
S.No. Time(t) Deflection of the

(in seconds) galvanometer (θ)
(in divisions)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
10.10 Graph
10.10 Graph
(i) Plot the difference in the temperature (of hot and cold junctions)with deflection
in galvanometer
(ii) Plot the deflection in the galvanometer with time
182
10.CALCULATIONS:
Figure 2: Plot of the difference Figure 3: Plot of the

in temperatures vs. the deflection in the
deflection in the galvanometer. galvanometer vs. time.
10.11
10.11Calculations
Calculations
From the graph between T and θ,
= =⋯ (1)
From the graph between θ and t

= =⋯ (2)
From equations (1) and (2),
= × =⋯ /
Stefan’s constant can then be calculated by the equation
183
10.12
10.12Result
Result
The value of Stefan’s constant determined from this experiment is
σ = ……………Wm-2 K-4
10.13
10.13Discussion
Discussion
10.14
10.14Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. Insert the disc in the chamber only when it has acquired the steady state.
2. The measurements of all quantities should be expressed in SI units.
3. In the second part of the experiment junction J2 gets heated. The connections to
the galvanometer should be reversed if the zero of the scale is not at the centre.
4. To avoid the reflections of the radiations, the top of the disc D should be
blackened.
5. In the graph of θ vs. t, point C should be chosen closer to the origin to avoid
the errors which starts arising due to the conduction from disc D.
6. The reading of the timer and the galvanometer should be started as soon as the
disc is uncovered. Their reading should be taken simultaneously at regular
intervals.
10.15
10.15Self Learning
Self Exercise-II
Learning Exercise-II
Q.1 What is a black body?
Q.2 What is the value of Stefan's constant in S.I units?
184
Q.3 State Wien’s displacement law?
Q.4 Define emissive power of a body?
Q.5 Define absorptive power of a body.
10.16
10.16Glossary
Glossary
Black Body : A body is said to be black if it absorbs all the incident radiations.
Emissive power : Emissive power of a body at a temperature is defined as the
energy radiated by the body per unit time per unit area.
Ans.1: According to Stefan's law, the relationship between emitted power per unit
area (in Watt per square meter, denoted M ) and the absolute temperature
temperature (in Kelvin) T is:
E= T4
That is, the power per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power
of the thermodynamic temperature. is known as Stefan’s constant. Its
value is approximately 5.67 x 10 -8 watt per meter squared per Kelvin to the
fourth (W · m -2 · K -4 )
Ans.2: See the section theory and description.
Ans.3: See the section theory and description.
Ans.4: The upper face of the disc is blackened so that it absorbs all the radiations
i.e. the reflection becomes negligible.
Ans.5: See the section, theory and description.
Ans.1: A body is said to be black if it absorbs all the incident radiations.
Ans.2: The value of Stefan’s constant in SI units is σ=5.67X10-8 Wm-2 K-4.
Ans.3: The relation between energy and wave length emitted from a black body is
given by
185
λmT = constant
Ans.4: Emissive power of a body at a temperature is defined as the energy
radiated by the body per unit time per unit area.
Ans.5: The ability of absorbing radiation falling on a body is known as its
absorptive power.
10.18
10.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is the value of Stefan’s constant?
Q.2 What is Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation?
Q.3 What is the importance of Stefan’s constant?
Q.4 State the difference between a perfectly black body and a non-perfect black
body?
Q.5 Why dθ/dt is determined at the origin of the curve?
Q.6 What is radiation?
Q.7 How do you define emissivity?
Q.8 How do you define absorptivity?
10.19
10.19Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: The value of Stefan’s constant in SI units is σ=5.67X10-8 Wm-2 K-4.
Ans.2: For an arbitrary body radiating and emitting thermal radiation, the ratio E /
A between the emissive spectral radiance, E, and the dimensionless
absorptive ratio, A, is one and the same for all bodies at a given
temperature. That ratio E / A is equal to the emissive spectral radiance I of
a perfect black body, a universal function only of wavelength and
temperature.[Wikipedia]
Ans.3: With the help of the Stefan’s constant, the temperature of the heavenly
bodies like sun can be easily determined.
Ans.4: For a perfectly black body, the emissivity is one. For non perfectly black
bodies its value is less than one.
186
Ans.5: So that the assumption that the disc has been inserted in a radiator at
constant temperature holds good.
Ans.6: Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred from one place to
another.
Ans.7: Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of the body to that
of black body at the same temperature
Ans.8: Absorptivity is the ratio of energy flux absorbed in certain time to the total
energy flux incident on the body in the same time
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Brij Lal; N Subrahmanyam; P S Hemne, Heat Thermodynamics And Statistical
Physics ,S. Chand & Company Ltd., 2008
2. C. L. Arora, B. Sc. Practical Physics, S. Chand & Company Ltd., 2008
3. C P Arora, Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw-Hill , 2001
4. F. Reif, Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics
187
UNIT-11
L-C-R Series and Parallel Resonance
11.1 Aim
11.2 Apparatus
11.3 Diagram
11.4 Formula
11.5 Model Graph
11.8 Procedure
11.9 Observation
11.10 Graph
11.11 Calculations
11.12 Result
11.13 Discussion
11.16 Glossary
188
11.1
11.1Aim
Aim
(i) To study the series and parallel response circuits
(ii) To plot the frequency response curve characteristics of a series circuit.
(iii)To plot the frequency response of a parallel tuned circuit.
11.2
11.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
A variable resistor, a variable capacitor, a variable inductor, a signal generator, an
a.c. milli- ammeter and connecting wires.
11.3
11.3 Diagram
Diagram
I. Series L-C-R circuit
When resistor R, inductor L and capacitor C are connected in series with a source,
the circuit is called as the series resonant circuit. This is an acceptor circuit, that
means it allows maximum current to flow through it at a particular frequency
which is known as resonant frequency and at all other frequencies it allows less
current.
II. Parallel L-C-R circuit:

Parallel resonant circuit is one in which one branch consists of an inductor L with
associated resistor R and the other branch consists of a capacitor C.
This is a rejecter circuit that means it rejects the current or allows minimum current
to flow through it, at a particular frequency which is known as anti resonant
frequency and it allows more current at all other frequencies.
189
11.4
11.4Formula
Formula
The resonance frequency
1
f0 
2 LC
Where L=self inductance (mH)
C=Capacity of the capacitor (  F)
Band width
B  ( f 2 - f1 ) Hz
Quality factor
2 f 0 L f0
Q= 
R ( f 2 - f1 )
Where R is resistance in , f 2 , f1 are frequencies at the
half power point.
11.5
11.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
For L-C-R series, graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency
corresponding to maximum current is noted and it is the resonant frequency f0. The
frequencies f1 and f2 corresponding to half power points is noted and from it the
bandwidth, (f1 – f2) is noted. From the values of f0, f1 and f2, the quality factor Q is
calculated.
190
191
For L-C-R parallel, the circuit is connected as shown in the figure. The frequency
of the signal generator is changed in steps and corresponding current values are
noted from a.c. milli- ammeter. Here, the current values decrease with the increase
of frequency up to the anti- resonant frequency, further increase of frequency
causes the increase of current. The anti- resonant frequency f0 is noted
corresponding to the minimum current in the circuit.
11.6 Theory
11.6 Theoryand
anddescription
description
LCR CIRCUITS
Circuits containing an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R, have special
characteristics useful in many applications. Their frequency characteristics
(impedance, voltage, or current vs. frequency) have a sharp maximum or minimum
at certain frequencies. These circuits can hence be used for selecting or rejecting
specific frequencies and are also called tuning circuits. These circuits are therefore
very important in the operation of television receivers, radio receivers, and
transmitters. In this section, we will present two types of LCR circuits, viz., series
and parallel, and also discuss the formulae applicable for typical resonant circuits.
A series LCR circuit includes a series combination of an inductor, resistor and
capacitor whereas; a parallel LCR circuit contains a parallel combination of
inductor and capacitor with the resistance placed in series with the inductor. Both
series and parallel resonant circuits may be found in radio receivers and
transmitters.
The selectivity of a tuned circuit is its ability to select a signal at the resonant
frequency and reject other signals that are close to this frequency. A measure of the
selectivity is Q, or the quality factor.
The study of these circuits is basically an application of alternating current circuit
analysis. We make use of the complex number notation with sinusoidal varying
quantities like alternating voltage and current. In general, the impedance Z is a sum
of the real part called resistance R and the complex part called the reactance X,
i.e., Z= R+ jX. The magnitude and phase of the impedance are given by
√ + and = tan , respectively.
192
Since in an inductor, voltage leads the current by π/2, the reactance of is L is jL,
C while in case of a capacitor, voltage lags behind the current by π/2, the
reactance of is C 1/jC. If the current in the circuit is I, the relative voltage drops
across the inductor, capacitor and resistor can be represented in the phasor diagram
as shown in figure.
We will study the property of resonance in context of series as well as parallel

configurations of LCR circuit. It is a very useful property of reactive a.c. circuits
and is employed in a variety of applications. One of the common applications
of resonance effect is in radio and television transmissions, e.g., tuning a radio to
a particular station by selecting a desired frequency (or band of frequencies). The
series resonant circuit can be used for voltage magnification. A parallel resonant
circuit provides current magnification and can be used in induction heating.
Another application of resonant circuit is screening certain frequencies out of a
mix of different frequencies with the help of circuits called filters.
Series L-C-R
Let us consider the LCR circuit, which consists of an inductor, L, a capacitor, C ,
and a resistor, R, all connected in series with a source as shown in Figure 1. We
will first derive the condition of resonance and then explain the methods of
determination of the resonant frequency and hence the Quality factor
Let an alternating voltage V0 sint or V0 ejt be applied to an inductor,
193
a resistor R and a capacitor C all in series as shown in Figure. If I is instantaneous
current flowing through the circuit, the applied voltage in phasor form is given by
1
= + + = + + = + +
1
= + −
The impedance
1
= = + −
If we write = = + ,then
1
= + −
And
1
−
tan =
Therefore,current
( )
= =
Three cases thus arise:
1. > , is positive and applied voltage leads current by
phase angle φ.
2. < , is negative and applied voltage lags behind current
by φ .
3. = , is zero and applied voltage and current are in phase.
This condition is known as resonance and frequency
1 1
= → =
1
= =

194
1
= =
2 
− = 0 and VL=VC
If L, R and f (frequency of function generator) are fixed and the Capacitance is
varied, then for lower values of C, < I or Vc > VL. As the capacitance is
increased in the circuit, the situation called resonance is achieved when Vc=VL. If C
is increased further, Vc will decrease and we have Vc < VL. The point of
intersection of Vc and VL versus 1/C curves will give resonance condition. This is
depicted in Figure.
At resonance VR is a maximum while VLC is minimum as shown in Figure.
195
Corresponding to maximum value of VR, C is obtained. Similarly, for minimum
value of VLC, C is obtained. This value of C makes the given circuit resonant at the
supply frequency with constant values of L and R.
Theoretically at resonance should be zero. This should be so if the inductor is of ne
gligible resistance and there are no other losses. The minimum value of VLC is a
measure of the effective resistance of inductor coil which is equal to the d.c.
resistance plus a.c. resistance corresponding to iron and hysteresis losses.
At resonant frequency f0, the impedance of circuit is minimum. Hence frequencies
near f0 are passed more readily than the other frequencies
by the circuit. Due to this reason LCR-series circuit is called acceptor circuit. The
band of frequencies which is allowed to pass readily is called pass-band. The band
is arbitrarily chosen to be the range of frequencies between which the current is
equal to or greater than I0/2. Let f1 and f2 be these limiting values of frequency.
Then the width of the band is
BW = f2 - f1
The Quality factor is defined in the same way as for a mechanical oscillator and is
given by
= =
ℎ −
Q-factor is also defined in terms of reactance and resistance of the circuit at
resonance, i.e.,
= =
1
= =
The resonance condition is also evident from the resonance curves or the
graphs between IR =VR/R and f for different values of R shown in Figure. The
bandwidth as well as Q-factor can be calculated.
196
Parallel L-C-R
At resonance the parallel resonant circuit has very high impedance. The resistance
at resonance offered by the parallel resonant circuit is very high if the resistance of
the inductance is very small, and is known as the dynamic resistance.
We now discuss how a series LCR circuit is different than a parallel LCR circuit.
The condition of resonance in this case is known as anti-resonance. We will
derive the condition of anti-resonance of a parallel LCR circuit. The laboratory
method of determination of the anti-resonant frequency and hence the Quality
factor is explained.
Consider a circuit containing an inductor L and a capacitor C connected in parallel
to an a.c. source (Figure 2). The resistance R is connected in series with the
inductor L and includes its resistance.
The total admittance of the LCR combination is given by
1 1 1
= +
+
1 1 1
= +
(1/ ) +
−
= +
+
197
= + −
+ +
For the condition of resonance, current and voltage are in phase and the coefficient
of j, i.e., the reactive term which brings about a phase change is zero, hence
− =0
+
2
2 − =0
+4
Which gives
1 1
= −
2
At resonance, the impedance of the circuit is maximum and is given by
1
=
+
1
= + −
or
=
198
The impedance at resonance is called dynamic resistance. The current has
minimum value (Figure). It is for this reason that the condition of resonance for a
parallel LCR circuit is known as anti-resonance and the corresponding frequency
as the anti-resonance frequency.
The shape of the impedance versus frequency curve in a parallel LCR circuit is the
same as the shape of the current versus frequency curve in a series LCR circuit. In
other words, the circuit has very high impedance at the anti-resonant frequency.
The parallel tuned circuit is used to select one particular signal frequency from
among others. It does this by rejecting the resonant frequency because of its high
impedance. This is the reason why this type of circuit is also known as a rejector
circuit.
The circuit is more selective if it offers a high impedance at resonance and much
lower impedance at other frequencies. The Q-factor is defined in the same way as
for a series LCR circuit. As in the series circuit, Q can also be written as
1 1
= = =
11.7
11.7 Self
Selflearning
Learningexercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 Give other names of LCR series circuit.
Q.2 Give any practical application of parallel LC circuit.
Q.3 Define resistance.
Q.4 If keeping same L and C and then we change value of R in a series LCR
circuit what would be the effect on its behavior.
Q.5 If in an LCR series circuit resistance is made four times. What would be the
effect on resonance frequency which quantity would be affected and how.
11.8
11.8 Procedure
Procedure
A. Series resonance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure1. The source resistance and the
series resistance should be small.
199
2. Set the output of function generator to sine wave signal of approximately 5VAC
rms and set the frequency at 100Hz.
3. Increase the frequency in small steps towards 10 kHz and every time note down
the observations in table. At a particular frequency current starts decreasing.
The frequency at which current starts decreasing is the resonant frequency.
4. Repeat the procedure for different value of R and C.
5. Plot graph between frequency and current by taking frequency X axis and
current along Y axis.
B. Parallel resonance
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure2.
2. Set the output of function generator to sine wave signal of approximately 3VAC
rms and set the frequency at 100Hz.
3. Increase the frequency in small steps towards 10 kHz and every time note down
the observations in table. At a particular frequency current starts increasing.
The frequency at which current starts increasing is the anti-resonant frequency.
4. Repeat the procedure for different value of R and C.
5. Plot graph between frequency and current by taking frequency X axis and
current along Y axis.
11.9
11.9 Observation
Observation
1. L-C-R series
S.No. Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)
200
2. L-C-R parallel
S.No. Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)
11.10Graph
11.10 Graph
LCR Series: A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency
corresponding to maximum current is noted and it is the resonant frequency f0. The
frequencies f1 and f2 corresponding to half power points is noted and from it the
bandwidth is noted. From the values of f0, f1 and f2, the quality factor Q is
calculated.
LCR Parallel: A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency
corresponding to minimum current is noted and it is the anti- resonant frequency f0.
201
11.11
11.11Calculations
Calculations
In Series resonant circuit
Resonant frequency f0 =
Inductance L=1/42f02C=
From graph, f1 = and f2 =
Bandwidth B = f2 - f1 =
Quality factor Q = f0/B=

In Parallel resonant circuit
Resonant frequency f0 =
Inductance L=1/42f02C=
And from graph, f1 = and f2=
Bandwidth = f2-f1 =
Quality factor Q = f0/B=

11.12
11.12Result
Result
1. Frequency responses are shown in the graphs.
2. The resonant frequency of L-C-R series circuit is………………
3. The resonant frequency of L-C-R parallel circuit is…………………….
4. The quality factor …………… and band width …………….of L-C-R series
circuit.
5. The quality factor …………… and band width …………….of L-C-R parallel
circuit.
202
11.13
11.13Discussion
Discussion
Model Discussion:
We have verified the behavior near the resonance point of the LCR-circuit. We
have done this for circuits connected in the series and in the parallel combinations.
In investigating the theory of the components in series we discovered that the
resistance of the inductor was important when analyzing our experimental data.
This resistance added a constant factor to our theoretical formula and was
important in calculation the quality factor.
In investigating the theory of the components in the parallel combination, we
discovered a much greater spread in the amplitude ratio. This was probably caused
by the spread in the argument of the sinusoidal input and using a generator with a
more narrow peak would improve the fit to the theory.
11.14
11.14Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. Make the connections according to the given diagram.
2. Connection should be tight.
3. The internal resistance of the source and series resistance should be small.
4. For the complete experiment voltage and frequency of oscillator should remain
constant.
11.15
11.15 Self Self Learning
Exercise-II
Q.1 Impedance is at maximum in LCR ……… circuit, at resonance
Q.2 At resonance, circuit current is at……in LCR parallel circuit.
Q.3 How the LCR parallel circuit behave at resonance?
11.16
11.16Glossary
Glossary
Resistivity :Resistance between the terminal of unit and unit length conductor is
known as resistivity of that material, its unit is OHM-meter.
Reactance: Resistance offered to the flow of current by any inductive coil or a
capacitor is known as reactance. Reactance of a inductor is XL=2f L where L is
203
coefficients of self induction and f is frequency when L is in Henry and f in cps/Hz
the reactance XL is in OHMS. The reactance of a capacitor is Xc=1/2fC. Where C
is in farads and f in cps/Hz the reactance Xc is in OHMS.
Impedance: In any circuit the impedance is Z=R2+X2 where X is resultant
reactance of the circuit X=XL~XC. Unit of this is also OHM.
Admittance: The admittance is defined as reciprocal of impedance i.e. Y.
Admittance =1/ Impedance. Its unit is MHO.
Susceptance: Susceptance=1/reactance (MHO)
Conductance: Conductance=1/resistance (MHO)
Conductivity :Conductivity=1/resistivity (MHO-m-1)
Anti-resonance: the condition in a parallel LCR circuit when the impedance of the
circuit is maximum and the current minimum is termed as anti-resonance.
Anti-Resonant Frequency: For a parallel LCR circuit the frequency at which the
current has minimum value, is called anti-resonant frequency.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies lying within the upper and lower cut-
off frequencies which correspond to 0.707 times the voltage value at resonance is
called bandwidth. It is also defined as the difference between the two half power
frequencies which correspond to the points where the power has been reduced to
one half of its value at resonance.
Capacitance: The property of a conductor that describes its ability to store electric
charge is called capacitance C and is given by Q/V where Q is the charge stored on
the conductor and V is the potential difference between the conductor and earth.
Pass-band : certain range, or band, of frequencies allowed to pass, all other
frequencies being blocked by the series LCR circuit.
RMS :An alternating potential difference has a value of one volt rms (root mean
square) if it produces the same heating effect when applied to the ends of a
resistance as is done by a steady potential difference of one volt applied to the
same resistance in the same time. Numerically, rms value is 1/2 times the
maximum value. The a.c. ammeters and voltmeters measure the root mean square
(rms) value of the current and potential difference respectively.
204
Quality factor :It is a measure of the selectivity or the sharpness of the resonance
curve and is denoted by Q. A low value of resistance in the circuit leads to a high
Q. Quality factor is given by the ratio of the voltage across the inductor to the input
voltage and is hence a dimensionless quantity. Since Q is ordinarily greater than
unity, it is termed as the magnification factor of the circuit.
Resonance: The condition in a series LCR circuit when the impedance is purely
resistive and hence minimum and current maximum is called resonance.
Resonance Curve :A graph showing the variation of the voltage across a circuit (or
a part of it) with frequency in the vicinity of resonance is the response curve or the
resonance curve.
Resonant Frequency: For a series LCR circuit the frequency at which the
reactance due to the inductor, XL, is exactly equal and opposite to the reactance due
to the capacitor, XC, resulting in the impedance of the circuit being purely resistive,
is called the resonant frequency.
11.17Answers
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1:Tuning circuit, resonance circuit, selector circuit.
Ans.2:This circuit is used as oscillator means like alternative current generator.
This circuit is also used like a form of component of very high impedance
circuit.
Ans.3:Opposition offered by any conductor to flow of current is known as
resistance. If in any conductor I ampere current flows for the potential
difference of V volts across its terminal then the resistance R=V/I, its unit is
OHM.
Ans.4:The resonant frequency in two case would be the same but Q factor would
increase with decrease in resistance i.e. the curve would be narrower for
lesser R.
Ans.5:There is no difference because resonance frequency does not depend upon
the resistance of the circuit. The quality factor Q would change as per
Q=L/R it would become one fourth.
205
Ans.1: Parallel
Ans.2: Minimum
11.18
11.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 Define resonance?
Q.2 What are the impedances of Condenser of 50F and coil of 50mH in a DC
circuit?
Q.3 In series resonance the current is …. …& the impedance is ……
Q.4 In parallel resonance the current is …… & the impedance is ……
Q.5 Define bandwidth.
Q.6 Define selectivity
Q.7 When resistors are connected in series, the total resistance ………the
individual resistor values.
Q.8 When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance………the
individual resistor values.
Q.9 At frequency below resonant frequency, what will be the nature of overall
reactance?
Q.10 At frequency above resonant frequency, what will be the nature of overall
reactance?
Q.11 Does resonance occurs in dc or ac circuits?
Q.12 What is the effect of resistance on the frequency response curve?
11.19
11.19Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: In case of forced oscillation when frequencies of driver and driven
become equal, it is called condition of resonance or in any LCR circuit
there is a frequency called resonance frequency fr=1/2LC, when
applied frequency f = fr it is called condition of resonance.
Ans.2: Infinite and zero respectively.
Ans.3: Maximum, minimum
206
Ans.4: Minimum, maximum
Ans.5: The frequency band within the limits of lower & upper half power
frequency is called the bandwidth
Ans.6: It is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency f to the bandwidth of the
circuit i.e. Selectivity=f0 / (f2-f1)
Ans.7: is greater than
Ans.8: is less than
Ans.9: At f<f0, the overall reactance will be capacitive
Ans.10: At f>f0, the overall reactance will be inductive
Ans.11: Resonance occurs in ac circuits only.
Ans.12: The frequency response curve with small resistance rises steeply & has a
tall narrow peak while the curve with large resistance rises less steeply &
has a low broad.
Referencesand
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Electric circuits & Network by Kumar and Kumar.
2. Digital Principles and Applications by Leach and Malvino.
3. Electronics Principles by Malvino.
207
UNIT-12
Conductance,
Conductance,Resistance
Resistanceand andInductance
Inductanceof
aofcoil at radio
a coil frequency
at radio frequency andand
to study the
to study
thevariation
variationofofZ Zwith
withfrequency.
frequency.
12.1 Aim
12.2 Apparatus
12.3 Diagram
12.4 Formula
12.7 Procedure
12.8 Observation
12.9 Graph
12.10 Calculations
12.11 Result
12.12 Discussion
12.15 Glossary
208
12.1
12.1 Aim
Aim
To determine the value of Conductance, Resistance and Inductance of a coil at
radio frequency and to study the variation of Z with frequency.
12.2 Apparatus
12.2 Apparatus
Power supply unit, the bridges, the oscillator, switches, fuses, coupling
agreements, inductance, resistance and capacitance.
12.3
12.3 Diagram
Diagram
Figure 7.1: Series L Bridge
Figure 7.2: Parallel L bridge
209
Figure7.3: Series Capacitance Bridge
Figure 7.4: Wheatstone bridge

12.4
12.4 Formula
Formula
Impedance bridges in A.F. range are based on the principle of Wheatstone
bridge. A number of suitable bridges may be combined to form an impedance
bridge. The selection of the components of the bridges depends upon
(i)The measurements to be made,
(ii)The frequency at which the measurements are to be made,
(iii)The desired accuracy of measurement and other minor considerations,
The selection of the detector is mainly based on the frequency. But, in general,
a centre zero micro ammeter or a with bridge rectifier serves a very good
purpose over a wide range of frequencies.
210
Impedance bridges are supplied by manufactures. These are made for direct
reading by using a number of switches and calibrated dials. These bridges afford
direct current as well as alternating current measurements. The usual internal
alternating current supply is at 1 KHz. The gap terminals are provided for the test
L, C, R parts or combinations, the external supply and detector. Proper coupling
and shielding arrangements are made internally.
12.5 Theory
12.5 Theoryand
anddescription
description
For the determination of the value of the inductance resistance and capacitance,
we have the following knowledge:
Series and Parallel Inductance Bridge:-
The bridges for the determination of series and parallel inductances are sown in
figure 7.1 and 7.2. By applying Wheatstone bridge principle in conjunction with
ℎ ’ , the series and parallel inductances , respectively are
given by the relations
= . .
...................(7.1)
= . . ...................(7.2)
( ) The relations are arrived as by equating imaginary parts of the following
relations:
= ; =
(1 + ) +
From figure 7.1 ...................(7.3)
Similarly,
1/ ( + )
= ; =
From figure 7.2 ...................(7.4)
On equating real parts, the Wheatstone bridge condition is obtained. ,
are substituted from these conditions in equations (7.6) and (7.7).
211
( )The relations further show that , , , are selected according
to , .
Dissipation Factor:-
It is the reciprocal of the ‘Quality’ , i.e. the dissipation factor is the ratio of the
resistance to reactance. Hence
= = ...................(7.5)
Where X is the reactance.
In the above case for , series and parallel resistances respectively,
we get
= = = ...................(7.6)
. . .
= = = ...................(7.7)
. . .
Where ω is the angular frequency of the alternating current source and ,
are the series and parallel direct current resistances.
Series Capacitance Bridge:-
The bridge is shown in the above given figure 7.3. The series capacitance in the
fourth arm of the bridge is given by the relation.
= ...................(7.8)
The dissipation factor is given by the relation:
= . ...................(7.9)
Resistance Bridge:-
The ordinary Wheatstone bridge is shown in figure 7.4. The unknown
resistance is given by:
= ...................(7.10)
212
Variation of Impedance with Frequency:-
We know that in a coil where inductance, capacitance and resistance all are
present, in that circuit for the study of the impedance variation with radio
frequency (here no matter while frequency is radio frequency or audio frequency).
We know that in the circuit the total voltage is V (say) given by:
= + + ...................(7.11)
For resistance, we know that =
For inductance, we know that =
For conductance, we know that =
Now put these all value in equation (7.11), we have
=( ) +( ) +( )
Or
= + +
Here is known as a new resistance ‘Impedance’. It is denoted by Z. So
= + +
and also we know that = and =
1
= +( ) +
Now for the variation with frequency

= 2 − ...................(7.12)
( )
From the above relation we get that as well as we increase the value of frequency,
then the value of impedance will also be increase.
213
Z
IMPEDANCE
FREQUENCY (f)
12.6 Self
11.6 Selflearning
learningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 Give the theory of one Power supply filter.
Q.2 Give the theory of Series Inductance filter.
11.7
12.7 Procedure
Procedure
For using of an impedance bridge, we may follow the procedure which is
given below:
1.The mechanical zero of the detector is adjusted to give zero reading.
2.The knob is turned to , , whichever is to be measured. The test
inductance, capacitance or resistance is connected across the gap provided for it.
3.The supply knob is turned to alternating current or direct current according to the
type of the measurement to be made. If internal supply is to be used, the knob is
turned to internal( ). It is turned to external ( ), if external supply is to
be used.
4. In order to protect the detector meter from the damage by heavy current due to
unbalanced bridge, the shunting knob is turned to ‘shunted’, which is turned to
214
‘unshunted’ after adjusting the detector reading near zero to obtain the final
balance.
5.If the external detector is to be used, the corresponding detector knob is turned to
external detector ( ).
6. The unit is switched on and allowed to warm up for few minutes. The respective
knobs L, C and R are worked to get the approximate balance with shunted and
accurate balance with unshunted detector. The readings are taken. The values are
read either directly in case of a direct reading instrument or calculated by the
balanced bridge relations.
(a) A capacitor with losses may be thought to be equivalent to a perfect capacitor
with a series or parallel resistance. The principle shows the determination of such
capacitance.
(b) Parallel capacitance determination is important at ,
where leakage resistance and lead inductance losses are important. The series and
parallel capacitances are related through the dissipation factor D and given by the
relation:
=1+ ...................(7.11)
7.Series and parallel resistance of the capacitor: The series resistance is given
by the relation:
= ...................(7.12)
Where D is the Dissipation factor.
The parallel resistance or the leakage resistance is given by the relation:
= = = ...................(7.13)
8.The capacitance of the bridge, the inductance of the connecting leads may be
determined by balancing the bridge without the capacitor and with leads in the gap,
respectively as separate experiments.
9. Measurements of parallel inductance of an inductor: It is given by the
relation:
215
= ...................(7.14)
Where is the series inductance and ‘Q’ is the quality factor or storage
factor.
The factor ‘Q’ is given as the ratio of reactance to resistance, i.e.
= = = ...................(7.15)
Series Inductance: The meaning of the series inductance is the effective
inductance at a given frequency together with a series residual resistance.
Parallel Inductance: It refers to the effective inductance paralleled by the
insulation resistance of the coil.
10. The series and parallel a.c. resistance of the coil: The series and parallel a.c.
resistance of the coil are given by the relation.
= ...................(7.16)
= (1 + ) = = ..................(7.17)
The above given theory is the basis of the determining the L, C, and R.
11.8
12.8 Observation
Observation
For Inductance:
(A) When inductance connected in series:
S.NO. CAPACITANCE FIXED VARIABLE
( ) RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
( Ω) ( Ω)
1 4.1 0.11
2 4.1 0.11
3 4.1 0.11
4 4.1 0.11
Here = 1Ω 100 Ω, = 0.11 Ω, = 4.1 , =
160Ω
216
(B) When inductance connected in parallel:
S.NO. CAPACITANCE FIXED VARIABLE
( ) RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
( Ω) ( Ω)
1 4.1 0.11
2
3
4
5
Here = 1Ω 100 Ω, = 0.11 Ω, = 4.1 , = 160Ω
1 1
= , =
. .
By putting the value of above parameters, you can successfully calculate the value
of Dissipation factor for Parallel and Series.
For Series Capacitance:-
S.NO. CAPACITANCE FIXED VARIABLE VARIABLE
( ) RESISTANCE RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
( Ω) ( Ω) ( Ω)
1 0.01 0.11
2
3
4
5
= 1Ω Ω, = 0.11 Ω , = 0.01 ,
= 1.5 16 Ω
217
For Resistance:-
S.NO. FIXED VARIABLE VARIABLE
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE ‘P’ RESISTANCE
‘R’(IN KΩ) ‘Q’
1 0.11
2
3
4
5
=1Ω 10 Ω, = 1Ω 1 Ω, = 0.11 Ω, =?
12.9 Graph
11.9 Graph
Plot the graph between impedance and frequency on graph paper.
11.10
12.10Calculations
Calculations
To put the all observation value in the given formulae, you get easily value of
Inductance, Capacitance and Resistance.
12.11Result
11.11 Result
( ) The inductance of the coil at frequency..........=..........ℎ .
( ) The capacitance of the capacitor at frequency.......=........ .
( ) The resistance of the test coil at frequency ..............=....... ℎ .
−
% = × 100
............
218
12.12Discussion
11.12 Discussion
12.13Precautions
11.13 Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
( ) The circuit should be check by the teacher.
( ) Don’t touch any open wire, otherwise you get a shock.
( ) All the value should be based on the logarithmic calculation.
( ) May be the circuit is connected by you, is wrong. It is very common source
of Error.
12.14Self
11.14 SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 A full-wave rectifier uses shunt capacitor = 12 . The supply frequency
is = 50 .The angle of conduction = − has value 27° for
a load resistance of = 10 . Find (a) the ripple factor at the output of
the filter; (b) ratio of this ripple factor to that for a rectifier with the filter
capacitor.
Q.2 A full-wave rectifier uses filter inductance = 20 and a load
resistance = 20 Ω. A sinusoidal voltage = 300 sin 2 × 50
is applied to the input. Assuming the rectified output to contain second
harmonic only, find (a) d c load current; (b) d c output voltage; (c) ripple
factor; (d) ratio of ripple to that without inductor filter.
11.15
12.15Glossary
Glossary
Impedance: In LCR circuit the ratio of total voltage with the total current, is
known as Impedance.
219
Inductance: The property of an electric conductor or circuit that causes an
electromotive force to be generated by a change in the current flowing.
Capacitance: The ability of a system to store an electric charge.
Resistance: A measure of the degree to which conductor opposes an electric
current through that conductor.
11.16
12.16Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Filter circuits are employed to reduce the rectifier output ripple. This is
achieved by either by passing the ac output components around the load by a shunt
capacitance, or limiting their magnitude to a low value in the load by a series
inductance or a combination of these two for more efficient circuits.
The circuit arrangement of the capacitor filter is shown in below given
figure 1( ). The capacitance is so chosen that << , and alternating
currents find a low-reactance shunt in C. Only a small alternating current
component passes in . Only a small alternating current component passes in ,
producing a small ripple voltage. The capacitor alters the conditions under which
the diode operates. When the diode output voltage is increasing, the capacitor
stores energy, by charging to the peak to the input cycle as shown in Figure 1( ).
With falling source-voltage, the diode disconnects the source from the load at the
instant when the source voltage starts to fall faster than the capacitor voltage can
fall, as determined by the time constant of C and the load. The capacitor continues
to maintain the load voltage at a higher value and lower ripple than if the capacitor
were not present. The diode delivers a charging pulse of current in each cycle and
then disconnects source from the load. The circuit is excited by repeated current
transients as shown in figure 1( ).
220
Figure 1(a)
Figure 1(b)
Figure 1(c)
221
Similarly we can define for full-wave circuit, whose circuit is given below in
figure 2.
Figure 2(a)
Figure 2(b)
Figure 2(c)
222
Ans.2: The operation of the inductor filter depends on the fundamental property of
an inductor tom oppose any change of current. As a result, any sudden changes that
might occur in a circuit without an inductor are smoothed out by the presence of an
inductor in the circuit. Suppose that an inductor input filter is applied to the output
of a full-wave rectifier. The circuit with load current waveform is shown in below
given figure 1.
Figure 1(a)
Figure 1(b)
The voltage applied to the circuit comprising the load resistor and the inductor
filter is that given in equation
223
2 4 4
= + = − cos 2 − cos 4
3 15
With the current replaced by the voltage, since the impedance of the inductor
increases with the frequency, better filtering action for the higher-harmonic terms
results. It is, therefore, expected that the waveform in the output will be principally
of second-harmonic frequency, and we may neglect all harmonics except the first
ac term. Under these circumstances, the equivalent circuit of the rectifier is shown
in below given figure 2.
Figure 2
Ans.1: (a) The ripple factor is given by the equation is
−( − ) −( − )
= =
2√3 4√3
Here = − = 27° =
Now
27
−
= 180
2√3 × × 50 × (10 × 10 ) × (12 × 10 )
1.67
= = . %
130.6
224
(b) Ripple factor without filter is 0.482. Therefore, the ratio of ripple factor with
filter to that without filter is
0.02
= .
0.482
Ans.2: (a) For the output current, we have
2
=
2 × 300
= = 0.01 =
× 20 × 10
(b) For the output voltage, we have
=
= 0.01 × 20 × 10 =
(c) For ripple factor, we have
2 1
=
3√2
1+4 /
2 1
=
3√2
2 × 2 × 50 × 20
1+
20 × 10
= .
(d) Now ratio of this ripple factor to that without filter is
0.340
= .
0.482
12.17Viva
11.17 VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 Give the definition of alternating Current.
Q.2 Give the definition of Direct current.
Q.3 What is the Series circuit of Resistance and formula?
Q.4. What is the parallel circuit of Resistance and formula?
225
Q.5 Define Dissipation factor.
Q.6 Define quality factor.
Q.7 Give the definition of Radio frequency.
Q.8 Give the definition of Audio frequency.
11.18
12.18Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: It is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and
residences. The usual wave form of the alternating current is Sine Wave. In this
type of current, electric charge is periodically reverses direction. Audio and radio
signals are example of alternating current.
Ans.2: It is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by

sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells. It may flow in conductor such
as a wire, but can also flow through in semiconductors. A term also use for this
type of the current is .
Ans.3: In series circuit all components of the resistor are connected with end-to-
end to form only one path for electrons flow through the circuit. In this circuit, all
components share the same or equal current. And the formula used for the
combination of resistance is
= + +
226
Figure: Series combination
Ans.4: in parallel circuit all components of the resistor are connected between the
same two sets of electrically common points, creating multiple paths for electrons
to flow from one end of the battery to the other. And the formula which is used for
the combination is
1 1 1 1
= + +
Figure: Parallel Combination.

Ans.5: It is the reciprocal of the ‘Quality’ , i.e. the dissipation factor is the ratio
of the resistance to reactance. Hence
1
= =
227
Here X is the reactance.
Ans.6: The quality factor is a dimensionless parameter that describes how under
damped an oscillator or resonators is and it is also defines as well as a resonator’s
bandwidth relative to higher frequency of resonator. For the loss of low energy, we
have the quality factor large.
The above given formula is of Quality factor.

Ans.7: Radio frequency is the rate of oscillation in the range of oscillation in the
range of around 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which corresponds to the frequency of radio
waves, and the alternating current carries the radio signals. RF usually refers to
electrical rather than mechanical oscillations.
Ans.8: An audio frequency is defined as a periodic vibration whose frequency is
audible to the average human. It is the property of sound that most determines
pitch.
The range of audio frequency generally accepted is 20 to 20,000 Hz.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. “Electronic devices applications and integrated circuits” by “Satnam P. Mathur”
“Durgesh C. Kulshreshtha” and “Prem R. Chadha”.
2. Electronics theory and applications by “S.L. Kakani” and “K.C. bhandari”.
228
UNIT-13
RC Coupled
Coupled Amplifier
Amplifier
13.1 Aim
13.2 Apparatus
13.3 Diagram
13.4 Formula
13.5 Model Graph
13.8 Procedure
13.9 Observation
13.10 Graph
13.11 Calculations
13.12 Result
13.13 Discussion
13.16 Glossary
13.1
13.1 Aim
Aim
Design a double stage RC coupled Amplifier and study
(i) Frequency response
229
(ii) The amplitude characteristics
13.2
13.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
C.R.O. , Power supply (0-15V), Signal Generator (0 – l MHz), Bread-board,
Resistors, Capacitors, Two identical n-p-n transistors, a. c. milli -voltmeter and
connecting wires
13.3
13.3 Diagram
Diagram
Different diagrams for RC coupled amplifier
Figur.1:Circuit diagram of three stage coupled amplifier
230
Figure 2: Circuit diagram of two stage coupled amplifier fig.2
13.4 Formula
13.4 Formula
Voltage Gain (G) = V0 / Vi
Where Vo = Output voltage
Vi = Input voltage
Bandwidth of the amplifier = fH - fL KHz
Where fL = lower half-power ( cut-off) frequency
fH = upper half-power (cut-off) frequency
13.5 Model
13.5 ModelGraph
Graph
Gain versus Frequency Model graph is shown
231
13.6 Theory
13.6 Theoryand
anddescription
description
Cascade Amplifier:
To increases the voltage gain of the amplifier, multiple amplifier are connects in
cascade. The output of one amplifier is the input to another stage. In this way the
overall voltage gain can be increased, when number of amplifier stages are used in
succession it is called a multistage amplifier or cascade amplifier. The load on the
first amplifier is the input resistance of the second amplifier. The various stages
need not have the same voltage and current gain. In practice, the earlier stages are
often voltage amplifiers and the last one or two stages are current amplifiers. The
voltage amplifier stages assure that the current stages have the proper input swing.
The amount of gain in a stage is determined by the load on the amplifier stage,
which is governed by the input resistance to the next stage. Therefore, in designing
or analyzing multistage amplifier, we start at the output and proceed toward the
input.
a n-stage amplifier can be represented by the block diagram as shown in fig.
232
Fig.
In fig, the overall voltage gain is the product of the voltage gain of each stage.
Overall Gain A = A1 . A2
Where A1 and A2 are the gain of individual stages.
To represent the gain of the cascade amplifier, the voltage gains are represents in
dB. The two power levels of input and output of an amplifier are compared on a
logarithmic scale rather than linear scale. The number of bels by which the output
power P2 exceeds the input power P1 is defined as
233
Because of dB scale the gain can be directly added when a number of stages are
cascaded.
Working Principle:
D.C. power supply, the resistances R1, R2 and RE provides potential divider biasing
and stabilization network. i.e. It establishes a proper operating point to get faithful
amplification. where we want to use the transistor as a amplifying device so
actually, active region is a very important for the amplifying for amplifier circuit.
The potential divider bias provides forward bias to the emitter junction and reverse
bias to the collector junction. Since the emitter is grounded, it is common to both
input and output signals. Therefore, the amplifier is common-emitter amplifier.
Capacitor Cin (= 10 uF) isolates the d.c. component and the internal resistance of
the signal generator and couples the a.c. signal voltage to the base of the transistor.
The capacitor CE connected across the emitter resistor RE is of large value (= 100
uF) offers a low reactance path to the alternating component of emitter current and
thus bypasses resistor RE at audio frequencies. Consequently, the potential
difference across RE is due to the d.c. component of the current only. The coupling
capacitor Cc (=10uF) couples the output of the first stage of amplifier to the input
of the second stage. It blocks the d.c. voltage of the first stage from reaching the
base of the second stage. The output voltage is measured between the collector and
emitter terminals.
When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it is amplified and
developed across the out of the first stage. This amplified voltage is applied to the
base of next stage through the coupling capacitor Cc where it is further amplified
and reappears across the output of the second stage. Thus the successive stages
amplify the signal and the overall gain is raised to the desired level. Much higher
gains can be obtained by connecting a number of amplifier stages in succession
(one after the other). In this case the signal developed across the collector resistor
of each stage is coupled into the base of the next stage. The cascaded stages
amplify the signal and the overall gain equals the product of the individual gains.
Resistance-capacitance (RC) coupling is most widely used to connect the output
of first stage to the input (base) of the second stage and so on. It is the most
popular type of coupling because it is cheap and provides a constant amplification
over a wide range of frequencies. Fig. shows the circuit arrangement of a two stage
234
RC coupled common-emitter (CE) mode transistor amplifier where resistor R is
used as a load and the capacitor C is used as a coupling element between the two
stages of the amplifier.
The coupling capacitors pass ac but block dc Because of this the stages are isolated
as far as dc is concerned. This is necessary to avoid shifting of Q-points. The
drawback of this approach is the lower frequency limit imposed by the coupling
capacitor.
The bypass capacitors are needed because they bypass the emitters to ground.
Without them, the voltage gain of each stage would be lost. These bypass
capacitors also place a lower limit on the frequency response. As the frequency
keeps decreasing, a point is reached at which capacitors no longer look like a.c.
shorts. At this frequency the voltage gain starts to decrease because of the local
feedback and the overall gain of the amplifier drops significantly. These amplifiers
are suitable for frequencies above 10 Hz.
Frequency response of an amplifier
For an amplifier stage the frequency characteristics may be divided into three
regions: there is a range called midband frequencies, over which the amplification
is reasonably constant and equal to Ao and over which the delay is also quite
constant. In the second (low-frequency) region, below midband, an amplifier stage
may behave like the simple high-pass circuit. The response decrease with
decreasing frequency, and output usually approaches zero at DC(f=0). In the third
(high-frequency) region, above midband, the circuit often behaves like a simple
low-pass network, and response decreases with increasing frequency.
Low frequency response
fL =1/2 R1C1
The magnitude of |AL|=1/√(1+ (fL/f)2)
At the frequency f = fL , AL =1/√2=0.707, whereas in the midband region (f >>fL
), AL→1. Hence fL is that frequency at which the gain has fallen to 0.707 times its
midband value Ao. This drop in signal level corresponds to a decibel reduction of
20 log (1//√2), or 3 dB. fL is that frequency for which the resistance R1 equals the
235
capacitive reactance 1/2 fLC1.
High frequency response
In the high-frequency region, above the midband, the amplifier stage can often be
approximated by the simple low-pass circuit.
fH =1/2 R2C2
The magnitude of |AH|=1/√(1+ (f/fH)2)
Since at f=fH the gain is reduced to 1/√2 times its midband value, then fH is called
upper 3 dB frequency. It also represents that frequency at which the resistance R2
equals the capacitive reactance 1/2 fHC2.
The curve representing the variation of gain of an amplifier with frequency is
known as frequency response curve. It is shown in Fig. The voltage gain of the
amplifier increases with the frequency f and attains a maximum value. The
maximum value of the gain remains
constant over a certain frequency range and afterwards the gain starts decreasing
with the
Increase of the frequency. It may be seen to be divided into three regions.
1) Low frequency Range (<50 Hz)
2) Mid frequency range (50 Hz to 20 KHz) and
3) High frequency range (> 20 kHz).
Calculation of Band Width :
Draw the frequency response curve as said above, by taking the frequency f (or
log10f ) on
X-axis and voltage gain on Y-axis. Note the maximum gain, Gmax or (A0) and
mark the value of 0.707Gmax on the y-axis. From that value draw a line (dashed
line) parallel to x-axis. This line cuts the curve at two points, called the half-power
points. From those two points draw two perpendicular lines on to x - axis, the feet
of two perpendiculars corresponding to two frequencies f1 and f2. These are called
as lower half power frequency and the upper half power frequency (or cut-off
frequency). The difference between these two frequencies f1 and f2 is the
236
bandwidth (BW) of the amplifier.
* Bandwidth of the amplifier = f2 - f1 or fH –FL
13.7
13.7 Self
Selflearning
learningexercise-I
exercise-I
Q.1 A transistor is said to be in a quiescent stage when
(a) Emitter junction bias is just equal to collector junction bias.
(b) no currents are flowing
(c) no signal is applied to the input
(d) it is unbiased
Q.2 A transistor in amplifier circuit is biased such that
(a) emitter junction is reverse biased and collector junction is forward biased
(b) emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased
(c) both junctions are forward biased
(d) Both junctions are reverse biased.
Q.3 The CB amplifier has fewer applications because
(a) It exhibits poor current gain
(b) It exhibits very low input impedance.
(c) It exhibits high output impedance
(d) It exhibits poor power gain
Q.4 Which of the following statements is not correct for emitter follower circuit?
(a) It raises power level.
(b) It exhibits high input impedance and low output impedance
(c) It has high current gain.
(d) It has high voltage gain
Q.5 The most striking feature of CE amplifier responsible for its wide use is,
(a) It has high current gain
(b) It has high voltage gain
(c) It has a phase difference of 180o between input and output.
(d) It shows input and output impedances of the same order.
237
Q.6 Assuming VBE = 0.7V and β= 50 for the transistor in the circuit shown in
figure, the value of RB for VCE = 2V is
(a) 200 kΩ
(b) 243 kΩ
(c) 283 kΩ
(d) 300 kΩ
13.8
13.8 Procedure
Procedure
Procedure for Conducting the Experiment
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1. First the signal generator is connected
directly to the a.c. milli-voltmeter by keeping signal frequency at about 500 Hz.
The amplitude (voltage) of the input signal is adjusted to 0.1V or 0.05V (should
be small). This is the amplifier input (Vi ).
2. Now the signal generator is disconnected from the a.c. Milli-voltmeter and
connected to the input of the of the amplifier and the a.c. millivoltmeter is
connected to the output of the amplifier. Set the input frequency at 10 Hz, note
the output voltage ( Vo ) from the a.c.
Milli-voltmeter keeping the input voltage, Vi constant.
3. keeping the input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 100Hz to 1MHz in
regular interval steps and record at least 5 values the corresponding output
voltage.
4. Calculate the voltage gain, G of the amplifier for each value of the frequency, f
of the input signal, using the relation, Voltage gain, G = Vo / Vi. (take gain also
in dB)
5. Plot the graph voltage Vs frequency.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from graph.
13.9
13.9 Observation
Observation
1.Voltage Gain(if gain in dB then overall gain will be addition of gain of individual
stages )
238
S.N. Input Output Output Voltage Gain
voltage(Vi) of first of A1 A2 A=A1*A2
mV (peak to stage second
peak) stage
1
2
3
2. Voltage gain with second stage disconnected
S.N. Input Output of first stage Voltage Gain in dB

voltage(vi) (Vo) A1=20
Volt log10(Vo/Vi)
1
2
3
239
3. Gain with frequency(frequency response)
S.N. Input Input signal Output Voltage Gain
voltage(Vi) frequency voltage(Vo) A=20log10(Vo/Vi)
mV f(Hz) Volt
1
2
3
13.10Calculations
13.10 Graph
Plot the graph between gain versus frequency on graph paper.
13.11
13.11Graph
Calculations
13.12Result
13.12 Result
1. Two stage amplifier gain=……..dB
Single stage amplifier gain =…….dB
240
Overall voltage gain of two stage amplifier is higher than the single stage
amplifier. Gain of two stage amplifier is equal to the product of gains of
individual stages. In practice total gain A is less than A1 *A2 due to loading
effect of following stages.
2. Bandwidth= Upper cut-off frequency – Lower cut-off frequency=………
13.13
13.13Discussion
Discussion
13.14Precautions
andSource
Sources of Error
of errors
1. Before going to the experiment the input voltage Vi should be measured.
2. The input voltage should be small.
3. The input voltage should be maintained at constant value for frequency
response.
4. The connections should be tight.
5. Do not enter in the laboratory with the bare foots.
6. Do not switch ON the circuits without permission of the concerned teacher.
7. Make sure that the circuit is switched OFF before leaving the laboratory.
13.15
Exercise-II
Q.1 For a transistor in an amplifying circuit
(a) Emitter-base junction is forwarded biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
241
(b) Emitter-base junction is reverse biased and collector-base junction is
forward biased
(c) Both the emitter-base junction and the collector-base junction are forward
biased.
(d) Both the emitter-base junction and the collector-base junction are reverse-
biased.
Q.2 A small increase in collector reverse bias will cause
(a) A large increase in emitter current.
(b) A large increase in collector current.
(c) A large decrease in collector current
(d) Very small change in collector reverse saturation current.
Q.3 The transistor configuration producing highest output resistance in an
amplifying circuit is
(a) CB
(b) CE
(c) CC
(d) Depends on the magnitude of reverse bias voltage of base-collector
junction.
Q.4 The transistor configuration producing lowest output resistance in an
amplifying circuit is
(a) CB
(b) CE
(c) CC
(d) Depends on the magnitude of reverse bias voltage of base-collector
junction
Q.5 Early effect in BJT refers to
(a) Avalanche breakdown
(b) Thermal runway
(c) Base narrowing
242
(d) Zener breakdown
13.16 Glossary
13.16 Glossary
Cascade: process whereby something, typically information or knowledge,
is successively passed on(Arrange a number of devices or objects in a series
or sequence)
Avalanche : too many things that arrive or happen at the same time
13.17
13.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: (c) Ans.2: (b) Ans.3: (b)
Ans.4: (d) Ans.5: (d) Ans.6: (c)
Ans.1: (a) Ans.2: (d) Ans.3: (a)
Ans.4: (c) Ans.5: (c)
13.18
13.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 In an RC coupled amplifier, the gain decreases in the frequency response due
to the
(a) Coupling capacitor at low frequency and bypass capacitor at high
frequency.
(b) Coupling capacitor at high frequency and bypass capacitor at low
frequency
(c) Coupling junction capacitance at low frequency and coupling capacitor at
high frequency.
(d) Device junction capacitor at high frequency and coupling capacitor at low
frequency.
243
Q.2 A signal may have frequency components which lie in the range of 0.001Hz
to 10 Hz. Which one of the following types of couplings should be chosen in
a multistage amplifier designed to amplify the signal?
(a) RC coupling
(b) Direct coupling
(c) Transformer coupling
(d) Double tuned transformer coupling.
Q.3 The overall bandwidth of two identical voltage amplifiers connected in
cascade will
(a) Remain the same as that of a single stage
(b) Be better than that of a single stage
(c) Be worse than that of a single stage
(d) Be better if stage gain in low and worse if stage gain is high
Q.4 Two amplifiers, one having voltage gain of 40 and the other 20 are coupled
with negligible loading. The approximate gain of two-stage amplifier will be
(a) 20 (b) 40
(c) 60 (d) 800
Q.5 In a common emitter amplifier, the unbiased emitter resistance provides
(a) Current series feedback
(b) Voltage series feedback
(c) Voltage shunt feedback
(d) Current shunt feedback
Q.6 An amplifier incorporates negative feedback using voltage-shunt feedback
connection. This feedback will result in
(a) Increased input impedance and decreased output impedance
(b) Increased input impedance and increased output impedance
(c) Decreased input impedance and increased output impedance
(d) Decreased input impedance and decreased output impedance
244
Q.7 In RC coupled amplifier which component is responsible for reduction in
voltage gain in high frequency range?
Q.8 What is the application of RC coupled amplifier?
13.19
13.19Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: (d) Ans.2: (b) Ans.3: (c)
Ans.4: (d) Ans.5: (a) Ans.6: (a)
Ans.7: Shunt capacitance in the input circuit
Ans.8: It is widely used as a voltage amplifier.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Jacob Millman and C. Halkias, Integrated electronics: analog and digital circuits
and systems
2. John D. Ryder ,Electronic Fundamentals and Applications
245
UNIT-14
Astable Multivibrator
Structure of the unit
14.1 Aim
14.2 Apparatus
14.3 Diagram
14.4 Formula
14.7 Procedure
14.8 Observation
14.9 Graph
14.10 Calculations
14.11 Result
14.12 Discussion
14.15 Glossary
14.17 Viva questions
14.1
14.1 Aim
Aim
To study the waveform characteristic of Astable Multivibrator.
14.2
14.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Function generator, Resistors, Capacitors, CRO, Power supply,Bread Board and
246
Connecting wires.
14.3
14.3 Diagram
Diagram
+ VCC
RL1 R1 R2 RL2
C1 C2
+ VC1 + VC2
VB1 VB2
Figure 1: Circuit for Astable Multi-vibrator using transistors.

14.4 Formula
14.4 Formula
Periodic time for Astable Multi-vibrator is
= +
Here: t1 = 0.69R1C1 and t2 = 0.69R2C2
R is in ohms and C is in farads.
247
The frequency of oscillation for the Astable Multi-vibrator is
1
=
1
=
0.69 + 0.69
If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, then the frequency of oscillation is
1
=
1.38
This frequency is also known as the “Pulse repetition frequency”.
Here
T = Time period of oscillations
f = frequency of astable multivibrator
R1 = Resistance for discharging of capacitor C1
R2 = Resistance for discharging of C2
14.5
14.5 Theory
Theoryand
andDescription
Description
An astable multivibrator has no stable states it is also called as free running
multivibrator. Astable multivibrator has two quasi stable states:
1. State 1: Q1 is ON (saturation) and Q2 is OFF.
2. State 2: Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON (saturation).
No external triggering is required in the astable multivibrator. It oscillates between
these two quasi stable states. Figure 1 is an astable multivibrator circuit. In this
circuit Q1 and Q2 are two transistors and are RL1 and RL2 are the collector
resistances for the transistors Q1 and Q2 respectively. C1 and C2 are two coupling
capacitors. R1 and R2 are two resistors which provide base current to Q1 and Q2
respectively during the saturation region.
Case 1: when RL1 = RL2, R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 i.e. the components in one half of the
circuit are equal to the components in the other half circuit, then this type of
multivibrator is as known symmetrical astable multivibrator.
Case 2: on the other hand if the components in one half of the circuit are not equal
to the components in other half of the circuit then multivibrator is called as
asymmetrical astable multivibrator.
248
Operation of Astable Multivibrator:
When the power is applied to the circuit, the two transistors are completely
identical so let the transistors Q1 conducts more than transistors Q2 which means
that current will follow more through Q1 than transistor Q2. In this case the rate of
fall of VC1 is more than VC2. The base of transistor Q2 will be negative because of
the change of collector voltage of Q1. The collector voltage VC2 increases and
approaches towards VCC. Because of the transfer of VC2 to the base of the transistor
Q1 through capacitor C2, the conduction of Q1 will increase further. The increases
in the conduction of Q1 will decrease VC1, which will make the base of Q2 more
negative. The transistor Q1 comes in the saturated region and transistor Q2 come in
cut off region.
+ VCC
RL1 R1 R2 RL2
C1 C2
+ VC1 + VC2
VB1 VB2
Figure 2: Charging of capacitor C2.
249
For a moment, Q1 is in saturation and transistor Q2 in cut off. This is a quasi stable
state. For this state VC1 is approximately zero while VC2 is approximately equal to
VCC. In this case C2 will charge through RL2 and the base emitter junction of Q1 will
be approximately at VCC. The charging path of C2 is shown in figure 2.
Figure 3: Waveforms for Astable Multi-vibrator using transistors.
At the same time the capacitor C1 will discharge through Q1 and R1. It is shown in
figure 4.
The initial pulse of the discharge current from C1 through R1 makes the base of Q2
suddenly very negative approximately equal to –VCC as shown in waveform of VB2.
The transistor Q1 is kept in the conducting state by the base current through R2 so
VB1 slightly positive. The charging current of C2 through RL2 has now ceased. The
length of time for which Q2 is held off is determined by the time constant of
discharge of C1 through Q1 and R1.
250
+ VCC
RL1 R1 R2 RL2
C1 C2
+ VC1 + VC2
VB1 VB2
Figure 4: Discharging of capacitor C1.
Now the transistor Q2 starts conducting ,the collector voltage of Q2 starts to

decrease. It will reduce the base voltage of transistor Q2 it will transfer to the base
of Q2 via C1 so the conduction of Q2 increases. This process will continue till the
transistor Q2 in the saturation region and Q1 is in cut off region. In this case VC1 is
approximately equal to VCC and VC2 is approximately equal to zero. The capacitor
C1 charges through RL1 which is shown in figure 5 so the base voltage of Q2 is
increases. Meanwhile C2 discharges through Q2 and R2 as shown in figure 6.
The time interval in which Q1 is in non conducting state depends upon R2*C2 time
constant.
251
+ VCC
RL1 R1 R2 RL
C1 C2
+ VC1 + VC2
VB1 VB2
Figure 5: Charging of capacitor C1

Applied voltage across a capacitor C and the resistor R should be equal to the
applied voltage, VCC:
= +
= +
Integrating the above equation, with the condition that at t = 0, the voltage across
the capacitor is , to give
( )= /
−( − )
252
For our case, the initial voltage V0 = VCC and we have to find out the time T at
which V(T) = 0. This gives:
= (2)
= 0.693
+ VCC
RL1 R1 R2 RL2
C1 C2
+ VC1 + VC2
VB1 VB2
Figure 6: Discharging of capacitor C2
The Multi-vibrator circuit oscillates between a state in which Q1 is ON and Q2 is

OFF and a state in which Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON. The time for which either
transistor remains ON or OFF is given by:
ON time for Q2 (or OFF time for Q1) T1 = 0.69 R1C1

ON time for Q1 (or OFF time for Q2) T2 = 0.69 R2C2
Hence, total time of the square wave T = T1 + T2
= 0.69 (R1C1+R2C2)
253
If Rl = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C i.e., the two stages are symmetrical, then
T = 0.69 (RC + RC) = 1.38 RC

Frequency of Oscillation: Frequency of the square wave is given by the
reciprocal of
the time period i.e.
1 1
= =
1.38
If t1 = t2 i.e.R1C1 = R2C2, the mark-to-space ratio (t1 /t2) will be equal to one making
the output waveform symmetrical in shape. By varying the capacitors C1, C2 or the
resistors R1, R2 we can alter the mark-to-space ratio and frequency.
Advantages:
Astable Multivibrators continuously switch between one state and another. This
allows Astable Multivibrators to power themselves and perform work at a
consistent rate without influence from any outside forces or events. Additionally,
Astable Multivibrators are inexpensive to produce, are relatively simple in design,
and can remain functional for extraordinary amounts of time.
Disadvantages:
Astable Multivibrators do not transfer the entire output signal to the input. This is
due to resistance within the circuit, lack of a completely closed loop at the output
terminals, and the tendency for one capacitor or transistor to absorb energy at a
slightly different rate than the other. Although the amplifier restores the lost energy
when it amplifies the signal, the signal will eventually be too small to be of any
use.
Function generator:
A function generator is a very versatile instrument that is used in electronics.
Function generator is a device that is used to generate wide range of ac signal. A
function generator is also known as signal generator or wave form generator.
Function generator can generate a variety of wave forms of different periods and
amplitudes. It can produce the wave forms like sinusoidal, square, triangular, ramp
pulse etc. With desired frequency.
254
Figure 6: Function generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):
The CRO is the most versatile tool for the development of electronic circuit. The
CRO is a device that allows the amplitude of the electrical signals e.g. voltage,
current, etc. To be displayed primarily as a function of time. The main part of the
CRO is the Cathode ray tube which also known as the heart of the CRO.
Basically cathode ray tube consists of five main parts which are:
1. Electron gun,
2. Deflection plate system,
3. Fluorescent screen,
4. Glass envelope and
5. Screen
255
Figure 7: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
Capacitors:
The capacitor is an electronic component that stores energy in the form of electric
charge. It is a simple passive device.
Figure 8: Various types of capacitor

256
The capacitor is fabricated of two conducting plates that are separated by dielectric
material. These plates accumulate electric charge when connected to power source.
One plate accumulates positive charge and the other accumulates opposite charge.
The direct current cannot pass through the capacitor while alternate current is
allowed by it. It is due to the vibration of dipole charges existing in the dielectric
materials.
Resistors:
A resistor is a passive two terminal electrical component that implement electrical
resistance as a circuit element the purpose of resistor is to
create specific values of current and voltage in a electrical circuit.
Figure 9: various types of resistors.

14.6
14.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What are the other names of Astable multivibrator?
Q.2 What is the use of an Astable multivibrator in electronic circuits?
Q.3 What is quasi stable state in a stable multi vibrator?
Q.4 How one state of astable multivibrator transform to another state?
Q.5 How to make asymmetric Astable multi-vibrator?
14.7 Procedure
14.7 Procedure
(i) Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in common emitter mode and the
biasing to these transistors are given with the help of RL1, RL2 and +VCC.
257
(ii) Collector of each transistor is connected to the base of the other transistor
through a condenser.
(iii) The condensers C1 and C2 are connected to the power supply through the
variable resistors R1 and R2.
(iv) The collector of any one of the transistor is connected the Y–plates of CRO.
(v) Switch on the power VCC, and the power supply of CRO.
(vi) Observe the square wave on the screen.
(vii) Adjust the values Rl and R2 and the band switches of X and Y plates of CRO
to get at least one complete wave on the screen.
(viii) Then the length of one complete wave (l) on screen is measured on horizontal
scale, this is multiplied with the time base (t).
(ix) The product will give the time period of the wave (l × t = T). The reciprocal
of ‘T’ gives the frequency (f).
(x) The observed values are tabulated. This frequency is experimental frequency.
(xi) Now the Power VCC is switched off and the resistance values of R1 and R2 are
measured using multi-meter.
(xii) The values R1, R2, C1 and C2 are also noted in the table. Substituting these
values in the above formula we will get the frequency theoretically.
(xiii) The theoretical and experimental frequencies are compared.
(xiv) The experiment is repeated with different values of R1 and R2 (the values of
C1 and C2 can also be changed, if possible).
14.8
14.8 Observation
Observation
A CRO is used for observing the wave form pattern of an Astable multi-vibrator.
First check the wave form pattern in CRO that it is as per the designed frequency
and time period and draw this wave form pattern on the trace paper with the help
of CRO.
R1 = ………………… K
R2 = ………………… K
258
S. No. R1 R2 l t T = l × t f = 1/T
(K) (K) (unit less) (sec.) (sec.) (Hz)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
C1 = …………………F
C2 = …………………F
S. No. C1 C2 l t T=l×t f = 1/T

(F) (F) (unit less) (sec.) (sec.) (Hz)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
259
14.9
14.9 Graph
Graph
Model Graphs/ Tracings
14.10Calculations
14.10 Calculations
By taking different combination of resistance and capacitor, we can make Astable
Multi-vibrator of different frequencies.
Model Calculation
The model calculation for these Astable multi-vibrators of different frequencies is
given as below:
Case-1 R = 1 k and C = 1 nF
Frequency =
.
f = 724.6 kHz
Case-2 R = 1 k and C = 10 nF
f = 72.46 kHz
260
We have calculated the frequency in case1 and case 2 and tabulated in the
frequency table given below. Fill all the remaining entries of the frequency table as
per the procedure followed in the calculation of frequency in case 1 and case 2.
Frequency table
Resistance Capacitance (nF)
S. No.
(k) 1 10 100
1 1 724.6 kHz 72.46 kHz --
2 10 -- -- --
3 100 -- -- --
14.11Result
14.11 Result
14.12Discussion
14.12 Discussion
14.13
14.13Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
SourcesofofError
Error
1. All the connections should be tight.
2. Components i.e. resistors and capacitors should be of proper value.
3. Check all the connecting wires before making the power supply on.
261
4. Draw the wave form pattern on trace paper carefully.
5. Always be sure of the scale of CRO and check manually, the frequency and
time period of the wave form generated by Astable Multi-vibrator.
14.14
14.14Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 How can Astable multivibrator be used as a voltage to frequency converter?
Q.2 What is the formula for frequency of oscillations?
Q.3 Calculate the value of capacitance of a symmetric Astable Multi-vibrator
having the frequency 152 Hz and corresponding resistance is 47 k.
Q.4 Calculate the capacitance C2 for an Astable Multi-vibrator, other details are as
follows: R1= 1 k, R2= 2 k, C1= 100 nF and f = 7.246 Hz
Q.5 Calculate the frequency and time period of an Astable Multi-vibrator as per
the data given below: R1 = 46 k, R2 = 34 k, C1 = 10 nF and C2 = 50 nF
14.15Glossary
14.15 Glossary
Frequency: Number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.
Triggering: A pulse or circuit that initiates the action of another component.
Amplitude: A measure of change in a periodic variable over a single period.
Pulse: A brief sudden change in a normally constant quantity.
Waveform: The mathematical representation of a wave especially a graph obtained
by plotting characteristics of the wave against time.
14.16Answers
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Free Running multivibrator.
Ans.2: In radio equipment to receive and transmit radio signals. Astable
multivibrators are also used in morse code generators, timers, and systems
that require a square wave, including television broadcasts and analog
circuits etc.
262
Ans.3: Quasi stable state is triggered state, when a trigger pulse is given the
vibrator reaches this state.
Ans.4: By charging and discharging of capacitor which runs the On and OFF state
of Transistors.
Ans.5: If components in one half of the circuit are not equal to the components in
the other half of the circuits.
Ans.1: As an AC square wave generator.
Ans.2: See in formulas
Ans.3: 0.1 µF
Ans.4: 50 nF
Ans.5: 0.67 KHz
14.17
14.17Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What are the other names of Astable multivibrator?
Q.2 What are the factors affecting the frequency of an Astable multivibrator?
Q.3 What are the uses of an Astable multi-vibrator?
Q.4 How many quasi stable states are in astable multivibrator?
Q.5 What are the two quasi stable states in an astable multivibrator?
Q.6 What is role of transistor in astable multivibrator circuit?
Q.7 What s the unit of RC?
Q.8 What do you mean by resistance?
Q.9 What do you mean by capacitance?
Q.10 What do you mean by a symmetric Astable multi-vibrator?
Q.11 What do you mean by an asymmetric Astable multi-vibrator?
Q.12 How can we change the frequency of an astable multivibrator?
Q.13 What happens on the frequency of multi-vibrator, if capacitor value is
doubled?
263
Q.14 What happens on the frequency of multi-vibrator, if resistance value is
made half?
Q.15 What is bias voltage?
Q.16 Which configuration is used in Astable multi-vibrator?
Q.17 Explain charging and discharging of capacitors in an Astable Multivibrator?
Q.18 How can Astable multivibrator be used as a voltage to frequency converter?
Q.19 What is the formula for frequency of oscillations?
Q.20 How can we use Astable multivibrator ass a pulse generator?
14.18
14.18Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Free running multivibrator,
Ans.2: R and C
Ans.3: Astable multivibrators are used in radio equipment to receive and transmit
radio signals. Astable multivibrators are also used in morse code generators,
timers, and systems that require a square wave, including television
broadcasts and analog circuits etc.
Ans.4: Two
Ans.5: Two quasi stable states in an astable multivibrator are:
A) when Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF.
B) when Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON.
Ans.6: Transistor act as a switch in the circuit.
Ans.7: The unit of RC is second when R is in ohms and C is in farads. RC
represents the time constant of a RC circuit.
Ans.8: A resistance is the interruption of electrical current through a conductor; the
resistance is defined as the ratio of voltage to current across the conductor.
=
Ans.9: The capacitance is the ratio of charge to potential on an electrical charged
isolated conductor. It is given by the symbol C.
264
=
This is property of circuit element that permits it to store the charge.
Ans.10:In a symmetric Astable Multi-vibrator both the resistors connected to the
base of transistor should be equal and capacitors should also be equal i.e.
Rl = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C.
Ans.11:For an asymmetric the values of resistance and capacitances are not equal.
Ans.12:The frequency of an Astable Multi-vibrator depends on the value of
resistance and capacitor. By changing the value of R and C, we can change
the frequency of an Astable multivibrator.
Ans.13:When the value of capacitor is doubled the frequency of an astable
multivibrator will be half.
Ans.14:When the value of capacitor is doubled the frequency of an astable
multivibrator will be half.
Ans.15:The bias voltage is the necessary DC voltage which is required for any
active device to operate.
Ans.16:Common emitter configuration of transistors is used.
Ans.17:Q1 is in saturation and transistor Q2 in cut off. This is a quasi stable state.
For this state VC1 is approximately zero while VC2 is approximately equal to
VCC. In this case C2 will charge through RL2 and the base emitter junction of
Q1. Similarly the capacitor C1 will charge through RL1.
When the capacitor C2 will charge at the same time the capacitor C1 will be
discharge through Q1 and R1. Similarly at the time of charging of C1
capacitor C2 will discharge through Q2 and R2.
Ans.18:It generates rectangular wave which can be consider as alternate current
hence astable multivibrator can be considered as AC rectangular wavefrom
generator.
Ans.19: =
. .
R1 = Resistance for discharging of capacitor C1
R2 = Resistance for discharging of C2
265
Ans.20: By reducing the width of rectangular waveform with the help of R and C.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Doug Lowe, Electronics All-in-One For Dummies
2. Rama Sudha K.; Venkata Rao K.; Manmadha Rao G.,Pulse and Digital
Circuits
3. Jerry C. Whitake ,The Electronics Handbook
4. Gupta and Kumar ,Handbook of Electronics
266
UNIT-15
Hartley Oscillator
15.1 Aim
15.2 Apparatus
15.3 Diagram
15.4 Formula
15.7 Procedure
15.8 Observation
15.9 Graph
15.10 Calculations
15.11 Result
15.12 Discussion
15.15 Glossary
15.1
15.1 Aim
Aim
To study Hartley oscillator.
267
15.2
15.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT), Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, dc power supply
and Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).
15.3
15.3 Diagram
Diagram
L2 (1.2 +VCC (9 V)
µH) C
R1
L1 (6.8
µH)
C3 (100
nF)
C1 (100
nF)
R2 C2 (100 R3 (22
nF) Ω)
Figure 2: Hartley Oscillator
15.4
15.4 Formula
Formula
(i) Frequency generated by Hartley Oscillator:
1
=
2
268
Here:
C = Capacitance of capacitor in tank circuit,
Leq = Equivalent inductance of both coils,
Also = +
However, if the two coils are magnetically coupled the total inductance will be
greater because of mutual inductance M
= + +2
Here:
L1 = Inductance of feedback coil.
L2 = Inductance of second coil.
M = Mutual Inductance between coils.
(ii) Barkhausen Criterion:
=1
And also =
A = Gain of Amplifier
VTO = Voltage output by transistor (across Collector point in CE configuration)
VTI = Voltage input at transistor (across base point in CE configuration)
β = Feedback ratio; Ratio of Voltage across feedback coil (L1) and output voltage
at load resistance.
15.5
15.5 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
(i) Oscillator: An electronic circuit that produces alternating current is known
as oscillator circuit. In general for an oscillator circuit there is no any input signal.
The power to circuit is provided by direct current (dc) source. Hence it can be said
that oscillator circuit converts dc power to alternate current (ac) power.
(ii) Alternator: Alternator is also an ac generator electric system e.g.
generator. In this system, coils move in magnetic field or vice-versa and ac current
generates. In alternator mostly mechanical energy is provided to move the coils or
magnets and electric power generates. Alternators cannot produce ac current at
269
high frequencies (>1 KHz). To produce ac current at high frequencies, this system
requires higher number of magnetic poles which practically not possible.
(iii) Significances of oscillator: Oscillator circuit have very important role in
our daily modern life. To test the performance of a stereo amplifier we require an
AC generator in audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20 KHz). Such type of AC
generator systems known as AC signal generator. For all type of communication
systems such as Mobile, Radio (550 KHz to 22 MHz), FM broadcasting (80 MHz
to 108 MHz), DTH-TV (1 to 4 GHz), Radar, etc. we require high frequency
current. These high frequency currents are provided by oscillator circuits. The
oscillator requires testing of components in laboratory. Microwave ovens consists
high frequency tube oscillator circuits. High frequency current are used for
induction heating.
(iv) Types of oscillators: There are two types of oscillators
a. Sinusoidal and
b. Non-sinusoidal
Sinusoidal oscillators produce AC current which change as per sine wave while
non sinusoidal can generator produce square waves, triangular waves, saw tooth
waves etc. Non-sinusoidal waves have their own significances in various systems
such as CRO, Pulse triggering, etc. Sinusoidal oscillators are mostly used in
communication systems. On the basis of how oscillations are produced, sinusoidal
oscillators can be of following types:
a. LC circuit based
b. RC circuit based
c. Crystal Oscillator
d. Voltage controlled Oscillators (VCO)
(v) Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillators: An oscillator generates ac signal
without input signal. There are three essential parts in any oscillator circuit
a. Frequency tuning circuit (oscillation producer)
b. Amplifier
c. Power source
Tuning circuit decide the frequency of oscillations. It can be a resonant type or
phase shift or piezo electric crystal. In general during the switch on each and every
frequency generates in the circuit known as noise voltage. Such noise voltage is
270
produced by random motion of electrons. The tuning circuit selects one of these,
which match to the normal mode of frequency of the tuning circuit. The oscillator
circuit is in practice damped type due to the loss of energy in the form of heat
and/or radiation. In results the amplitude of oscillations decreases continuously. An
amplifier circuit is used with tuning circuit to sustain the amplitude of oscillation.
A small part of output (β) is fed back to the input of internal amplifier circuit. The
gain of amplifier is set in the way that it amplifies the signal only with that value
which is lost due to damping, energy taken out for fed back and at output load.
This fed back to the internal amplifier is positive type means in the phase. The
amplified current again provided to tuning circuit by ac coupling, hence the
amplitude of oscillations sustained.
Oscillatory Circuit Output (AC)
Feedback Circuit
AC (β)
Electronic Amplifier Input (DC)

(A)
The necessary condition for the sustained oscillations can be obtained from
feedback theory to the circuits
271
=
1−
If Aβ = 1 then Af = infinite, which indicate that there is output in the absence of
input, in results amplifier circuit will be act as oscillator. This Aβ = 1 is known as
Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations. If Aβ > 1, the oscillations will be grow
continuously as shown in figure 2:
Figure 3: Forced Oscillations
If Aβ < 1, the oscillations will be reduced hence damped oscillations
Figure 4: Damped Oscillations

Aβ = 1 will give sustain oscillations as require from any oscillator circuit.
272
Figure 5: Sustained Oscillations
A DC power source requires for amplifying action. It gives essential power to

transistor or tube or FET or any component/s under use for amplification the
signal. In the start, as oscillator switched on, Aβ is greater than unity. The
oscillations build up and the oscillations achieved at a set level, the gain of
amplifier decreases, and the value of the loop get unity [1], hence the oscillations
sustained.
(vi) Significance of positive feedback for oscillations: Positive feedback is
essential with unity gain to achieve sustained oscillation. As it mentioned earlier
that in practice actually the frequency tuning circuit looses the energy, in results
the oscillations get damped. Amplifier provides the feedback energy to the
frequency tuning circuit in the form of amplified signal.
Figure 6: Positive feedback in LC Oscillator [2]
273
This feedback signal should be in the same phase (0 or 360º) as provided by tuning
circuit at output. Since the amplifier circuit (e.g. Common Emitter) mostly revert
the phase. This output from amplifier with 180º phase feed to the tuning circuit
with ac coupling (e.g. Transformer coupling in LC circuit). This ac coupling again
revert the phase and the amplified signal come back in the phase so added to the
output. A typical LC oscillator is shown in figure above.
(vii) LC oscillators: In these types of oscillators tuning circuit is based on
inductor and capacitor resonance also called as tank circuit or resonant circuit.
Frequency tuning circuit consists of an inductor and capacitor in parallel. Such
types of circuits are widely used for generating high frequencies upto 500 MHz
with possible practical values of inductor and capacitors. Resonant based LC
oscillators are commonly used in Radio and TV receivers, RF generators, High
frequency induction heating etc.
Figure 7: Generation of sinusoidal oscillations in

LC tank circuit and generated oscillations [2].
274
In such oscillators sine waves generated due to charging and discharging of
inductor and capacitor alternatively over each other. The capacitor gets fully
charged as it is connected to a dc power source. The electric energy stored in the
capacitor. Further, the capacitor starts discharging as it is connected to the
inductor. The inductor has the property to oppose any change in current, hence the
current builds up slowly in the inductor. Maximum current flows in the circuit
when the capacitor is fully discharged. The inductor stored the energy in the form
of magnetic field. As the capacitor is fully discharged, the magnetic field begins to
collapse. The back emf in the inductor keeps the current flowing in the same
direction. The capacitor starts charging, but with opposite polarity this time. As the
capacitor fully charges, the current starts decreasing in the circuit and the magnetic
field across the inductor also decreased. This cycle repeats itself. The charging and
discharging of capacitor from inductor follow sinusoidal form; it gives sinusoidal
current across it.
(viii) Hartley oscillator: The circuit was invented in 1915 by American engineer
Ralph Hartley. If the oscillator consists of two inductors, and one capacitor in the
tank circuit then it is called Hartley oscillator. One of the coils is used to feed back
the voltage i.e. the voltage across L1 in actual is used to feedback the signal to the
amplifier circuit. In real design of Hartley there was tube amplifier in 1915. The
tube is replaced by BJT or FET. BJT in common Emitter (CE) implies in the
circuit as an amplifier. The CE amplifier provides a phase shift of 180º and the coil
L1 in the tank circuit provides phase shift of another 180º, this satisfies the required
oscillating condition of total phase shift of 360º (known as positive feedback).
The voltage across the YZ part of the coil is feed back to the base of transistor,
which is amplified and provided at output. The voltage at point Z is in 180oout-of-
phase relative to point X. Extra phase of 180o is created by CE configuration at
output (collector). Hence the feedback loop provides the correct phase relationship
of positive feedback for oscillations to be maintained.
275
L2
L1
Figure 8: Feedback by coil and phase shifts in Hartley Oscillator [2]
The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the center or tapping point
of the inductor. By moving the tapping point the amount of feedback can be
changed. If this is moved nearer to the collector the amount of feedback is
increased, but the output taken between the Collector and earth is reduced and vice
versa. Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor
in the normal manner while the capacitors act as DC-blocking and noise (AC) pass
capacitors.
(ix) Voltmeter: Voltmeter is an electronic device to measure the electric
potential difference between two terminals. Ideal voltmeter has the infinite
resistance.
There are two type of voltmeter
1. Analog voltmeter: An analog voltmeter consist a moving coil and display
the reading of voltage in the form of deflection by needle at calibrated scale.
276
Figure 9: Analog and Digital Voltmeter
2. Digital voltmeter: A digital voltmeter measures potential difference in

between two terminals by converting the voltage to a digital value and then
displays the voltage in numeric form.
(x) Capacitor: Capacitor is an energy storage device which stores energy in
the form of electric charge. Basically the capacitor consists of two parallel metal
plates which are separated by dielectric material. The ability of capacitor to store
the charge on its plate in the form of electric field is known as capacitance. The
capacitance (C) of a capacitor having plates with area ‘A’, separated by distance
‘d’ and filled by a dielectric material of K dielectric constant can be write as:
=
The capacitance is measured in Farad (a SI unit). Capacitor blocks the DC current
while it allow AC signal through itself. The reactance (XC; measured in ohms)
applied by capacitor on the AC current depends upon the frequency of the signal
and it given by
1
=
On the basis of used dielectric material the capacitors can be named as polyester,
ceramic, paper, electrolytic capacitor etc.
277
Figure 10: Various types of Capacitors available in market.
(xi) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO): Cathode ray oscilloscope is an
electronic device which is primary used to display of the waveforms. It is possible
the direct measurement of the frequency and amplitude of the wave forms with
CRO. Two inputs allows the superposition of two waves hence the Lissajou figures
can be studied also two wave forms can be compared.
Figure 11: CRO and its functions.

(Courtesy: http://spmphysics.onlinetuition.com.my/2013/06/using-cathode-ray-oscilloscope.html)
278
Switch in CRO Function
1. Power switch To switch on and off of the oscilloscope
2. Focus control To control the focus of the spot on the screen.
3. Intensity control To control the brightness of the spot on the screen.
4.X-offset Y-offset moves the whole trace vertically up and down
5. Y-offset on the screen, while X-offset moves the whole trace
from side to side on the screen.
6. Time base control Whenever we switch on the time-base, we are actually
applying a saw-tooth voltage to the X-plates (Figure
below).
* This make the electron beam sweep across the screen

at a constant speed.
* By knowing the period of each cycle, T, we can then
know how fast the beam is sweeping across the screen.
The time-base is thus a measure of time for the
oscilloscope.
7. Y gain control * The "Volts/Div." wheels amplify an input signal so
that for a division a given voltage level is in valid. A
"division" is a segment, a square on the screen of the
oscilloscope.
8. d.c./a.c. switch d.c. – d.c. and a.c. voltage displayed.
a.c. – only a.c. voltage displayed.
9. X-input and Y-input Electric inputs connect to the X-plate and Y-plate.
15.6
15.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What do you understand by an oscillator circuit?
Q.2 What is difference between oscillator and alternator?
Q.3 What are the advantages of oscillator over alternator?
Q.4 What is an audio frequency generator and what is its frequency range?
Q.5 What are uses of oscillator circuit in daily life?
279
15.7
15.7 Procedure
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit components illustrated in Figure 1.
2. Connect the output from tank circuit to CRO.
3. Switch on biasing power.
4. The oscillator may take a few seconds to stabilize.
5. Trace the waveform at trace paper and note down the time/division from CRO.
6. Measure the frequency of oscillation fO = 1/T (T = time period of wave).
7. Repeat this experiment with different values of capacitance.
8. Measure the voltage across feedback coil and output voltage across the load
resistance by tank circuit (ratio is β)
9. Measure the voltage at output (Collector and earth) of transistor and input (base
and earth); (ratio is gain of amplifier A)
10. Calculate the Barkhausen criterion.
15.8
15.8 Observation
Observation
L1 = …………………………………………………… Henery
L2 = …………………………………………………… Henery
M = …………………………………………………… Henery
S. Capacitance of Calculated value of Observed value of

No. Capacitor frequency frequency by CRO
(C) (ft) (fO)
µF or pF Hz Hz
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
280
15.9
15.9 Graph
Graph
1. MODEL WAVEFORM AT OUTPUT:
Figure 12: Model output at CRO.
15.10Calculations
15.10 Calculations
L1 = 225 mH ,L2 = 3 mH; M = -25 mH; C = 100 pF
1
=
2 ( + +2 )
1
=
2 × 3.14 100 × 10 (225 + 3 − 50) × 10
= 3.8 × 10 Hz
281
15.11
15.11Result
Result
Tracings of output
i. If C = ……… µF; Time division scale at CRO….. ……seconds/division
ii. If C = ……… µF; Time division scale at CRO….. ……seconds/division
iii. If C = ……… µF; Time division scale at CRO….. ……seconds/division
282
iv. If C = ……… µF; Time division scale at CRO….. ……seconds/division
v. If C = ……… µF; Time division scale at CRO….. ……seconds/division
Observed frequency of Hartley oscillator by CRO

i. Frequency fO = …………………………………….Hz (if C = ……µF).
ii. Frequency fO = …………………………………….Hz (if C = ……µF).
iii. Frequency fO = …………………………………….Hz (if C = ……µF).
iv. Frequency fO = …………………………………….Hz (if C = ……µF).
v. Frequency fO = …………………………………….Hz (if C = ……µF).
15.12
15.12Discussion
Discussion
283
15.13
15.13Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
SourcesofofError
Error
1. All the connections should be correct.
2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly.
3. Reading should be taken without any parallax error.
4. Biasing voltage should be proper and with accurate polarity.
15.14
15.14Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 How many types of oscillator?
Q.2 What is Barkhausen criterion for oscillator?
Q.3 Which feedback is used for oscillator?
Q.4 Why net phase shift in feedback loop should be zero in an oscillator circuit?
Q.5 In general how many parts of a oscillator circuit?
15.15Glossary
15.15 Glossary
Frequency: the number of cycles or vibrations undergone during one unit of time
by a body in periodic motion.
Inductance: It’s an electronic property of a coil which oppose to any change in
current passing through the coil.
Mutual Inductance: It’s an electronics property of magnetically coupled coils
where one coil opposes to any change in current due to change in magnetic field of
another coil.
Capacitance: capacitance in electronics is defined by capacity of metal to store the
charge.
15.16
15.16Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning Exercises
Learning Exercises
Answers to Self learning exercise -I
Ans.1:An electronic circuit that produces alternating current is known as oscillator
circuit.
284
Ans.2:Oscillator provide ac power source by withdrawing energy from dc power
source while in alternator mostly mechanical power is converted in ac
power.
Ans.3:Oscillator can provide high frequency range.
Ans.4:Audio frequency generator provides alternate current over audio frequency
range from 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
Ans.5:Oscillators are used in communication, induction heating, lab equipment
testing etc.
Answers to Self learning exercise -II
Ans.1: Two: Sinusoidal and non sinusoidal
Ans.2: Aβ = 1
Ans.3: Positive feedback
Ans.4: To add the amplified signal in the signal generated by tank circuit.
Ans.5: Three: frequency tuning circuit, amplifier and feedback circuit.
15.17Viva
15.17 VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is Oscillator circuit?
Q.2 What are the applications of oscillators?
Q.3 What are the classifications of oscillators?
Q.4 What are the types of feedback oscillators?
Q.5 What is meant by positive and negative feedback?
Q.6 What are the conditions for sustained oscillator or what is Backhouse
criterion?
Q.7 What if the Barkhausen criterion is not fulfilled by oscillator?
Q.8 What is LC oscillator?
Q.9 What do you mean by a tank circuit?
Q.10 What do you understand by damped oscillations?
Q.11 What are the common reasons for damping in the oscillations in an electronic
circuit?
285
Q.12 What is the role of amplifier in oscillator circuit?
Q.13 How does an oscillator differ from an amplifier?
Q.14 Give name of any non-sinusoidal oscillator
Q.15 Why tapping is used in Hartley oscillator?
Q.16 Is it possible to use CB amplifier in Hartley oscillator?
Q.17 What is gain for a oscillator circuit?
Q.18 How energy conserved law follow then?
Q.19 If feedback ratio is changed how the gain can be set so it fulfill the
Barkhausen criterion?
Q.20 How can we determine the frequency using CRO?
15.18Answers
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: An electronic circuit that produces alternating current is known as
oscillator circuit.
Ans.2: To test the performance of a stereo Amplifier we require an AC generator
in Audio frequency range. For all type of communication systems such as
Mobile, Radio, FM broadcasting, DTH-TV, Radar, etc. we require high
frequency current. These high frequency currents are provided by
oscillator circuits. The oscillator requires testing of components in
laboratory. Microwave ovens consists high frequency tube oscillator
circuits. High frequency current are used for Induction heating.
Ans.3: Sinusoidal and non sinusoidal.
Ans.4: Positive feedback.
Ans.5: The portion of output if feed back to the amplifier in the same phase it is
positive feedback and if it out of phase then negative feedback.
Ans.6: Aβ= 1.
Ans.7: The oscillations will be not sustained.
Ans.8: The frequency tuning circuit has an inductor and capacitor in parallel to
generate oscillations.
286
Ans.9: Frequency tuning circuit has an inductor and capacitor in parallel to
generate oscillations.
Ans.10: If amplitude of oscillations get reduce with time known as damped
oscillations.
Ans.11: Energy loss due to radiation and/or heat.
Ans.12: Amplifier amplifies the signal which was lost due to damping and fed to
the output that sustains the oscillations.
Ans.13: Amplifier amplifies the signal provided at input while an oscillator
provides signal at output in the absence of any input signal.
Ans.14: Multivibrator.
Ans.15: Tapping divides the coil in two parts; one part provides feedback the
voltage dropped across it.
Ans.16: In historically arrangement of coils it is not possible as amplifier should
provide 180 degree phase shift so rest of 180 is provided by feedback coil
to full fill Barkhausen criterion, while CB configuration provide output in
the same phase at input.
Ans.17: It is infinite
Ans.18: The dc Energy converted in ac energy.
Ans.19: By changing the biasing resistance.
Ans.20: The time-period of wave can be measured with the help of scale on the
screen of CRO and the invert of time-period of wave give the frequency.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits by N. N. Bhargava, D. C. Kulshreshtha,
S. C. Gupta, 2nd Edition, Mc Graw Hill Publications.
2. ElectronicTutorial;http://www.electronics- tutorials.ws /oscillator
/oscillators.html.
3. A Text Book of Electrical Technology by B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja, S.
Chand Publications.
287
UNIT-16 UNIT-16
Pass Filters Pass Filters
16.1 Aim
16.2 Apparatus
16.3 Diagram
16.4 Formula
16.5 Model Graph
16.8 Procedure
16.9 Observation
16.10 Graph
16.11 Calculations
16.12 Result
16.13 Discussion
16.14 Precautions and Source of error
16.16 Glossary
16.1 Aim
To study and design of frequency response of phase characteristics of pass filters.
288
16.2
16.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Capacitor, Inductors, Bread Board, Audio Frequency Generator, Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope.
16.3
16.3 Diagram
Diagram
Vin C Vout
Fig. 1: Circuit Diagram of low pass filter.
Vin R Vout
Fig. 2: Circuit Diagram of high pass filter.

16.4
16.4 Formula
Formula
Voltage Gain =
or = 20 dB
Here
Vout = Voltage at output terminals
Vin = Voltage at input terminals (Provided by frequency generator)
(i) RC low pass filter
289
Voltage gain =
Phase =−
Here
Higher cut off frequency =
fi = input frequency provided by frequency generator
(ii) RC High pass filter
Voltage gain =
Phase =
Here
= Lower cut off frequency
fi = Input frequency provided by frequency generator
16.5
16.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
Fig. 4: Frequency Response of low pass filter (a) change in gain with input
frequency (b) change in phase with input frequency.(Courtesy:
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_2.html)
290
Fig. 5: Frequency Response of high pass filter (a) change in gain with input
frequency (b) change in phase with input frequency (Courtesy:
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_2.html)
16.6
16.6 Theory
Theoryand
andDescription
Description
(i) Electric Filters: Electric filter is a frequency selective circuit, which allows
specific frequency range and rejects unwanted frequencies.
(ii) Classification of Filters: On the basis of components used in the circuit,
filters can be classified as:
1. Passive filter: The filter circuit in which only passive components such as
resistors, capacitors, inductors are used is known as passive filter.
2. Active filter: The filter circuit in which at least one or more active
components like transistor, op-amp are used is known as active filter.
Most commonly used filters are:
 Low pass filters
 High pass filters
 Band pass filter
1. Low pass filter: An electronic filter is a circuit which attenuates all the
frequencies higher than selected cut off frequency (fh) and allows only the lower
291
frequencies as shown in fig. 4. In frequency response, the frequency range below
cut of frequency (f < fh) filter indicates a pass band and for f > fh, the filter shows a
stop band.
2. High pass filter: Filters that attenuate lower frequencies and allow all the
frequencies those are higher than fl as shown in fig 4. In frequency response of high
pass filter below cut of frequency (f < fl) filter shows a stop band for f > fl filter
shows a pass band.
3. Band pass filter: Filter that stops high and low frequency and allows a particular
range of frequencies is known as band pass filter. The pass band for frequency
fl <f <fh and stop band for f > fh and f < fl.
RC filter circuit are like voltage divider where one resistance replaced by capacitor
we can also calculate on the terminals of capacitor as:
The reactance of capacitor is given by
=
So resultant impedance of circuit will be

= +
The voltage on capacitor

=
(iii) Frequency Response: The plot between amplitude (Voltage Gain) and
input signal frequency of electric circuit is known as frequency response. The
voltage gain of circuit varies with input signal frequency since the reactance by
capacitor depends upon frequency.
(iv) Gain: the ratio of output electrical measured quantity to the input one of the
electronic circuit is called gain. It can be current gain, voltage or power gain
accordingly,
Voltage gain in decibel = 20
(v) Voltmeter: Refer Unit 15
(vi) Capacitor: Refer Unit 15
(vii)Frequency Generator: A function generator or frequency generator is an
292
electronic device, which produce simple repetitive waveform. This device contain
an electronic oscillator (An electronic oscillator is a circuit that produce a time
varying signal such as sine wave, saw tooth wave, square wave etc. ) which
convert provided DC supply to a desired ac wave form with selected frequency. It
is possible to vary the amplitude of the wave also.
Fig. 7: Frequency or function generator. Fig.8:Cathod eRayOscilloscope (CRO)
(viii)Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

Cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic device which is primary used to display
of the waveforms. It is possible the direct measurement of the frequency and
amplitude of the wave forms with CRO. Two inputs allows the superposition of
two waves hence the Lissajou figures can be studied. Furthermore, two wave forms
can be compared. The CRO consist mainly three basic components electron gun,
deflection system, and fluorescent screen.
16.7 Self
16.7 SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is Reactance?
Q.2 What is unit of Reactance?
Q.3 What do you understand by frequency?
Q.4 What is the unit of gain?
Q.5 What is the dimension of phase?
16.8
16.8 Procedure
Procedure
1. Have the electronic bread board and stitch the components R and C of selected
293
values.
2. Add the frequency generator and set it for sine wave.
3. Complete the circuit and add all components i.e. function generator, R and C as
per given circuit diagram.
For low pass filter
1. Measure the voltage difference on the terminals of capacitor with the help of ac
voltmeter or CRO.
2. Vary the frequency of input signal from function generator and measure the
corresponding output voltage.
3. Find out the voltage gain as a function of frequency.
4. Plot the graph between gain and input frequency (for convenience we can take
logarithmic value of frequency).
5. Calculate and plot the phase as a function of input frequency (for convenience
we can take logarithmic value of frequency for plot).
For high pass filter
1. Measure the voltage difference on the terminals of resistance with the help of
ac voltmeter or CRO.
2. Vary the frequency of input signal from function generator and measure the
corresponding output voltage.
3. Find out the voltage gain as a function of frequency.
4. Plot the graph between gain and input frequency (for convenience we can take
logarithmic value of frequency).
5. Calculate and plot the phase as a function of input frequency (for convenience
we can take logarithmic value of frequency for plot).
16.9
16.9 Observation
Observation
Value of resistance (R) = …………………………… ………... Ohm
Value of capacitor (C) = ………………………………………. Farad
Table 1: Observation table for low pass filter.
294
S. Input Input Output Gain in Phase
No. frequency Voltage Voltage G= Vout/Vin Decibel (θ)
(fi) (Vin) across C dB degree
KHz Volt (Vout)
Volt
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Table 2: Observation table for high pass filter.

S. Input Input Output Gain in Phase
No. frequency Voltage Voltage G= Decibel (θ)
(fi) (Vin) across R Vout/Vin
KHz Volt (Vout) dB degree
Volt
1.
2.
3.
295
4.
5.
6.
16.10Graph
16.10 Graph
1. Low pass Filter
a. Graph between voltage gain (G) and input frequency (fi):
Scale: on X axis 1 cm = …… Hz
on Y axis 1 cm = ……db
Input
frequency(fi)
Hz
Voltage
Gain(G) dB
Fig. 9: Plot between voltage gain (G) and input frequency (fi)for low RC pass
filter.
296
b. Graph between Phase (θ) and input frequency (fi):
on Y axis 1 cm = ……degree
Input
frequency
(fi)Hz
Phase
angle
(θ)
degree
Fig. 10: Plot between phase angle (θ) and input frequency (fi)
for low pass RC filters.
297
2. High pass filter
a. Graph between voltage gain (G) and input frequency (f):
on Y axis 1 cm = ……db
Input
frequency
(fi) Hz
Voltage
Gain
(G)
dB
Fig. 11: Plot between voltage gain (G) and input frequency (fi)
for high pass RC filters.
b. Graph between Phase (θ) and input frequency (f):
298
on Y axis 1 cm = ……degree
Log10 fi
(Hz)
Phase
(degree)
Fig. 12: Plot between phase angle (θ) and input frequency (fi)
for high pass RC filters.
299
16.11
16.11Calculations
Calculations
Model Calculation:
1. Low pass filter
a. R and C selection
Let :
Input voltage Vin = 10 volt
The higher cut of frequency fh = 5 KHz
The value of capacitance C = 0.47 nF
1
=
2
1
=
2
1
=
2 × 3.14 × 0.47 × 10 × 5 × 10
= 67.7
b. Calculation for gain

(i) Theoretical calculation
if input frequency (fi )= 4 KHz and
higher cut off frequency (fh) is already selected = 5 KHz
1
= [ ]
1+
1
=
4 × 10
1+
5 × 10
= 0.78
or
= −2.16
(ii) Practical calculations

Voltage gain
300
= 20
Measured output voltage across capacitor
Vout = 7.7 volt (when input frequency fi = 4 KHz)
7.7
= 20
10
= −2.27
c. Calculation for Phase

(i) Theoretical calculations
Phase = − ( )
4 × 10
=−
5 × 10
= −38.68°
(ii) Practical calculations
Compare the phase difference in between input and output waves with the help of
CRO.
2. High pass filter
a. R and C selection
Let: Input voltage Vin = 10 volt
The lower cut of frequency fl = 1 KHz
The value of capacitance C = 0.01 µf
1
=
2
1
=
2
1
=
2 × 3.14 × 0.01 × 10 × 1 × 10
= 15.9
b. Calculation for gain (G)

(i) Theoretical calculation
if input frequency (fi ) = 2 KHz and
lower cut off frequency (fl) is already selected = 1 KHz
301
1
=
1+
1
=
1 × 10
1+
2 × 10
= 0.89
= −0.96
(iii) Observed value of gain

= 20
Measured output voltage across capacitor
Vout = 9.0 volt (when input frequency fi = 2 KHz)
9.0
= 20
10
= −0.91
c. Calculation for Phase
(i) Theoretical calculations
Phase = ( )
1 × 10
=
2 × 10
= 26.56°
(iii) Practical calculations
Compare the phase difference in between input and output waves with the help of
CRO.
16.12
16.12Result
Result
302
16.13
16.13Discussion
Discussion
16.14 Precautions
16.14 Precautions and and Sources
Sources of error
of error
1. All connections should be tight.
2. The length of connecting wire should not be exceeding too long so experiment
can be escape from the heat loss.
3. Keep off the supply to the board and then make interconnections.
4. The input voltage in circuit to be kept of proper magnitude.
16.15
16.15Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 What is cut off frequency?
Q.2 What type of RC filter can be considered?
Q.3 Why the capacitors allow the ac current while stops dc current?
Q.4 Why the capacitors attenuate high on low frequency?
Q.5 What is the effect of input frequency on the gain of high pass filter?
16.16Glossary
16.16 Glossary
Attenuation: Any reduction in the strength of a signal.
Frequency: Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per
unit time.
Pass band: The range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a filter
without being attenuated.
Stop band: The attenuated range of frequencies or wavelengths by a filter.
16.17
16.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Answers to Self Learning Exercises-I
303
Ans.1: Reactance is an opposition to change of voltage across capacitor or
inductor.
Ans.2: Ohm (Ω).
Ans.3: Cycle/second.
Ans.4: Dimensionless.
Ans.5: Time-1
Answers to Self Learning Exercises-II
Ans.1: For low pass filter input frequency where gain is 70.7% of maximum gain.
Ans.2: Passive filter.
Ans.3: Reactance for dc current is infinity and for ac current is low.
Ans.4: Reactance for capacitor = as the frequency is decreases in results
the reactance increases so the attenuation by capacitor high at low
frequency.
Ans.5: Gain increases as the input frequency increases.
16.18Viva
16.18 VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is frequency response?
Q.2 What is voltage gain?
Q.3 Where we measure output voltage in RC low pass filter?
Q.4 Where we measure output voltage in RC high pass filter?
Q.5 What will happen if we combine low pass and high filter?
Q.6 What are applications in daily life uses of these filters?
Q.7 How it will affect if the capacitance is high in high pass filter?
Q.8 What is frequency generator?
Q.9 What are the filters?
Q.10 How many types of filters?
Q.11 What are the passive components?
Q.12 What are the active components?
304
Q.13 What will be the phase between in current and voltage for the capacitor?
Q.14 How the reactance of capacitor change with the frequency?
Q.15 What are the examples of passive filters?
Q.16 What are the examples of active filters?
Q.17 How we represent the gain in decibel?
Q.18 What is band width?
Q.19 What is resonant frequency?
Q.20 How we calculate the resonate frequency for band pass filter.
16.19Answers
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Curve between gain and input frequency is known as frequency response.
Ans.2: Ratio of output and input voltage is voltage gain.
Ans.3: On the terminal of capacitor.
Ans.4: On the terminal of resistor.
Ans.5: It will form the band pass filter.
Ans.6: LCR filter we use in tuning radio on particular channel.
Ans.7: High value of C result more attenuation.
Ans.8: An electronic device which produce time varying electric signal.
Ans.9: Filter is electronic circuit that remove unwanted frequency and allow
required frequency.
Ans.10: On the basis of component use in filter are two type (a) Passive filter and
(b) active filter.
Ans.11: Resistance, capacitor and inductor.
Ans.12: Transistor, diode.
Ans.13:
Ans.14:
Ans.15: RC, LC RL LCR pi filter T section filter etc.
Ans.16: Transistor, operational amplifier with passive filter circuit.
305
Ans.17: Gain in decibel = 20 db
Ans.18: The difference between higher cut off frequency and lower cut off
frequency is called band width.
Ans.19: Resonant frequency =
Ans.20: For band pass filter that input frequency where gain is maximum.
Referencesand
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Electronic Fundamentals and Applications by J.D. Ryder, Prentice-Hall
Publications.
2. Electronic Principles by A.P. Malvino, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited.
3. Handbook of Electronics by S.L. Gupta and V. Kumar, Pragati Prakashan.
306
UNIT-17
Planck’s Constant using Solar Cell
17.1 Aim
17.2 Apparatus
17.3 Diagram
17.4 Formula
17.5 Model Graph
17.8 Procedure
17.9 Observation
17.10 Graph
17.11 Calculations
17.12 Result
17.13 Discussion
17.16 Glossary
17.1
17.1 Aim
Aim
To determine the Planck’s constant using solar cell
307
17.2
17.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
(i) Optical Bench. (ii) Solar cell
(iii) Optical filters (iv) Convex lens
(v) D.C. microammeter (0-50µA) (vi) Light source with lamp house
(iv) D.C. Power supply
17.3
17.3 Diagram
Diagram
Convex
Filte Photovoltaic
+ Lens
Light
E
source
–
V
Microamme
I
Optic
al
Fig.1. Diagram of experimental Arrangement for the determination of Planck’s constant
Fig.1. Experimental Arrangement of OMEGA TYPE ES-214

308
17.4
17.4 Formula
Formula
Planck’s constant
2.3026 k B
h  slope 
ν
2.3026 λ k B
or h  slope 
c
Here slope of the curve between 1/T and log10Iph is taken.
17.5
17.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
log 10 I ph
B C
1/T (K-1)
17.6 Theory
17.6 Theoryand
andDescription
Description
Introduction
Radiation can be defined as a wave that consists of oscillating electric and
magnetic field is called electromagnetic wave. It is characterized by its wavelength
(λ) and frequency ν (number of oscillations of fields per second). Wavelength and
frequency are related as
λν  c
Where c is the velocity of the wave (radiation) and its value is generally 3×108
m/s2.
We know that different solid emit radiations at different rate at the same
temperature as a result of thermal motion of particles which they are made
309
(temperature dependent spectra). The rate of emission is maximum when the solid
is perfectly black i.e., behaves as blackbody.
A blackbody is a system that converts heat into radiant energy. By heating an
object to different temperatures causes that object to radiate energy of different
wavelengths. Wavelength depends only on temperature not on type of material.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body is called blackbody
radiation. By definition, a perfect blackbody can absorbs all radiation that fall on it.
For practical purpose a hollow enclosure with small hole through which radiation
from outside is absorbed completely due to repeated reflection inside the
enclosure.
Absorbing incident
radiation
Fig. Blackbody Radiation

Theory of blackbody radiation was successfully explained by Max Planck based on
idea of photon concept. Planck’s proposed that energy that emitted from a
blackbody is quantized. The oscillators can absorb or emit energy in discrete
multiples of the fundamental quantum (h) of energy given by
En = nhν,
where n is an integer, ν is the frequency, and h is called Planck’s constant.
h  6.6261  10 34 J  S
The Planck’s law gives us the energy density of radiation per unit in the frequency
range ν to ν  dν . This is denoted as U( ν) dν .
8 π hν 3 dν
U( ν)dν  3 (1)
c  hν 
exp    1
 kT 
310
With the symbols have usual meaning:
T (Temperature) – °C
c (speed of light) – 3×108 m/s
k (Boltzmann constant) – 1.38×10-23 J/K
h (Planck’s constant) – 6.62×10-34 J-s
U(ν) dν (spectral radiance) – W/m2 Hz sr
Fig shows the graph between U(ν) vs. ν(frequency) for a given temperature T.
T2
T2 >T1
U(ν)
T1
ν (frequency)
hν
In high frequency region (visible), where  1 eqn.1 can be approximated as
kT
8 π hν 3  hν 
U( ν)  3 exp    (2)
c  kT 
eqn.2 is called Wien’s formula
8 π hν 3
If A  3 , then
c
 hν 
U( ν)  Aexp    (3)
 kT 
Taking log on both side of eqn.3
hν
logU( ν)  logA  (4)
kT
311
In this experiment, a tungsten filament lamp is used as black body radiator. A
monochromatic filter is selected for radiation of frequency in the visible region. It
is known that the radiation energy is directly proportional to photocurrent (Iph).
Thus
U( ν)  I ph
or U( ν)  BI ph (5)
Taking log on both side of eqn.4, we get
logU(ν)  logB  logI ph (6)
From eqn.4 and 5, we obtain
hν
logB  logI ph  logA 
kT
hν
logI ph  (logA  logB) 
kT
hν
or log10 I ph  (log10 C)  (7)
2.3026 kT
where
log 10 C  (log 10 A  log 10 B)
Hence this eqn.7 is analogous to equation of straight line y=mx+c. Therefore, the
graph between logIph vs. 1/T will be a straight line with slope of magnitude
hν/2.3026kB.
hν
slope 
2.3026k B
A
log 10 I ph
B C
1/T (K-1)
Therefore,
312
2.3026 k B
h slope  (8)
ν
Substituting values of all constants ν, KB and slope we can determine the value of
Planck’s constant.
Determination of Temperature of filament of the tungsten bulb.
By applying potential V across the bulb filament the current I flow through it. Then
the resistance R can be find out as
V
R
I
The resistance of bulb filament depends on the temperature as well. Therefore the
resistance of filament at the temperature T is
R T  R 0 [1  α ( T  T0 )] (9)
where
α: thermal resistance coefficient
for tungsten α=4.5×10-3 K-1 (at room temperature)
RT= Resistance of filament at the temperature T K.
R0= Resistance of filament at the room temperature (T0=300K).
This formula can only be used at the low temperature but at high temperature
x
RT  T 
 
R 0  T0 
Here x can be determined by curve fitting technique. For best fitting it is found at
x=1.2, thus
1 1.2 0.833
R  R 
T  T0  T   T0  T  (10)
 R0   R0 
This is called as Langmuir formula.
In Laboratory it is difficult to find out the resistance of filament at the room
temperature (300K) because when a current flows through the filament, it gets
heated and temperature rises. Below 798K which corresponds to infrared region
(By Wien displacement law), the filament does not bright. As we increase the
temperature above 798K, the filament starts to glow up which corresponds to the
313
visible region (i.e., filament switches from infrared region to the visible region).
This temperature is called draper temperature or draper point.
The Draper point is the approximate temperature (525˚ C, 977˚ F) above which
bulb filament just starts to glow as a result of blackbody radiation.
Now using TD instead of T0
1 1.2 0.833
R  R 
T  TD  T   TD  T  (11)
 RD   RD 
where RD is draper resistance.
Solar Cell
A solar cell is a semiconductor device that converts sunlight (solar light) from the
sun into electricity based on the principles of photovoltaic effect. In general a solar
cell that includes both solar and non-solar sources of light (such as photons from
incandescent bulb) is termed as photovoltaic cell. When light strikes on the
photovoltaic cell then it is absorbed by semiconducting materials. This absorption
of light creates charge carriers (electron-hole pairs) generating electrical power.
Photons from light source

Front contact
N- Type
Silicon
PN- junction Load
P- Type
Silicon
Back contact
Fig. Solar cell structure
314
Light Bulb (incandescent lamp)
A tungsten light bulb is an artificial source of light in home. It converts the electric
power into light energy by passing current through the tungsten filament coil by
causing Joule heating effect. Light bulb is usually is filled with an inert gas like
argon. Incandescent light bulbs are spatially and temporally incoherent light
sources. A light bulb emits incoherent light of different wavelengths. There is no
fixed phase relationship between the wavelengths.
Collimator
A collimator is an optical device that filters the stream of rays or optical beam so
that they travel parallel or narrow (minimum spread) along the specified direction
through it. In experiment, a collimator consists of a convex lens with a light bulb
and apertures (a simple hole is made at the centre of circular surface of the steal
cane) which collects light from bulb and redirects it.
Collimator
Collimated
Convex beam
Photovoltaic
Light source Lens
Optica
l
Fig. parallel light from collimator
Color Filters
A colour filter is an optical element which absorbs a band of wavelength of light
and transmits different wavelength. The emitted radiations from filter are
temporally coherent (monochromatic). For example, a red filter transmits only red
light, this is because the red filter only allows red light pass through it. The
315
experiment can be performed with the different colour of filters. The wavelength of
three primary coloures filters are
Filter colour Approximate
Transmitted
Wavelength(Å)
Blue 4300 - 4900
Green 4900 - 5800
Red 6200 - 7500
17.7 Self
17.7 SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 Define Black body radiation.
Q.2 Define black body.
Q.3 What is Wien’s law?
Q.4 What is Draper point?
Q.5 What is formula of Planck for a blackbody?
17.8 Procedure
17.8 Procedure
This experiment setup is designed to determine the value of Planck's (h) constant
using a incandescent light bulb (60 watt) as a source of black-body radiation. An
optical filter is used for selecting a particular wavelength in the visible range. A
solar cell (Photovoltaic cell) is used as photodetector to measure photointensity at
the different illumination of incandescent light bulb.
Firstly students will measure the temperature of the incandescent bulb filament and
then will determine the value of Planck's constant by taking into account the varied
intensities and temperatures of bulb filament.
1. To find resistance of the bulb filament when it just starts glowing:
Connect the set-up as shown in figure and switched it ON. Now apply current
to the bulb filament by power supply in such a way that it just starts glowing
(draper point). Note the reading of filament current and voltage to determine
316
the resistance at the draper point. Take at least three readings to the get the
better value of RD.
2. To find RT/RD of bulb filament:
It is known that the bulb filament attains different intensities and temperature at
the different currents and voltages. Now further increase the filament current
and note down the corresponding values of filament voltages to determine the
RT/RD. Same time photo current is also measured by microammeter. Record all
these readings in table-II as shown below.
3. Plot the curve between 1/T and log10Iphand it will be straight line with negative
slope. Calculate the Planck’s constant from the slope of the curve.
4. Repeat the experiments for other filters (green, yellow etc.).
17.9
17.9 Observation
Observation
1. Draper point temperature, TD= 798 K
2. TABLE.1. for resistance (RD) of bulb filament, when it just starts glowing.
S.No. Filament Voltage V Filament Current I RD (Ohm) Average RD

(Volt) (Amp)
1
2
3
3. Average value of RD=…….ohm.

4. TABLE.2. for RT/RD, of bulb filament.
S.No. Filament Filament RT 0.833 Photo Current
Voltage V Current I
R 
(Ohm) T  TD  T  Iph(µA)
(Volt) (Amp)  RD 
1
2
3
4
5
317
6
7
8
9
10
…
5. Make the same table.2. for other filters ( green, yellow etc.).
17.10
17.10Graph
Graph
Plot the curve between 1/T and log10Iph on graph paper and determine the slope the
curve.
17.11
17.11Calculations
Calculations
1. Resistance of bulb filament at the draper point
VD
RD   ..........Ω
ID
2. Plot the curve between 1/T and log10Iph and determine the slope the curve
m

Δ log 10 I ph   ..........
1
Δ 
T
3. Planck’s constant
2.3026 k B
h slope   ...........
ν
2.3026 λ k B
or h slope   ...........
c
4. Repeat the same procedure for other wavelengths (filters).
Thus the Planck’s constant can be obtained for filters of three primary colors as
(a) For blue filter (4360Å)
318
λ  4360 ×10-10 m
Putting K B  1.38 × 10-23 J/K
c  3 ×108 m/s
2.3026 (4360 ×10 -10 m)(1.38 × 10 -23 J/K)
h slope 
(3 ×108 m/s)
h(blue)  4.62  10 36 (slope)
Similarly,
(b) For green filter (5460Å)
h(blue)  5.79  10 36 (slope)
(c) For red filter (7200Å)
h(blue)  7.63  10 36 (slope)
Mean value of Planck’s constant (mean)
h(blue)  h(green)  h(red)
h  ....... J - sec
3
17.12
17.12Result
Result
The measured value of Planck’s constant h =…………..
The standard value of Planck’s constant h =6.62×10-34 J-s
h Standard  h exp
% error in the experiment =  100
h Standard
17.13
17.13Discussion
Discussion
17.14
17.14Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
light.
319
(3) Draper point must be observed carefully.
(4) Optical elements, light bulb, solar cell and lens must be clean because
deposition of dust particle leads to scattering of light.
(5) This experiment should be performed at least with three colour of filters.
17.15
17.15Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 What are the Planck’s assumptions?
Q.2 At the high frequency Planck’s law reduced into which law?
Q.4 What type of lens is used to concentrate the light on solar cell in this
experiment?
Q.5 What is LED?
17.16
17.16Glossary
Glossary
LED : Light Emitting Diode
Draper point : it is the approximate temperature (525˚ C, 977˚ F) above which
bulb filament just starts to glow as a result of blackbody radiation.
17.17
17.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body (heating object) is
called blackbody radiation.
Ans.2: A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs all of the radiation that
falls on it. Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.
Ans.3: The wavelength of radiation emitted by blackbody is inversely proportional
to the temperature of blackbody and product is a universal constant
Ans.4: The Draper point is the approximate temperature (525˚ C, 977˚ F) above
which bulb filament just starts to glow as a result of blackbody radiation.
320
8 π hν 3 dν
Ans.5: U( ν)dν 
c3  hν 
exp    1
 kT 
Ans.1: Planck postulated that the electromagnetic energy is emitted in discrete
manner not continuously (like by vibrating oscillators), by small entity “photon”
Ans.2: For short wavelength, Planck's radiation law approaches the Wien’s Law.
Ans.3: 6.62×10-34 Joule-sec.
Ans.4: Double convex lens.
Ans.5: Light emitting diode is a semiconductor opto-electronic device which
converts the electrical energy into light energy.
17.18
17.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is radiation?
Q.2 The dimension of Planck’s constant is equivalent to which physical
quantity?
Q.3 What is the value of Planck’s constant in CGS unit?
Q.4 What is incandescent lamp? How does it work?
Q.5 The filament of bulb is made up of which metal?
Q.6 What is the meaning of the quantity U(ν ) and U( ν) dν in the Planck’s law?
Q.7 What is unit of the quantity U( ν) dν ?
Q.8 Write the Planck’s radiation law in terms of wavelength?
Q.9 What is the role of filter in this experiment?
Q.10 Which electronic device can be used in place of solar cell in the
experiment?
Q.11 Can we use other light sources in place of light bulb (incandescent lamp).
Q.12 What is the temperature of tungsten filament when bulb glows?
Q.13 What is emitted wavelength by tungsten filament bulb if temperature of
filament is 2700K.
321
Q.14 Why does use tungsten as a filament in light bulb?
Q.15 What are three primary colors?
Q.16 Define Stefan Boltzmann’s law.
Q.17 What is Kirchhoff’s Law?
Q.18 What is the range of visible region?
Q.19 What colour of light will transmit through the green filter as shown in
figure below?
Sun
17.19 Answers
17.19 to Viva
Answers Questions
to Viva Questions
Ans.1: Radiation is the process of energy transfer in the space without necessity of
transfer medium.
Ans.2: Angular momentum.
Ans.5: Tungsten
Ans.6: Radiation energy and energy density.
Ans.7: From Planck’s radiation law
3
8 πν 2 hν  J - s  s 1 
U( ν)dν  3
 hν 
dν  3 s   J
1
m2
c
exp    1  m .s 1
 kT 
which is unit of an energy density.
Ans.8: The Planck’s radiation law in terms of frequency
8π ν 2 hν
U( ν, T ) dν  dν
c3  hν 
exp    1
 kT 
By frequency and wavelength relationship
322
c c
ν  dν   d
 2
8π  c2  h c d  c
U( , T) d  3  2   2 
c     hc    
exp   1
  kT 
8 π hc d
U( , T) d 
5  hc 
exp   1
  kT 
Ans.9: Filter absorbs a specific band of wavelengths of light and transmits the
other wavelengths. For example red filter transmits light in red wavelength and
blue transmits blue. Color glasses refer to as optical filter glasses, known for its
specific absorption at visible wavelengths region. These optical filters appear
colored when their absorption occurs at visible region.
Ans.10: LDR (Light dependent resistor).
Ans.11: Yes. For example, Light emitting diode (LED), sodium light, mercury
light, Fluorescent etc.
Ans.12: ~ 2700K.
Ans.13: Wien displacement law
λmax T = 2880 μmK
2800  106
 max   1.04  10 6 m
2700
Ans.14: Tungsten has low vapor pressure and high melting point provide a specific
utility in light bulb. Because tungsten can stay with high temperature (the filament
temperature is 2700K) of the filament of bulb when glow it.
Ans.15: Red, Green and blue
Ans.16: The total blackbody emission radiance (power per unit surface area) is
proportional the fourth power of the absolute temperature, T. This result is known
as “Stefan’s law.”
I  σT 4
where Stefan -Boltzmann’s constant is given by
σ  5.67 10 8 Wm 2 K 4
323
Ans.17: For any radiating objects (hot objects), the emissivity and absorbitvity are
equal to each other:
ελ  a λ
Ans.18: Blue to red/ VIBGYOR (4000-7000Ǻ).
Colour Wavelength(Å)
Violet 3800 - 4500
Indigo 4200 - 4500
VIBGYOR Blue 4500 - 4950
Green 4950 - 5700
Yellow 5700 - 5900
Orange 5900 - 6200
Red 6200 - 7500
Ans.19: Green, because sun is white light source which consisting of seven colour.
When sunlight pass through the filter only green light transmits and rests are
absorbed.
Referencesand
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. H.S.Palsania, Sardar Singh, “Practical Physics”. College Book House,
Jaipur (2014).
2. Omega electronics manual, “ Determination of Planck’s constant by solar cell”.
OMEGA TYPE ES – 214.
3. Gupta & Kumar, “Practical Physics”.
324
UNIT-18
Field Effect Transistor
18.1 Aim
18.2 Apparatus
18.3 Diagram
18.4 Formula
18.5 Model Graph
18.8 Procedure
18.9 Observation
18.10 Graph
18.11 Calculations
18.12 Result
18.13 Discussion
18.16 Glossary
25.1
18.1 Aim
Aim
To study the characteristics of Field Effect Transistor.
325
18.2
18.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
FET, Two variable power supplies, two voltmeters, Milli-ammeter and connecting
terminals.
18.3
18.3 Diagram
Diagram
ID (mA) +
−
−
+
− − +
VGS − VDS −
−
+ +
− −
Figure 1: Circuit diagram for FET characteristics
18.4 Formula
18.4 Formula
(i) ON resistance of FET (rON): Reciprocal of the slope drawn to the output
characteristics curve near the origin.
∆
= (At constant VGS)
∆
(ii) Drain resistance of FET (rd):

∆
= (At constant VGS)
∆
This slope includes both Ohmic and saturation regions.

326
(iii) Transconductance or mutual conductance (gm): The slope drawn to the
transfer characteristics curve
∆
= (At constant VDS)
∆
(iv) Amplification factor (µ):
= ×
VDS = Drain Voltage
VGS = Source Voltage
ID = Drain Current
18.5
18.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
VA
A B C
Figure 2: Drain characteristics
327
Figure 3: Mutual characteristics
18.6
18.6 Theory
Theoryand
andDescription
Description
(i) Introduction:
The field effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which
the current is controlled by an applied electric field. The name field effect is
derived from the fact that the current flow in the device is controlled by an electric
field applied by an externally applied voltage source [2].
There are two main categories of field effect transistors:
(a) Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
(b) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
MOS transistor requires small area on a chip in comparison to BJT and also digital
logic memory functions can be implemented using these MOS type transistor. It is
the reason for very large integrated circuits MOSFET presented itself as a basic
building block of chip [2]. FET also called as ‘unipolar transistor’ because the
current is carried by one type of carriers in the FET (The majority charge carriers)
328
while in BJT current is carried out by both type of charge carriers (electrons and
holes).
Gate (P type)
Source
Drain
Gate (P type) Channel (N type)
Figure 4: Structure of N channel JFET
(ii) Structure:
The junction field-effect transistor (JFET) consists of a segment of semiconductor
material (Either N -type or P-type) resulting in either an N-channel JFET or a P-
channel JFET. The basic structure of an N-channel JFET is shown in figure 4. Two
metal Ohmic contacts are deposited to the two ends of the semiconductor bar and
current flows along the length of the bar in the influence of applied voltage
between the two ends. The left end of the bar is called the source (S), through
which the majority charge carriers enter the channel and the right end is called the
drain (D) through which the charge carriers leave the bar [3]. On the transversal
edges of semiconductor N-type bar, near to its centre, heavily doped P-type
material is diffused. These junctions form two P-N diodes and are called the gate
(G), which control the carrier flow. The region of semiconductor material (N-type
in this case) material between the two gate regions is called channel through which
the majority charge carriers move from source to drain. The source, drain, and gate
terminals in FET are analogues to that of emitter, collector and base terminals,
329
respectively, in case of BJT. The source and drain terminals are interchangeable
i.e., either end can be used as source and the other end as drain. The voltage
between the gate and source is such that the gate is reversed biased.
S
N channel JFET
P channel JFET
Figure 5: Symbols of N channel and P channel JFET
The P-channel JFET is similar in construction that it uses P-Type bar and two N
type junctions. The majority carriers in this case are holes which flow through the
channel. Schematic symbols for N-channel and P-channel JFETs are shown in
figure 5. The vertical line in the symbol represents the channel to which source S
and drain D are connected. The gate arrow always points to N-type material.
330
Figure 6: Understanding of working of JFET through a faucet [5].
(iii) Working:
JFETs are often used as switches or voltage-controlled resistors, and their
operation can easily be compared to that of a faucet as shown in figure 6. If we
consider that we can control the flow of water through a faucet by adjusting
a valve, we can then compare a JFET by assigning the source terminal as the water
source, the gate as the valve, and the drain as the physical drain [5].
Figure 7a: Working of JFET [5].
331
Figure 7b: Working of JFET [5].
In the electronic functioning of JFET, the voltage applied between drain and source
force the electrons to flow through the channel.
The drain current ID can be determined initially by the value of VDS, since FET is
just like an Ohmic resistor from source to drain. The potential close to drain –gate
junction is higher than drain-source junction. The source-gate junctions (P-N
junctions) are applied reverse-bias for functioning of JFET. The reverse biased P-N
junction develops depletion regions, as shown in figure 7. The depletion region
interrupts the flow of electrons from source to drain. As the reverse bias is
increased, the size of the depletion regions increases and the drain current is
reduced. When the reverse current is large enough for the two depletion regions
(upper and lower) to meet, the channel becomes almost closed and the drain
current pinches off [3]. The reverse bias required for pinch off is called as pinch
332
off voltage Vp. The channel do not completely off the current, at pinch off voltage
and the channel width reduces to a constant minimum value. It is because, if the
current will be stopped completely by channel there will be no any voltage across
source and drain hence there would be no voltage drop along the length of the
channel. Thus the reverse bias would become uniform along the channel length in
results the channel will straight in shape and will open at the drain end [2]. The
drain current through the channel depends upon the degree to which the electric
field applied to the channel which decreases the conductance of the transistor.
Hence the name ‘field-effect transistor (FET) has given to this device.
(iv) Characteristics curves:

 Drain characteristics: The drain current ID increase proportionally for the
lower values of drain source voltage (VDS) following Ohm's law as shown in figure
3. In this region (AB) the JFET behaves like an ohmic resistor. If VGS is increased
(it's more negative to n-channel), depletion will be immediately generated in the
channel so that the current required to pinch off the channel will be decreased. The
drain source voltage above which drain current becomes constant is called the
pinch off voltage (VP) and the point B is called pinch off or knee point. As the VDS
further increases beyond this pinch off voltage, the drain current becomes saturates
for maximum drain current and denoted by IDSS. The region BC is called saturation
region or pinch off region.
If VDS is increased beyond avalanche breakdown voltage VA corresponding to
point C, JFET enters the breakdown region where small changes in VDS produce
very large changes in ID and it is due to the avalanche breakdown of reverse-biased
gate-channel P-N junction [3, 4].
 Transfer characteristics: Another characteristic curve for JFET is transfer
characteristic curve. This is a variation curve of drain current ID corresponding to
gate-source voltage VGS while the drain-source voltage VDS is constant. Two
points, IDSS and VP are the most important points in this transfer characteristic
curve. The pinch-off voltage (VP) can also be known from this graph.
333
V
I =I (1 − )
V
18.7
18.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 JFET is a current operating or voltage operating device?
Q.2 What is difference between current controlled and voltage controlled device?
Q.3 What is the difference between JFET and a bipolar transistor?
Q.4 How many Diodes a JFET have?
Q.5 In which mode JFET is work?
18.8
18.8 Procedure
Procedure
To study the output and transfer characteristics of FET the essential components
are connected as shown in figure 1 by keeping in mind the polarity of devices. In
the start the voltage through DC power supply should be at minimum level.
a. Output or drain characteristics:
(i) Keeping the gate voltage (VGS) constant at appropriate value, the drain
voltage (VDS) is varied in steps and corresponding drain current ID is noted in
the Table 1.
(ii) This process is repeated for at least two more but different values of gate
voltage.
(iii) Plot the graph between VDS and ID for different values of gate voltages VGS.
These curves are known as drain characteristics.
b. Transfer or mutual Characteristics:
(i) To obtain mutual characteristics curve keep fix the drain voltage at
appropriate value and vary the gate voltage VGS and note down the
corresponding drain current ID.
(ii) Repeat this process at least for two more but different values of drain
voltage.
(iii) Plot the graph between VGS and ID for different values of drain voltage VDS.
These curves are known as mutual characteristics.
(iv) Find the cut off voltage VP for which the drain current is zero.
334
18.9 Observation
18.9 Observation
a. Output or drain characteristics:
Table 1: Drain Characteristics
VGS = ……….volt VGS = ……….volt VGS = ……….volt

S. VDS ID VDS ID VDS ID
No. (Volt) (mA) (Volt) (mA) (Volt) (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
b. Mutual Characteristics:
335
Table 2: Mutual Characteristics
VDS = ……….volt VDS = ……….volt VDS = ……….volt

S.
No. VDS ID VDS ID VDS ID
(Volt) (mA) (Volt) (mA) (Volt) (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
18.10
18.10Graph
Graph
Model graph
336
Figure 8: Drain Characteristics
Figure 9: Mutual Characteristics
337
18.11
18.11Calculations
Calculations
Model Calculations
(i) Drain resistance:
From figure 8 corresponding to VGS = 1 V (including both saturation and ohmic
regions)
∆ =1
∆ = 0.8
∆
=
∆
0.8
=
1 × 10
= 800
(ii) Mutual conductance (gm):

From figure 9 corresponding to VDS = 2.8 Volt
∆ = 2.0
∆ = 0.4
∆
=
∆
2 × 10
=
0.4
= 5 × 10
(iii) Amplification factor (µ):

= ×
= 800 × 5 × 10
=4
338
18.12
18.12Result
Result
(i) Short gate drain current IDSS, i.e. saturation drain current for VGS = 0V:
IDSS = …………………mA
(ii) Pinch off voltage VP: The minimum VDS for saturation drain current
VP = ………………….. V
(iii) ON resistance of FET
rON = ………………….. Ω
(iv) Drain resistance of FET
rD = ……………………Ω
(v) Transconductance:
gm = …………………. siemen
(vi) Amplification factor:
µ = …………………….
18.13
18.13Discussion
Discussion
18.14Precautions
andSource
Sourcesof of error
errors
1. Check the continuity of the connecting terminals before going to connect the
circuit.
2. Identify the source, drain and gate terminals of the FET properly before
connecting it in the circuit.
339
3. While taking the readings in the table-1(for output characteristics) VDS should
also be increased after ID attaining saturation value.
18.15
18.15Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 What are the applications of JFET?
Q.2 What is the difference between MOSFET and JFET?
Q.3 What is unit of transconductance?
Q.4 What do you mean by pinch off voltage?
Q.5 What are the advantages of FET over BJT?
18.16
18.16Glossary
Glossary
Source: The source is terminal which the majority carriers
Drain: the drain is the terminal through which the majority carriers leave the bar
Gate: on both sides the N type bar, heavily doped P regions are formed, these
regions are called gates. Usually, the two gates are joined together to form a single
gate.
Channel: The region between the source and drain, sandwiched between the two
gates, is called channel. The majority carriers move from source to drain through
this channel.
18.17Answers
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: JFET is a voltage operating device.
Ans.2: In a current controlled device output is controlled by current while in a
voltage controlled device the output depends upon applied field.
Ans.3: BJT is a current controlled device while JFET is a voltage operating
device, in BJT current is carried by both types of charge carries while in
JFET current is carried only one type of charge carriers, JFET occupy
smaller area on chip in comparison to BJT.
Ans.4: Two.
Ans.5: Active mode.
340
Ans.1: Mostly JFET is used as switch or as voltage controller device.
Ans.2: MOS transistor requires small area on a chip in comparison to BJT and
also digital logic memory functions can be implemented using these MOS
type transistor. It is the reason for very large integrated circuits MOSFET
presented itself as a basic building block of chip.
Ans.3: The voltage at which drain current attains its saturated value and further
no change even drains source voltage is increased.
Ans.4: Siemen.
Ans.5: The advantages of FET over BJT are as follows:
(i)In FET "thermal runaway" never occurs but in BJT it occurs easily.
Thermal runaway means overheating and damage of transistor due to
different biasing voltages.
(ii)Since FET is a uni-polar device so only one carrier type is required
here, but BJT is a bipolar device.
(iii)FET is smaller in size than BJT of same rating. In a approximation in
the same space of 10 BJTs we can use 90 FETs. Hence the area
consumption is less.
18.18
18.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is the value of drain current ID for gate-to-source voltages VGS less
than the pinch-off level??
Q.2 When the depletion region will uniform?
Q.3 What is the ratio of ID / IDSS for VGS = 0.5 VP?
Q.4 Which applied voltage controls the level of ID?
Q.5 What is name of the region to the left of the pinch-off ?
Q.6 What are the names of three terminals of the JFET ?
Q.7 A "U" shaped, opposite-polarity material built near a JFET-channel centre is
called?
Q.8 Why is FET known as a unipolar device?
Q.9 What are the advantages and disadvantages of JFET over BJT?
Q.10 What is a channel?
341
Q.11 Define pinch-off voltage?
Q.12 At what conditions the level of VDS will equal to the pinch-off voltage?
Q.13 Which of the following represent(s) the cut-off region for an FET?
Q.14 What is the input impedance of a common-gate configured JFET??
Q.15 What are the trans-conductance curves?
Q.16 What is the name of process, if an input signal reduces the channel size?
Q.17 What is name of effect if applied input voltage varies the resistance of a
channel?
Q.18 When the JFET is no longer able to control the current, this point is called
the?
Q.19 How many types of FET exist?
Q.20 What is role of MOSFET in chip fabrication?
18.19
18.19Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Zero amperes.
Ans.2: No bias.
Ans.3: 0.25
Ans.4: VGS
Ans.5: Ohmic
Ans.6: Gate, drain and source.
Ans.7: Gate
Ans.8: The current flow through device only by one type of charge carriers
(majority charge carriers).
Ans.9: In FET "thermal runaway" never occurs but in BJT it occurs easily.
Thermal runaway means overheating and damage of transistor due to
different biasing voltages. Since FET is a uni-polar device so only one
carrier type is required here, but BJT is a bipolar device. FET is smaller in
size than BJT of same rating. In a approximation in the same space of 10
BJTs we can use 90 FETs. Hence the area consumption is less.
Ans.10: The junction field-effect transistor (JFET) consists of a segment of
semiconductor material. The area of this material in between gates known
as channel.
342
Ans.11: When the reverse current is large enough for the two depletion regions
(upper and lower) to meet, the channel becomes almost closed and the
drain current pinches off [3]. The reverse bias required for pinch off is
called as pinch off voltage Vp.
Ans.12: If ID becomes equal to IDSS, If VGS is zero volts, and IG is zero.
Ans.13: ID = 0, VGS = VP, IG = 0
Ans.14: Very low
Ans.15: This is a variation curve of drain current ID corresponding to gate-source
voltage VGS while the drain-source voltage VDS is constant.
Ans.16: Depletion.
Ans.17: Field effect.
Ans.18: Breakdown region
Ans.19: Two Types: JFET and MOSFET
Ans.20: In very large integrated circuits MOSFET presented itself as a basic
building block of chip.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. FET principles, experiment and Projects by Edward M. Noll
2. Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits by N.N. Bhargawa
3. Electronic Devices and circuits by Miliman and Halkians
4. Electronic Fundamentals and Applications by John D. Ryder.
5. http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/semiconductors/discrete/transistors/junc
tion_field_effect_transistors_jfet.
343
UNIT-19
Study of Characteristics of Klystron
19.1 Aim
19.2 Apparatus
19.3 Diagram
19.4 Formula
19.7 Procedure
19.8 Observation
19.9 Graph
19.10 Calculations
19.11 Result
19.12 Discussion
19.15 Glossary
19.1
19.1 Aim
Aim
To study the characteristics of Reflex Klystron and hence to determine mode
number, electronic Tuning Range (ETR) and Electronic Tuning sensitivity (ETS).
344
19.2
19.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Regulated Klystron power supply, Reflex Klystron with mount and cooling fan,
Variable attenuator, Frequency meter, wave guide detector mount with detector,
Microwave power meter/Microammeter/CRO, wave guide stands and accessories.
All the above mentioned apparatus should be arranged as shown in figure. 1 below.
19.3
19.3 Diagram
Diagram
Klystron Reflex
Power Frequency
Klystron Attenuator Detector Meter / CRO
Supply Meter
Cooling Fan
Figure-1 : Typical Microwave test bench for studying Klystron characteristics

19.4
19.4 Formula
Formula
The optimum transit time for the bunch to arrive at the cavity is  3 cycles
n  
 4
after the beam initially left the cavity and given by the relation :
3
n 
T= 4
f0
where f0 is the fundamental frequency of oscillations and n is any natural number
345
or zero. These different transit times are referred as modes and are labelled as per
the value of n,
Mode number N n   n  3 
 4
For fixed value of voltage in cavity and at a constant frequency, the repeller
voltage and mode number may be related as :
V1 N 2

V2 N1
For two adjacent modes of operation of Klystron we can measure the repeller
voltages at each of two adjacent modes and we can complete the number of each
mode using :
3
n 1  
V1 4

V2 3
n 
4
The ETS is measured in mega Hertz/Volts :
f 2  f1 MHz
ETS 
V2  V1 Volt
where f1 and f2 are frequency in MHz measured at the points where power falls to
half of its maximum power values.
For Klystron output efficiency ( ):
Pout
  100%
V0 I0
where
Pout is output power
I0 is anode current
V0 is anode voltage
19.5
19.5 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
The reflex klystron is an Microwave oscillator (low power generator of 10 to 500
mW) at a frequency range of 1 to 25 GHz. The efficiency of this oscillator is only
20 to 30%. The part of output power is feedback to input by satisfying oscillation
346
condition AB = 1 with a phase shift of 2π radians to sustain the oscillations. The
klystron of Reflex type, has been widely used source of microwave power in
laboratories. It consists of an electron gun producing a collimated electron beam
,which is being accelerated towards the reflector (repeller) by a negative DC
voltage Vo, while passing through the positive resonator grids. In a laboratory
Klystron only one cavity resonator is used. The cavity resonator and anode are at
the same potential and collect the repeller electrons.
Figure-2 : The cross sectional view of a Reflex Klystron.

(1)Basic Principle of Operation : Upon acceleration, the accelerated electron
beam attains the velocity, which will be :
2eV0 1
0  using mv 20  eV0
m 2
e and m are electronic charge and mass respectively. The repeller is placed at a
negative potential with respect to cathode and consequently it retards and finally
reflects the electrons through the resonator grids.
Assume that the resonator cavity is oscillating slowly, causing an AC potential,
say V1sinwt in addition to V0 , appear across the cavity grids. These initial
347
oscillations may be caused by any small disturbance in the electron beam. In the
presence of this AC field, the electron traversing towards the repeller will acquire
the velocity
V1
V1 = v0 1 sin t , where V1 << V0
V0
Thus we have a velocity modulated beam travelling towards the repeller having
V1 V1
velocities between v0 1  and v0 1 . Hence we can say electrons leaving
V0 V0
the cavity during the positive half cycle of A.C. field are accelerated and those
leaving in negative half cycles are decelerated.
Obviously the electrons with higher velocity shall penetrate to larger distance
into the region of the repeller field (known as drift space) as compared to the
electrons with lower velocity. But the faster electrons as traverse large distance in
repeller field region take longer time to return to cavity resonator and therefore
catch up with slow electrons in the cavity, finally group together in the form of
bunches. The bunching action of electrons is shown below in figure-3.
REPELLER NEGATIVE VOLTAGE
Figure-3 : The bunching of electrons in a Reflex Klystron.

348
As the electron bunches reach the cavity, the interaction between electrons and
the voltage between cavity takes place. In the cavity the electrons are severally
decelerated, give up their energy to the cavity and this energy reinforces the cavity
oscillations and we obtain the conditions for sustained oscillations.
We can see that during its normal operation the repeller electrode does not carry
any current and in case of electron bombardment the repeller may be severally
damaged. Hence to protect repeller from such damage, the repeller voltage in
always applied prior to the application of accelerating voltage V0.
(2) Transit time and Mode number : The transit time is the time taken by the
electrons to traverse the distance up to the repeller region and then back to the
cavity. This time depends upon the time of the electron in relation to the node-anti
node position of AC field.
The optimum transit time for the bunch to arrive at the cavity is  n  3  cycles
 4
after the beam initially left the cavity and given by the relation :
3
n 
T= 4
f0
where f0 is the fundamental frequency of oscillations and n is any natural
number or zero. It is clear from above equation that reflex Klystron can be
operated at different frequencies, corresponding to different value of n. These
different transit times are referred as modes and are labelled as per the value of n,
Mode number N n   n  3 
 4
3
Hence for n = 0, the mode is mode, for n = 1, the mode is 1 3 mode and so
4 4
on. The mode used for Klystron operation is the most convenient mode. The earlier
the mode, the larger will be the output.
For fixed value of voltage in cavity and at a constant frequency, the repeller
voltage and mode number may be related as :
V1 N 2

V2 N1
349
Which decides the repeller voltages required to operate the Klystron in the said
mode numbers. For two adjacent modes of operation of Klystron we can measure
the repeller voltages at each of two adjacent modes and we can complete the
number of each mode using :
3
n 1  
V1 4

V2 3
n 
4
Alternatively by just knowing the mode numbers and the corresponding repeller
voltages, we can predict the repeller voltage of any adjacent mode.
(3) Power-Frequency Characteristics :
The cavities used in reflex Klystron do not have a large infinite Q, and hence
each mode of operation will be spreaded over a certain range of repeller voltages
.The variation of frequency and power output as a function of repeller voltages
along with mode number is shown in figure-4.
Figure-4 : A typical mode curves for a reflex Klystron.

For figure-4 we can see the variation of frequency and output power with
repeller voltages, in the figure mode number correspondence is valid only at the
peak of the node, where the maximum power output is there. The variation in
repeller voltage from the peak of the mode changes the transit time due to which
350
debunching starts, thereby output power is decreased and a slight change in
frequency is also observed.
(4) Tuning in Klystron :
(I) Mechanical Tuning : The cavity dimension of Klystron basically decides the
frequency of oscillations of the Klystron. On every reflex Klystron a screw is given
to change the space between the cavity grids. This type of frequency tuning is
tuned as mechanical tuning and frequency of the output power can be varied
mechanically.
(II)Electronic Tuning : In addition to frequency tuning by mechanical method,
the oscillator frequency can be tuned by repeller voltage variations. The maximum
output power point is always referred as the peak of the mode and any change in
repeller voltage leads to change in transit time due to which the Klystron operates
at a different frequency.
(5) Same important parameters :
(i) Electric Tuning Range (ETR) : For a particular mode, the ETR is defined as
the total charge in frequency from one end of the mode to the other end. The ETR
is measured in GHz.
(ii)Electric Tuning Sensitivity (ETS): The ETS is associated with the
corresponding change in frequency with the change in repeller voltage values. The
ETS is measured in mega Hertz/Volts :
f 2  f1 MHz
ETS 
V2  V1 Volt
where f1 and f2 are frequency in MHz measured at the points where power falls to
half of its maximum power values. It is clear from the figure-4, that ETS is higher
for higher modes even through the output power is small.
(ii)Output Efficiency : Another quantity which can be measured for a reflex
Klystron is output efficiency ( ) defined as :
Pout
  100%
V0 I0
where
Pout is output power
351
I0 is anode current
V0 is anode voltage
(6) Hysteresis in Klystron : We can also see hysteresis during Klystron
operation. The hysteresis in Klystron refers to the change in mode characteristics
of Klystron when the repeller voltage is varied in reverse direction, i.e., from
minimum to maximum.
The reason behind hysteresis in Klystron are :
• Multi-transit of the electrons in the gap
• dependence of oscillation amplitude on beam phase shift and cathode current.
•Variation of electronic admittance, which is a function of oscillation amplitude.
(7)Advantages of Reflex Klystron : Although a Klystron has a very low
efficiency (a few percent around 20-30%), it is extensively used in laboratories due
to the following reasons :
• Wide frequency range.
• Simple connecting and mounting systems.
• Accurate mechanical and electronic frequency controls.
• Low initial and operating costs.
(8)Firing of the reflex Klystron :
For successful operation of Klystron, adopt the following procedure :
(i) Start the cooling fan to blow air across the Klystron.
(ii) Now turn on the Klystron power supply and wait for a few minutes.
(iii) Set the attenuator at a level of 3dB value.
(iv) Apply the repeller voltage to its maximum value, say –235 Volts.
(v) Now apply beam voltage (as per the operating instruction given with the
Klystron), say at minimum it is 235 Volts. Observe beam current on the meter by
changing switch to beam current position. The beam current should not be more
than the given value, say 30mA. Now the Klystron is said to oscillate and power
output is indicated.
(vi) For the best setup, the attenuator must have maximum value corresponding
to the peak in output meter.
352
19.6
19.6 Self
Selflearning
learningexercise-I
exercise-I
Q.1. Show frequency and power Characteristics of Reflex Klystron and
determine the ETR and ETS for the Klystron operation.
Q.2. How bunching takes place in a reflex Klystron.
Q.3. Why only discrete modes of operation are possible in reflex Klystron.
19.7 Procedure
19.7 Procedure
Mode Characteristics study.
1. Connect the components and equipments as shown in figure-1.
2. Keep the Klystron power supply as mentioned below :
For CW operation
Mode switch : CW
Beam Voltage knob : Minimum (Fully anticlockwise)
Repeller voltage knob : Maximum (Full clock wise)
Meter switch : Cathode voltage position
3. Rotate the frequency meter at one side.
4. Fire the Klystron correctly as discussed in point no. 12.
5. Now change the meter switch to repeller voltage position.
6. Select proper range for power meter so that power output of maximum mode
will not exceed the meter range.
7. Now decrease the repeller voltage in steps of 1V and record output power and
frequency in table-1.
8. For measurement of frequency switch the mode switch of Klystron to AM mode
and observe output of CRO display. Obtain the maximum output on CRO by
matching the detector with tuning parts. Use AM amplitude, frequency controls
and CRO controls to get clear display on CRO for output wave. By rotating the
frequency meter, observe the dip in the output each time and note the
corresponding frequency.
9. The frequency meter should be detuned each time while measuring power.
353
10. Plot the curve between power output versus repeller voltage and also frequency
vs. repeller voltage to observe the power and frequency characteristic mode
curves for Klystron.
11. Compute various parameters from the graph.
19.8 Observation
19.8 Observation
Observation Table :
Beam voltage : _________ Volts
Beam current : _________ mA
Table-1
Repeller Power meter /
S. No. voltage Micro ammeter Frequency meter
(in volts ) reading (in  A) reading (in GHz)
For First
Mode
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
354
10.
For
Second
Mode
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
…………………… and so on.
355
19.9
19.9 Graph
Graph
Figure-5 : Observed power output and frequency characteristics of reflex

Klystron.
356
19.10
19.10Calculations
Calculations
(i) As per figure-5 determine the peak voltages of two adjacent modes, mode
number of modes may be computed as :
3
N 2 V1 (n  1)  4
 
N1 V2 3
n
4
and in this way determine the practical available mode numbers.
(ii) After having mode numbers, we can also determine the transit time for each
mode, which can be calculated as :
 3
n   N
4
t1    1 sec onds
f 01 f 01
Similarly we can calculate for other modes.
(iii) Now we calculate the electronic tuning range (ETR), which is the frequency
band from one end to another for a mode. Looking to figure-5, we can calculate for
each mode
ETR = (fmax. – fmin)GHz
(iv) Now we will calculate the Electronic tuning sensitivity (ETS), for this on
each mode determine the half power points and obtain the repeller voltages V1 and
V2 ,then for calculated V1 and V2, determine the frequencies in frequency vs.
repeller voltage graph as f1 and f2. Finally we get.
(f 2  f1 ) MHz
ETS 
 V2  V1  Volts
The mode number, corresponding transit time, ETR and ETS we have to
calculate for each mode and tabulate them in the following table.
Table-2 : The calculated parameter for the reflex Klystron.
357
Mode Number Transit Time ETR ETS
S. No.
For First Mode
 3
1. n  
 4
 3
2.  n 1 
 4
 3
3. n  2 
 4
 3
4. n  3 
 4
19.11Result
19.11 Result
The practically obtained values for various parameters for reflex Klystron are
shown in table-2. The frequency and power characteristics of reflex Klystron are
shown in graph in figure-5 and which are as per given in literature.
19.12
19.12Discussion
Discussion
358
19.13
19.13Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
Basic operating a reflex Klystron we have to take care of the following :
(i) Cooling fan should be allowed to blow before switching on the power supply
of Klystron.
(ii) During Klystron operation, the repeller should not carry any current as it can
severely be damaged by electron bombardment. For protection, the repeller
voltage should be always applied before anode voltage.
(iii) The repeller voltage should be varied in one direction only to avoid hysteresis
in Klystron
(iv) The heater voltages should be applied first and other voltages should be
applied there after taking precautions (i) & (ii).
(v) During power measurement, the frequency meter should be detuned every
time to avoid the dip in power.
(vi) An isolator or same 3dB attenuation should invariable be used in between
Klystron and the rest of the setup to avoid loading of the Klystron.
19.14
19.14Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q. 1. What do you mean by ETS and ETR ?
Q. 2. Why repeller voltage should be applied before anode voltage ?
Q. 3. Why is it necessary to cool the Klystrons ?
19.15
19.15Glossary
Glossary
Microwaves: Electromagnetic waves having frequencies of the order of few GHz
and wavelength of the order of few cms.
Reflex Klystron: Microwave oscillator (low power generator of 10 to 500 mW) at
a frequency range of 1 to 25 GHz.
Velocity Modulation: Electrons leaving the Klystron cavity during the positive
half cycle of A.C. field are accelerated and those leaving in negative half cycles are
decelerated.
Transit time: The transit time is defined as the time taken by the electrons to
359
traverse the distance up to the repeller region and then back to the cavity.
Repeller: Reflector plate in a Reflex Klystron, maintained at higher negative
potential.
Mechanical Tuning: The cavity dimension of Klystron basically decides the
frequency of oscillations of the Klystron, which can be tuned using a screw given
to change the space between the cavity grids.
Electronic Tuning: The oscillator frequency can be tuned by repeller voltage a
variation is known as electronic tuning.
Electric Tuning Range (ETR) : For a particular mode, the ETR is defined as the
total charge in frequency from one end of the mode to the other end, measured in
GHz.
Electric Tuning Sensitivity (ETS): The ETS is defined as corresponding change in
frequency with the change in repeller voltage values.
19.16
19.16Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Answer of Self Learning Exercise-I
Ans.1: Draw graph (if possible practically) as shown in section-19.5.
and do the necessary calculations.
Ans.2 : Discuss formation of bunches in Klystron from section-19.5.
showing Basic principle of operation.
Ans. 3: The formation of discrete modes of operation of reflex Klystron is due
to following reasons.
• The time taken by the bunches to form and deliver energy to the resonator cavity.
• The maximum absorption of energy is always possible at a particular frequency
of cavity.
Answer of Self Learning Exercise-II
Ans.1 : Define, see section-19.5.
Ans.2 : See precautions (ii).
Ans.3 : To control the temperature of Reflex Klystron so that continuous
operation may be ensured.
360
19.17
19.17Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q. 1. Discuss tuning in Klystron.
Q. 2. What do you mean by transit time ?
Q. 3. Discuss operation of a Klystron with a labelled cross-sectional diagram of
Klystron.
Q. 4. What do you mean by velocity modulation ?
Q. 5. Why power output decreases with increase of ETS value ?
Q. 6. Why do we need to detune frequencymeter while taking reading ?
Q. 7. What are the advantages of using reflex Klystron as a Microwave
laboratory source ?
Q. 8. What do you mean by hysteresis in Klystron ?
19.18Answers
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1 : For your answer, see section-19.5.
Ans.2 : Define in your words, see section-19.5.
Ans.3 : Including figure-2 in your answer discuss the basic principle of operation
of Klystron as per section-19.5.
Ans.4 : See velocity modulation in section-19.5and explain how it is changing
with the sinusoidal oscillation of cavity voltage.
Ans.5 : Look at the formula for ETS in section-19.5and explain your answer.
Ans.6 : So that when frequency is tuned with the frequency of the microwave
generated the output power get minimized and we cannot record the data.
Ans.7 : Find your answer as per section-19.5.
Ans.8 : Find your answer as per section-19.5.
Referencesand
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Microwave Principles, Herbert J. Reach, CBS, Publishers
2. Microwave of Microwave Engineering, R.E. Collin McGrawHill
3. Microwave devices & Circuits, S.Y. Liao, PHI
4. Microwave Engineering : Passive Circuits, P.A. Rizzi, PHI
361
UNIT-16
UNIT-20
Silicon
SiliconControlled
ControlledRectifier
Rectifier(SCR)
(SCR)
20.1 Aim
20.2 Apparatus
20.3 Diagram
20.4 Model Graph
20.7 Procedure
20.8 Observation
20.9 Graph
20.10 Result
20.11 Discussion
20.14 Glossary
20.1 Aim
20.1 Aim
To study the characteristic of SCR
20.2
20.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
SCR, Two variable DC supplies, (0-10V) (0 – 200V), DC voltmeter (0-10V),
362
(0-200V), DC ammeter (0-100 mA), Two resistance (1 K ohm), connecting wires.
20.3
20.3 Diagram
Diagram
Fig. 1 Circuit for forward characteristics
Fig.2 Circuit for reverse characteristics
363
20.4
20.4 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
IA
Forward characteristics
V >>0 V =0
VBOR
VAK
VBOF
Reverse characteristics
Fig.3 V-I characteristics
20.5 Theory
20.5 Theoryand
anddescription
description
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is an electronic device consisting of four layers
of p  , n  , p  , n  semi conductors respectively; three p-n junctions
J1 , J 2 , J 3 are made between layers. It has three terminals anode A (connected
to outer p-layer), cathode K (connected to outer n-layer), and gate G (connected to
middle p-layer near to cathode) [fig.4]
Circuit symbol of SCR is shown in fig 5.
364
Fig. 4 Block diagram
Fig. 5 Circuit Symbol
365
A SCR is thought to be consisting of one p-n-p and n-p-n transistor, such that base
of p-n-p transistor is connected to emitter of n-p-n transistor and collector of p-n-p
transistor is connected to base of n-p-n transistor as shown in fig 6.
Fig.6 Two Transistor equivalent block diagram
Forward biased SCR

In normal condition anode made positive with respect to cathode then junction J1
and J3 is forward biased and J 2 is reversed biased, hence no significant current
(except small leakage current) will flow in anode circuit, so, SCR is in non
conducting state known as OFF-state.
If VAK (Anode to cathode voltage) is increased sufficiently, reverse biased junction

J 2 would break down. At this breakdown (known as avalanche breakdown),
366
occurred at forward breakdown voltage VBOF, A large anode current flows and SCR
comes in conducting state which known as ON-State.
However, if a small positive voltage is applied at gate G, then large forward
current will flow at a lower value of VAK (much less then VBOF). (Fig 3)
The conducting SCR remains in on-state even if gate voltage is removed but when
anode current is decreased below a minimum current, known as holding current,
SCR turn off.
Reversed biased SCR

When cathode is made positive with respect to anode, junctions J1 and J 3 is
reverse biased and J 2 is forward biased, then only small leakage current will flow
in circuit, however at a sufficiently high positive cathode voltage VBOR , reverse
breakdown occurred this results in large current .(Fig 3)
Since SCR has two states- ON and OFF hence this is used as a switch or control
device.
20.6
20.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is full form of SCR?
Q.2 How many layers it consist of?
Q.3 How many p-n junction it has?
Q.4 Is SCR a three terminal device?
Q.5 Give name of these terminals of SCR.
20.7 Procedure
20.7 Procedure
A) To draw forward characteristics-
(i) Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1
(ii) Initially set VGK at some (+) ve value, record anode current IA with
increasing voltage (VAK) across anode and cathode.
(iii) Set VGK at a higher value then in step (ii), record IA and VAK by changing
applied voltage across anode A and cathode K.
(iv) Repeat step (3) for one more value of VGK higher than in step(iii)
(v) Plot graph taking VAK on X-axis and IA on Y-Axis for different sets of VGK .
367
B. To Draw reverse characteristics –
1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 2
2) Set VGK at some (+) ve value, record IA and VAK.
3) Plot IA and VAK
20.8
20.8 Observation
Observation
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE
CHARACTERISTICS
S.No VGK VGK VGK VGK VGK
VAK TA VAK TA VAK TA VAK TA VAK TA
V mA V mA V mA V mA V mA
368
20.9
20.9 Graph
Graph
IA
(mA)
VAK ( volt )
20.10Result
20.10 Result
Forward and reverse characteristics of SCR has been plotted.
20.11 Discussion
20.11 Discussion
369
20.12
20.12Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. All connections should be tight.
2. Do not apply voltages higher then rated values
3. Take readings carefully near breakdown.
4. Care should be taken while connecting (+) ve and    ve terminals of
voltmeter and ammeter.
5. There terminals of SCR should be identified carefully.
20.13
20.13 SelfSelf Learning
Exercise-II
Q.1 What is leakage Current?
Q.2 What is a forward characteristic?
Q.3 What is reverse characteristic?
Q.4 What happens if voltage across anode and cathode is very high?
Q.5 What is breakdown?
Q.6 Determine the resistance in AB region of the characteristics curve of a p-
n-p-n device shown in figure-
370
20.14
20.14Glossary
Glossary
Leakage Current: Small current flows due to minority charge carriers
Forward characteristics : Relationship between voltage and current in forward
biased condition
Reverse characteristics : Relationship between voltage and current in reverse
biased condition
Junction Breakdown : Sudden rise in current due to p-n junction breaks down and
flows of large charge carriers through junction
N-type semi-conductor: Semiconductor doped with Pentavalent impurity atoms
heaving high concentration of electrons as majority charge carriers
P-type semi-conductor: Semi conductor’s doped with trivalent impurity atoms
having high concentrations of holes
Device ratings : Maximum tolerable voltages/ powers of device data provide by
manufactures
Electronic switch: An electronic device that has ON and OFF states only hence
working as a switch
Unidirectional switch: current flows in one direction only
Negative resistance : When voltage decrease with increasing current, then
resistance of such device is assumed to be negative, known as negative resistance
Holding current: Maximum anode current with open gate, at which SCR is turn
OFF from ON-State
Forward breakdown voltage : In open gate, forward applied voltage where
avalanche breakdown occurred.
Reverse breakdown voltage : Reverse applied voltage where breakdown occurred
Semi conductor: Material that have band gap between conduction and valance
band of the order of ev
p-n junction : Region without mobile charge carriers between p-type and n-type
semiconductor regions
Majority charge carrier: Charge carriers responsible for forward current Minority
371
charge carriers : Charge carriers responsible for leakage current
20.15
20.15Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Silicon Controlled Rectifier
Ans.2: Four
Ans.3: Three
Ans.4: Yes
Ans.5: Anode, cathode, Gate
Ans.1: Small current flows due to minority charge carriers.
Ans.2: Relationship between voltage and current in forward biased condition.
Ans.3: Relationship between voltage and current in reverse biased condition.
Ans.4: Avalanche breakdown will occur.
Ans.5: Sudden rise in current due to p-n junction breaks down
Ans.6: At VAK (Anode to cathode voltage)= 5.5 V (point A in the graph), the
value of biasing voltage across J2 is increased sufficiently, so, reverse
biased junction J 2 would break down, resulting in a reduction of voltage
(at point B in the graph) and a large anode current flows and SCR comes
in conducting state which known as ON-State.
From graph,
Voltage at point A VA = 5.5 V
Voltage at Point B VB = 1.25 V
Current at point A IA = 2.0 mA
Current at point B IB = 2.25 mA
Change in voltage ΔV = VB- VA
= 1.25-5.50
= -4.25 V
Change in current ΔI= IB- IA
= 2.25-2.00
372
= 0.25 mA
Hence, resistance R= ΔV/ ΔI
= -4.25/(0.25x10-3)
= 17x103 Ω
=17 KΩ
20.16Viva
20.16 VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is n-type semi-conductor?
Q.2 What is p-type semi-conductor?
Q.3 What do you mean by1K ?
Q.4 What do you mean by device ratings?
Q.5 What is SCR?
Q.6 What is an electronic switch?
Q.7 Is SCR unidirectional switch?
Q.8 What is negative resistance?
Q.9 What is forward breakdown voltage?
Q.10 What is reverse breakdown voltage?
Q.11 What do you understand by holding current?
Q.12 What is meant by ON State?
Q.13 What is meant by OFF State?
Q.14 Why breakdown is harmful for a device?
Q.15 What are the uses of SCR?
Q.16 What are you doing?
Q.17 How do you perform this experiment?
Q.20 What is a resistance of a connecting wire?
Q.21 What is the resistance of the SCR in the ON-Stats?
Q.22 What is the resistance of the SCR in the OFF-Stats?
Q.23 Give difference between SCR and transistor.
Q.24 What is other name of SCR?
373
Q.25 What are uses of SCR?
20.17
20.17Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity atoms heaving high
concentration of electrons as majority charge carriers.
Ans.2: Semi conductor’s doped with trivalent impurity atoms having high
concentrations of holes.
Ans.3: The magnitude of resistance is 1 Kilo OHM.
Ans.4: Maximum tolerable voltages/ powers of device data provide by
manufactures.
Ans.5: SCR is a four layer p-n-p-n electronic device.
Ans.6: An electronic device that has ON and OFF states only.
Ans.7: Yes, because current flows in one direction only
Ans.8: When voltage decrease with increasing current, then resistance of such
device is assumed to be negative, known as negative resistance.
Ans.9: In open gate, forward applied voltage where avalanche breakdown
occurred.
Ans.10: Reverse applied voltage where breakdown occurred.
Ans.11: Maximum anode current with open gate, at which SCR is turn OFF from
ON-State.
Ans.12: State in which SCR is conducting large current
Ans.13: State in which SCR is non-conducting
Ans.14: Because it may damage an electronic device permanently
Ans.15: SCR used as switch, control device etc.
Ans.16: Study the characteristics of SCR.
Ans.17: Details given in Procedure.
Ans.18: It is the necessary DC voltage which is required for any active device to
Operate.
Ans.19: A resistance is the interruption in flow of electrical current through a
wire/conductor and defined as the ratio of voltage to current across wire.
Ans.20: A connecting wire has very low resistance.
374
Ans.21: Since a large anode current slows during ON-Stats hence the resistance
becomes very low in this state.
Ans.22: Since a very small current flows through SCR during OFF-State hence the
resistance becomes very large during this State.
Ans.23: A SCR has three junctions whereas a transistor has two junctions,
actually SCR is a device consisting of four layers of p-n, p-, n-
semiconductors respectively, while transistor consisting three layers of p-,
n-, p- or n-, p-, n-.
Ans.24: Thyristors
Ans.25: It is used as an electronic switch, speed controller of home appliances.
References
References andand
Suggested Readings
Suggested Readings
1. John D. Ryder, Electronic Fundamentals and Applications (Integrated and
Discrete Systems), PHI, 1990.
2. V.K.Mehta , Principles of Electronics, S. Chand and Company Ltd., 2001.
3. Gupta and Kumar, Hand Book of Electronics, Pragati Prakashan, 2006
375
UNIT-21
Transistor Bias Stability
21.1 Aim
21.2 Apparatus
21.3 Diagram
21.4 Formula
21.5 Model Graph
21.8 Procedure
21.9 Observation
21.10 Graph
21.11 Calculations
21.12 Result
21.13 Discussion
21.16 Glossary
21.1 Aim
21.1 Aim
To study: (i) Leakage current variation with temperature of common emitter
configuration.
376
(ii) Shift of ‘Q’ point with temperature.
(iii) Distortion in a single state amplifier as a result of change in ‘Q’ point.
21.2
21.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Electronic board with Micro and Mili-Ammeter, Voltmeter, Capacitor, Audio
Frequency Generator, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).
21.3
21.3 Diagram
Diagram
Circuit Diagrams:
R1− RC
+
IC (mA)
− +
+ VCC
−
VCE (V)
−
R2− RE−
Fig.1: To study the shift of ‘Q’ point with temperature.
377
RC
+
ICEO (µA)
− +
VCC
−
RE
Fig. 2: To study the variation of collector current (IC) with leakage current (ICEO)
for a self biased transistor.
R1 RC
+
IC (mA)
− +
C VCC
−
CRO
R2 RE
Fig. 3: To study the distortion in a single stage amplifier as a result of change in q

point with temperature.
378
21.4
21.4 Formula
Formula
For Common Emitter Configuration
1. Collector current (output current): It is given by
= +
2. Q point: A point with set of IC and VCE in output characteristics curve of

Transistor is denoted as Q point or operating point (in the absence of input ac
signal). The relation in output current (IC) and voltage (VCE) is given by
− +
=
3. Stability Factor (s): The rate change of collector current IC w.r.t. collector
leakage current ICO at constant current gain (β). For self biasing the stability factor
is
1+
=
1+
1+
( + )
Here:
βdc = dc current gain of transistor
RL = Load Resistance
IB = Input current (Base current)
ICEO = Leakage Current
VCE = Voltage difference between collector and emitter terminal
VCC = DC power supply
R1, R2 and RE = Biasing resistors
379
1.5 Model
21.5 Graph
Model Graph
Fig. 11: Curve between temperature and leakage current.
Fig. 12: Curve between VCE voltage and collector current at different temperatures
380
21.6
21.6 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
(i) Transistor: The transistor is a semiconductor device was invented by John
Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1948. The important
characteristic of transistor is ability to “transfer the resistor” means the transistor
can transfer the same value of current from low resistance to high resistance.
Hence, there is amplification of voltage and/or power (P= VI) by transistor,
However, this transfer of current from low to high resistance terminals is only
possibly by the help of external electric field which is known as Bias Power
Supply (commonly DC supplies by batteries).
Fig. 4: (a) Pictorial explanation for working of Transistor (a famous picture) (b)
Different forms of transistors available in market.
In the physical structure of a transistor containing three separate regions, the
middle region named as base, and two outer regions are named as emitter and
collector and so three currents are counted IE as an emitter current, IB base current
and IC collector current concerning with these regions. In a transistor the collector
and emitter regions are of same types (N or P) while base is with different polarity,
hence NPN and PNP two types of combination are possible. In both types there are
two PN junctions in a transistors emitter junction (emitter and base) and collector
junction (base and collector). The collector region is made physically larger than
the emitter region since it is required to dissipate more heat. Base is very thin since
it is required that the same value of current which was entered should be
transferred at output (i.e. IB should be very low).
381
IC = IE + IB
(ii) Configurations in Transistor: In any electronic circuit wherever a

transistor exist, it works to amplify the input signal or as an electronic switch
controlled by outer trigging. Three configuration are possible for functioning of
transistor
(a) Common Base (CB): In this configuration the Base is grounded or common.
It generally called as voltage amplifier since input current is injected through
emitter (IE act as an input current) and collected at collector (IC as an output
current). Output current IC is little bit smaller than IE. However, this current (IE ~
IC) is transfer from low resistance terminals to high resistance terminals hence the
voltage (V= RI) is amplified.
(b) Common Emitter (CE): The emitter is grounded for this configuration. This
configuration known as power amplifier since in this circuit the voltage and current
both are amplified. IB is input current while IC is output current also IB >>IC, so the
current is amplified. Moreover, the current is injected to high resistance terminals
hence current is also amplified.
(c) Common Collector (CC): This configuration is used as an impedance
matching device in electronic circuits. In this configuration IB is taken as input
current and output is taken at emitter terminal.
(iii) Biasing of Transistor: Two external DC power supplies (or power divider)
are required for the operation of transistor one for emitter junction and another one
for collector junction. The biasing batteries are termed as VCC, VBB and VEE
depends where the power supplies are used in circuit
There are four possible ways of biasing for two junctions of transistor using
external power supplies:
Table 1: Possible ways for biasing of transistor junctions.
382
Emitter Junction Collector Junction Regionof operation Biasing
Forward Biased Reverse Bias Active FR
Forward Biased Forward Biased Saturation FF
Reverse Bias Reverse Bias Cut off RR
Reverse Bias Forward Biased Inverted RF
For the amplification action of transistor biasing is set in this way that the
transistor always being in the active region. In the active region the emitter
junction is forward biased (low resistance terminals) and collector region is reverse
biased (high resistance terminals). The input current is pushed from this low
resistance terminals to high resistance terminals by the electric force by biasing
power supplies. The cut off and saturation regions are used for switching action of
transistor. The transistor acts as open and closed switch in cut off and saturation
regions respectively. Inverted region commonly not used for amplification.
(iv) Current Parameters of Transistor:
(a) The ratio of the charge carrier current transported in base to total emitter
current is defined by emitter injection ratio (γ). Typically for a transistor γ is
around to 0.995.
(b) The ratio of the number of charge carriers arriving at collector to the
number of emitted by emitter known as base transportation factor (β’).
Furthermore, the ratio of collector current to base current is denoted by βdc (here dc
indicate the absence of input ac signal; =
βdc is defined as current gain in CE configuration. Hence in CE configuration
Output current (IC) = βdc × Input current (IB)
IC = βdc IB (1)
(c)The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is denoted by αdc.
=
αdc is defined as current gain in CB configuration. Hence in CB configuration

Output current (IC) = αdc × Input current (IE)
383
(v) Characteristic Curve of Transistor: The characteristic curves are mean to
curve drawn in between voltage and current for a semiconductor device. In the
transistor there are two PN junctions so there are two characteristics curves to
describe the behaviour of a particular transistor in given configuration.
Fig. 5(a)(b): Input and output Characteristics curves for Transistor (CE
configuration).
384
One input characteristic curve plotted in between input current and input voltage
while keeping constant the voltage at output terminals (e.g. plot between IB and
VBE while VCE constant for CE configuration). The output characteristic curves
which are plotted in between output current and output voltage while keeping
constant input current (e.g. plot between IC and VCE while IB is constant for CE
configuration).
These characteristics curves describe the behaviour of particular transistor with the
help of these curves one can select the range of voltage and current for desired
operation.
(vi) Operating Point (quiescent point or Q Point) and Load Line: According
to application first of all the configuration is select then the biasing is fixed in such
a way that the transistor works only in desired region of operation. For the
amplification the given will be designed either in CB or CE configuration and the
transistor should be biased by external power supplies for active region of
operation (emitter junction forward and collector junction reverse). For switching
action the biasing should be according to operation either in cut off (switch on) or
saturation region (switch off). Hence, the voltages are applied by biasing batteries
(VBB, VCC and/or VEE) in such a way that the transistor keeps remain in desire
region of operation (Active, Cut off or Saturation). This selection of biasing
voltage is determined from output characteristics of given transistor.
In output characteristic curves the set of two parameters i.e. output voltage and
current describe a line named as load line. In the absence of any input ac signal (to
be amplified) not applied this line is called as dc load line. The biasing voltages are
fixed in such a way that transistor give desired voltage and current at outputs (e.g.
VCE and IC in CE configuration). Furthermore, if input current is also fixed so there
is a set of three parameters gives a point in output characteristics named as
quiescent point or Q point (e.g. in fig. 6 of output characteristics from CE amplifier
Q point fixed at VCE = 5.8 volt, IC = 4.8 mA and IB = 46 µA).
(vii) Bias stabilization: The Q point is fixed in the middle of desired region of
operation with the help of biasing batteries. If an ac signal applied on input (ac
signal to be amplified) then the transistors outputs hence Q point (e.g. VCE and IC in
CE configuration) will be changed by the signal current by following the path of
load line (here in the presence of input signal the load line named ac load line). If
385
the Q point is initially fixed in the middle region of operation, even it is driven by
ac signal still remains in desired region of operation (as it must be remain in the
selected region of operation to achieve desired outputs). The input current (in
figure 6 the Q point will vary between M and N with input signal current.
Fig. 6: Output characteristics of transistor: Change in Q point due to input signal

(Courtesy: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/amp_2.html)
386
Hence, a proper biasing is very important to fix the operation point in particular
region of operation (Active, Cut off or saturation). Furthermore, it must also be
ensured that it remains fixed in selected region of operation. However, in the
transistor circuits during the operation the operating point shifts with the use of the
circuit. Such a shift of operating point may drive the transistor into an undesirable
region.
There are two reasons for the operating point to shift
 The transistor parameters extremely depend on temperature e.g. leakage current.
 The parameters change from transistor unit to other transistor unit means if the
transistor damaged and it replaced by another transistor the ‘Q’ point may be
shift.
So we need a biasing circuit due to following reasons:
 To fix the Q point in the centre of the active region of the output characteristics,
so that even on applying the inputs signal the operating point do not move in
another undesired region of operation.
 To stabilise the collector current against temperature variations
 To achieve Q point independent from transistor parameters so it does not vary
even if the transistor replaced by another transistor.
(viii) Leakage Current: The leakage current in transistor is due to flow of
minority charge carrier. In NPN type of transistor, emitter contains electrons as
majority charge carriers (due to doping) while holes are minority charge carrier
(due to intrinsic property of used semiconductor material). Similarly holes and
electrons are minority charge carriers in base and collector respectively.
The presence of minority charge carriers is an intrinsic property of semiconductor
material. At every temperature above than 0K, electron and hole pairs are
generated in the semiconductor material (due to breakage of bonds). The numbers
of these pairs are increased with the temperature of surrounding and/or device. The
doping elements provide majority type of charge carriers while thermally
generated opposite type (other than provided by doping element) of charge carriers
act as minority charge carriers. Flow of these minority type charge carriers
387
produces leakage current in the reverse direction to the bias current (Bias current
flow due to majority charge carriers inside the semiconductor).
In CB configuration, it is found that the collector current is non zero while emitter
is open (IE = 0), it is reverse leakage current. Similarly in CE configuration a
reverse leakage current flow tin between collector and emitter while base is open
(IB = 0). The leakage current is denoted by ICBO (or ICO), ICEO for common base and
common emitter configuration respectively. Here in subscript ‘CB’ or ‘CE’ shows
the junction through leakage current is flowing while ‘O’ indicates that emitter is
open in CB configuration and base is open in CE configuration. ICBO is too
sensitive to temperature and normally fifty times more than the ICEO. ICBO and ICEO
are related as
=
1−
Or = (1 + )
In the presence of leakage current equation (1) will be modified as

IC = βdc IB +ICEO (for CE configuration)
Or IC = βdc IB + (1+ βdc) ICBO …………………… (2)
(ix) Thermal Runway: The leakage current is enormously depending on

temperature. Its value almost doubles for every 6 °C rise in temperature in Ge and
for every 10 °C increase in Si. Any increase in ICBO is magnified (1 + β) times i.e.
300 to 500 times. Even a slight increase in ICBO will affect output current (IC)
considerably. As IC increases, collector power dissipation increases which raises
the operating temperature that leads to further increase in IC. If this succession of
increases is allowed to continue, soon IC will increase beyond safe operating value
thereby damaging the transistor itself—a condition known as thermal runaway.
Hence, stabilization of bias is necessary to prevent this thermal runaway.
(x) Temperature dependence of Bias stabilisation: As we discussed earlier
the Q point should be fixed in the middle of region of operation so that transistor
operate in the desired region of operation. But an important factor temperature
increases the leakage current hence the ‘Q’ point shifts. To study the effect of
388
temperature on Q point becomes important. We must know how the Q point is
shifted with device or environment temperature.
In particular CE configuration (most commonly used circuit for amplification)
flow of current in collector circuit produces heat at the collector junction. This
increase the temperature of device and results in more minority charge carriers are
generated in base-collector region. It increase ICBO and hence ICEO also increased. It
further increase collector current hence, rising of the collector base junction. There
are several bias stabilization circuit
1. Fixed bias circuit
2. Collector to base bias circuit
3. Bias circuit with emitter resistor
4. Voltage divider or self bias circuit
5. Emitter bias circuit
The voltage or self bias circuit most widely used circuit. By using this bias circuit
operating point can be made almost independent from current gain (β).
(xi) Stability factor (s): the rate change of collector current IC w.r.t. collector
leakage current ICO at constant current gain (β)
∆
=( )
∆
For CE configuration the output current (collector current) can be written as
= +
or
= + (1 + )
Differentiating w.r.t. collector current IC
1= + (1 + )
(1 + ) Since =
1= +
389
1+
=
1+
1+
( + )
This is known as stabilisation factor for transistor. Higher the value of s indicates
low bias stability of transistor. For better bias stability, s = 1, hence,
≪
( + )
Voltmeter: Refer unit-15

Ammeter: An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric
current in a circuit. It used in the series of an electric circuit to measurement of
current and electric currents are measured in amperes (A). An ideal ammeter has
zero resistance.
Fig. 8: Ammeter and micro ammeter.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO): Refer unit15
Function Generator: A function generator or frequency generator is an electronic
device, which produce desired repetitive waveform. This device contain an
electronic oscillator (An electronic oscillator is a circuit that produce a time
convert provided DC supply to a desired ac wave form with selected frequency. It
is possible to vary the amplitude of the wave also.
390
Fig. 10: Function generator.
21.7
21.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is transistor?
Q.2 Why a transistor works in an electronic circuit?
Q.3 How it work as an amplifier?
Q.4 Which configuration used as power amplifier?
Q.5 Why CC configuration is not used for amplification?
21.8
21.8 Procedure
Procedure
Select appropriate values of R1, R2, RC and RE with combination of VCC so the
operating point is in the middle of active region.
To study the leakage current with temperature:
1. Design circuit as per shown in Fig. 2 on the bread board.
2. Vary the temperature by switch on the oven and measure the leakage current at
different temperature.
3. Plot the curve between leakage current and temperature.
To study the shift of Q point with temperature:
1. Design the circuit on bread board according to figure 1
2. Vary the temperature by switch on the oven.
3. Measure the collector current (IC) and voltage drop between collector and
emitter terminals (VCE) at different temperature.
4. Plot the curve between leakage current and temperature.
To study the distortions in output signal with temperature:
1. Design the circuit on bread board according to figure 3
391
2. Switch on the oven and fix any appropriate sufficient high temperature.
3. Watch the output signal on CRO also the input signal.
4. Trace input and output signal on a trace paper.
21.9 Observation
21.9 Observation
Transistor type = ………….
VCC = …………………….
R1 =………………………
R2 =………………………
RE =……………
RC =……………
RBB =…………...
(i) To study the leakage current with temperature:

Table 1: To study the leakage current variation with temperature:
S. No. Temperature (̊C) ICEO (µA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
392
(ii) To study the shift of Q point with temperature:
Table 2: To study the shift of ‘Q’ point with temperature:

S. No. Temperature (̊C) VCE (volt) IC (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(iii) To study the distortions in output signal with temperature:

Due to thermal runway of Q point in undesired region of operation the output
signal is obtained in distorted form (generally clipped) as shown in figure below:
Fig.13: Distorted output signal (e.g. at 55 ◦C Vi = 0.1 V and VO = 5 V)
393
21.10 Graph
21.10 Graph
Plot the curve between leakage current and temperature.
Plot the curve between leakage current and temperature.
21.11
21.11Calculations
Calculations
Model Calculations:
Let R1 = 40 KΩ, R2= 5 KΩ, RE = 1 KΩ, RC = 5 KΩ and VCC = 12 V and β = 60
(at 25 ◦C)
Stability factor
1+
=
1+
1+
( + )
1 + 60
=
60
1+
40 × 5 × 10
1+
(40 + 5) × 10
= 4.2
21.12
21.12Result
Result
1. The graph between leakage current and temperature show that leakage current
increases exponentially with temperature.
2. Q point shifts up as temperature increase.
3. At higher temperature due to shift Q point some of the amplified voltage goes
in to saturation region and we get distorted value.
4. The stabilisation factor for used biasing is obtained 4.2.
21.13Discussion
21.13 Discussion
394
21.14Precautions
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. All the connections should be tight.
2. The applied voltage should not be more than peak value prescribed for the
given transistor.
3. The polarity of connections for transistor should be accurate.
4. Various Resistors used should be appropriate value.
5. Temperature should not be rise beyond 65 ̊C otherwise function transistor can
be damage.
21.15Self
21.15 SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Why biasing required for a transistor?
Q.2 How many types of biasing possible?
Q.3 Which biasing is mostly used for amplification action of transistor?
Q.4 What is Q point?
Q.5 What do you understand by bias stabilisation?
21.16
21.16Glossary
Glossary
unit time
Signal: In alternating current (AC, also ac), the flow of electric charge periodically
reverses direction
Biasing: Biasing in electronics is the method of establishing predetermined
voltages or currents at various points of an electronic circuit for the purpose of
establishing proper operating conditions in electronic components.
21.17
21.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1:An electronic device capable to transfer the same value of current from low
395
resistance to high resistance.
Ans.2:Either as an amplifier or an electronic switch.
Ans.3:It capable to transfer the same or higher value of current from low resistance
to high resistance terminals using external power supplies.
Ans.4:Common emitter.
Ans.5:It is only for impedance matching not able to amplify the signal.
Ans.1:To fix the Q point in the centre of the active region, to stabilise the collector
current against temperature variations, to achieve Q point independent from
transistor parameters.
Ans.2:Four types: FF, RR, FR, and RF.
Ans.3:When base and emitter junction is forward bias and base collector junction
is reverse biased.
Ans.4:In the absence of signal and at a fix input current the set of output voltage
and output current is known as Q point.
Ans.5:An external electronic circuit to the transistor which keep fix the Q point in
the desired region of operation.
21.18
21.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is leakage current in a transistor?
Q.2 How the temperature affects leakage current?
Q.3 Why leakage current increases with temperature?
Q.4 How the leakages current affect the action of transistor?
Q.5 What do you understand by Operating point?
Q.6 Why do we choose the Q point at the centre of the load line?
Q.7 Name the two techniques used in the stability of the Q point?
Q.8 Define stability factor?
Q.9 List out the different types of biasing.
Q.10What do you meant by thermal runway?
396
Q.11Why BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) is called as a current controlled
device?
Q.12 Define current amplification factor?
Q.13 What are the requirements for biasing circuits?
Q.14 When does a transistor act as a switch?
Q.15 What is d.c. load line?
Q.16 Explain about the various regions in a transistor?
Q.17 Explain about the characteristics of a transistor?
Q.18 What is an amplifier?
Q.19 What is phase difference between in input and output current for CE
configuration?
Q.20 What is phase difference between in input and output current for CB
configuration?
21.19
21.19Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: The flow of minority charge carrier causes leakage current.
Ans.2: Temperature increase the number of minority charge due to breakage
more covalent bonds carriers hence increase leakage current.
Ans.3: Due to breakage of covalent bonds of semiconductor material.
Ans.4: The leakage current increase the collector current hence operation point
changed.
Ans.5: In the absence of signal and at a fix input current the set of output voltage
and output current is known as Q point.
Ans.6: The position of q point is affected by temperature, input signal still it
should be remain in the desired region of operation so it selected in
middle of region.
Ans.7: Fixed bias circuit and self biasing circuit.
Ans.8: The rate change of collector current IC w.r.t. collector leakage current ICO
at constant current gain (β).
397
Ans.9: Fixed bias circuit, Collector to base bias circuit, Bias circuit with emitter
resistor, Voltage divider or self bias circuit, Emitter bias circuit.
Ans.10: The leakage current increase the collector current hence operation point
changed which further increase the temperature of transistor in result the
transistor move to undesired region of operation.
Ans.11: A BJT is a current controlled device because its output characteristics are
determined by the input current.
Ans.12: The ratio of output current and input current to transistor.
Ans.13: To fix the Q point in the centre of the active region, to stabilise the
collector current against temperature variations, to achieve Q point
independent from transistor parameters.
Ans.14: In saturation and cut off region.
Ans.15: In output characteristic curves the set of two parameters i.e. output
voltage and current describe a line named as load line. Till then any input
ac signal (to be amplified) not applied this line is so called dc load line.
Ans.16: Active, cut off and saturation region
Ans.17: Input and output characteristic curves. One input characteristic curve
plotted in between input current and voltage while keeping constant the
voltage at output terminals Another are output characteristic curves which
are plotted in between output current and output voltage while keeping
constant input current.
Ans.18: Amplifier is an electronic circuit which amplify the input signal.
Ans.19: Common emitter transistor gives 180̊ phase between input and output.
Ans.20: Common base transistor gives 0̊ phase between input and output.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits by N.N. Bhargava, D.C. Kulshreshtha,
S.C. Gupta, 2nd Edition, Mc Graw Hill Publications.
2. A Text Book of Electrical Technology by B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja, S.
Chand Publications.
398
UNIT-22
A/D and D/A Conversion
22.1 Aim
22.2 Apparatus
22.3 Diagram
22.4 Model Graph
22.7 Procedure
22.8 Observation
22.9 Graph
22.10 Calculations
22.11 Result
22.12 Discussion
22.15 Glossary
22.1
22.1 Aim
Aim
1. To understand the principle of Digital to analog and Analog to digital principle.
2. To measure the parameters of R-2R Ladder Digital to Analog Converter Circuit.
3. To study parameters of IC: ADC0804 (Analog to Digital Converter).
399
22.2
22.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
DC Power Supply, Digital Multimeter, Digital Board.
22.3
22.3 Diagram
Diagram
Analog to Digital converter
Digital to Analog converter
400
Figure: Temperature Control System
In above figure Analog to digital converter (ADC) and digital to analog converter
(DAC) are used to interface a computer to the analog world so that the computer
can monitor and control a physical variable.
22.4 Model
22.4 ModelGraph
Graph
22.5 Theory
22.5 Theoryand
anddescription
description
A digital to analog converter (DAC) is a device that outputs a voltage proportional
to an input binary number. This device is frequently required in applications where
a digital computer must generate a signal that has an influence on the ‘real’ world.
401
Real world signals are continuously variable i.e. analogue signals, whereas signals
within a computer have a finite number of values i.e. discrete signals. A DAC is
used to perform the necessary conversion.
Analog to Digital converters (ADC) are widely used by many engineers and
scientists. One of the most widely used features of computer interface systems is
the ability to change an analog voltage in the “real world” into a digital
representation (a binary number) inside the computer.
Digital to Analog Converter:
There are several methods and circuits for producing the D/A operation that has
been described. Figure shows the basic circuit for one type of four bits DAC. The
input A, B, C and D are binary inputs that are assumed to have the values of either
0 or 5 V. The operation amplifier is employed as a summing amplifier, which
produces the weighted sum of this input voltage.
The Amplifier output can thus be expressed as
=− . + . + . + .
1 2 3 4
402
The Amplifier output can thus be expressed as
1 1 1 1
=− . + . + . + .
8 4 2 1
R/2R Ladder:-
One of the most widely DAC circuits that use R/2R Ladder network, where the
resistance values span a range of only 2 to 1. One such DAC is shown in the
Figure.
There are two different values are used R and 2R. The current output Iout depends
on the positions of the four switches, and binary inputs B3 B2 B1 B0 control the
state of the switch .
This current is allowed to flow through an op-amp current to voltage converter to
develop Vout. The value of Vout is given by the expression
=− ×
8
where B is the value of the binary input.
Analog to Digital Conversion:-
An analog to digital converter take an analog input voltage and, after a certain
amount of time, produces a digital output code that represents the analog input.
The A/D conversion process is generally more complex and time consuming than
the D/A process, and many different methods have been developed and use.
Digital Ramp ADC:
One of the simplest versions of the general ADC of Figure uses a binary counter as
the register and allows the clock to increment the counter one step at a time until
VAX  VA.
It is called digital ramp ADC because the wave form at VAX is a step by step ramp
like the one shown in Figure.
403
Successive-Approximation ADC:
The successive-approximation converter is one of the most widely used types of
ADC. It has more complex circuitry than the digital-ramp ADC but a much shorter
conversion time. In addition, successive-approximation converters (SACs) have a
fixed value of conversion time that is not dependent on the value of the analog
404
input. The basic arrangement, shown in the Figure, is similar to that of the digital-
ramp ADC. The SAC, however, does not use a counter to provide the input to the
DAC block but uses a register instead. The control logic modifies the contents of
the register bit by bit until the register data are the digital equivalent of the analog
input VA within the resolution of the converter. The basic sequence of operation is
given by the flowchart in Figure. We will follow this flowchart as we go through
the example illustrated in Figure.
405
22.6
22.6 Self
Selflearning
learningexercise-I
exercise-I
Q.1 What is Analog to digital converter?
Q.2 How many types of Analog to digital converters are there?
Q.3 Why to use Analog to digital converter?
Q.4 What are the steps to execute the process of Analog to digital converter?
Q.5 What is the resolution of a digital to analog converter?
22.7 Procedure
22.7 Procedure
Digital to Analog Converter (R/2R Ladder) Circuit:
1. Making a connection of a 8 Bits DAC circuit shown in Figure.
406
2. Connecting 8-logic switches to 8-digital inputs (D7 D6 D5 …….D0).
3. Setting the digital input as shown in Table 1 and record the output voltage
(Vo) in Table 1.
4. Calculating the output voltage Vo (cal) using the schematic circuit given in
Fig and calculate an error (%) between the measurement and the
calculation, write them down in the Table 1.
Analog to Digital Converter (Successive Approximation ADC:
1. Connecting the 8 Bits ADC circuit shown in Figure
2. Connecting DC power supply to Vi and then vary Vi from 0 V to 5 V.

3. Find the minimum value of Vi that can set the digital outputs (DB7 DB6 DB5
….. DB0) as listed in Table.
4. Using the schematic given in Fig, calculate the input voltage Vi(cal) and an error
(%) between the measurement and the calculation; write them down in the Table 2.
DAC and ADC

407
1. Making a connection between the above two circuits as shown in Figure.
2. Filling in the missing values in Table 3.
22.8
22.8 Observation
Observation
Table 1
a. Step Size ……………………………….
Digital Input
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Vo Vo(cal) %error
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a. Full Scale Output Voltage V0 ……………………………
b. Number of Step……………………………….
408
c. Output Voltage when input voltage is (10001110)2
V0……………………………….
d. Percent Error of this DAC circuit

% Error =……………………………….
Table 2:
a. Step Size ……………………………….
Digital Output
Vi DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0 Vi %err

(min) (cal) or
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a. Minimum Full Scale Output Voltage V0 …
b. Number of Step……………………………….
c. Digital Output Voltage when input voltage is 2V…….
409
d. Quantization error=……
e. Percent Error of this ADC circuit
% Error =……………………………….
f. Measure voltage at Vref / 2 (IC ADC0804) pin…….
g. Adjust voltage V ref / 2 = 2V and find the step size.

step size = ……………………………….
Table 3:
Digital Input Digital Output V0
D D D D D D D D D D D D D D DB DB
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
410
22.9
22.9 Graph
Graph
On the graph below plot the analog voltage versus the binary value.
22.10
22.10Calculations
Calculations
22.11
22.11Result
Result
411
22.12
22.12Discussion
Discussion
22.13Precautions
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. Connections should be neat and tight.
2. The voltage should be less than the breakdown voltage.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram.
22.14 Self Self
22.14 Learning Exercise-II
Q.1 What do you mean by sampling?
Q.2 What is sampling theorem?
Q.3 Which of the following is a type of error associated with digital to analog
converters?
Q.4 A 4 bit R/2R digital to analog converter has a reference of 5 volts. What is the
analog output for the input code 0101.
Q.5 The practical use of binary weighted digital to analog converters is limited to:
22.15
22.15Glossary
Glossary
A/D Converter : (also A/D or ADC) Short for analog-to-digital converter. This
device converts real-world analog signals into a digital format that can be
processed by a computer. Video-speed A/D converters are those able to digitize
video bandwidth signals (greater than 1MHz): some are capable of sampling at
rates up to 500 million samples- per-second (Msps) and beyond. The most
common architectures for video-speed A/D converters are "flash" and
"subranging."
Analog Ground : In high-speed data acquisition applications, system ground is
generally physically separated into "analog" and "digital" grounds in an attempt to
suppress digital switching noise and minimize its effect on noise-sensitive analog
412
signal processing circuitry. Input signal conditioners, amplifiers, references, and
A/D converters are usually connected to analog ground.
D/A Converter : (also D/A or DAC). Short for digital-to-analog converter, this is a
device that changes a digitally-coded word into its "equivalent" quantized analog
voltage or current. Just like the A/D device, there are very high-speed D/A's
available, capable of converting at data rates up to 1GHz.
Switching Time : The time required for the DAC analog switch to change to a new
state from the previous one.
Analog Positive: Voltage Positive analog power supply used to power the DAC,
op-amp, and reference. (if external)
Analog Negative : Voltage Negative analog power supply used to power the DAC,
op-amp, and reference. (if external)
22.16
22.16Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Analog to digital converters is a device that converts continuous signals to
discrete digital numbers.
Ans.2: Analog to digital converter is commonly of two types;
a. Linear Analog to digital converter is designed to produce an output which is
a linear function or proportional to the output.
b. The other common type of Analog to digital converter is the Logarithmic
Analog to digital converter, which functions by using voiced
communications systems to increase the entropy of the digitized signal.
Ans.3: A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because it is more robust to
noise and can easily be recovered, corrected and amplified. For this reason, the
tendency today is to change an analog signal to digital data.
Ans.4: Analog to digital converter process is executed in three steps;
a. Sampling
b. Quantizing
c. Coding
Ans.5: It is the smallest analog output change that can occur as a result of an
increment in the digital input.
413
Ans.1: To convert continuous time signal to discrete time signal, a process is used
call as sampling.
Ans.2: The sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reproduced if it is
sampled at a frequency Fs, where Fs is greater than twice the maximum frequency
Fmax in the signal.
Fs>2Fmax
Ans.3: nonmonotonic and offset error.
Ans.4: 3.125 V
Ans.5: 4 bit D/A converters.
22.17
22.17Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 The difference between analog voltage represented by two adjacent digital
codes, or the analog step size, is the:
Q.2 What is the primary disadvantage of flash analog-to digital converter?
Q.3 What is the major advantage of the R/2R ladder digital to analog, as
compared to a binary weighted digital to analog DAC converter?
Q.4 The resolution of a 0-5 V 6-bit digital to analog converter is?
Q.5 In a flash analog to digital converter, the output of each comparator is
connected to an input of a?
Q.6 Which is not an analog to digital conversion error?
Q.7 Sample and hold circuits in analog to digital converters are designed to:
Q.8 A 4 bit R/2R digital to analog converter has a reference of 5 volts. What is
the analog output for the input code 0101.
Q.9 What is the resolution of a digital to analog converter?
Q.10 The practical use of binary weighted digital to analog converters is limited to:
22.18
22.18Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Resolution
Ans.2: A large number of comparators are required to represent a reasonable sized
binary number.
Ans.3: It only uses two different resistor values.
Ans.4: 1.56%
Ans.5 :Priority Encoder
414
Ans.6: Differential nonlinearity
Ans.7: Stabilize the input analog signal during the conversion process
Ans.8: 3.125 V
Ans.9: It is the smallest analog output change that can occur as a result of an
increment in the digital input.
Ans.10: 4 bit digital to analog converters
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. CMOS Integrated Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Converters,
by Rudy J. Van De Plassche, 2005.
2. Principles of data acquisition and conversion, Burr-Brown, 1994.
3. Digital electronics practice using integrated circuits by R. P. Jain, M. M. S.
Anand
4. Electronics Instrumentation, by H S Kalsi, Second Edition,Tata McGraw Hills.
415
UNIT-23
Uni-Junction Transistor (UJT)
23.1 Aim
23.2 Apparatus
23.3 Diagram
23.4 Formula
23.5 Model Graph
23.8 Procedure
23.9 Observation
23.10 Graph
23.11 Calculations
23.12 Result
23.13 Discussion
23.16 Glossary
23.1
23.1 Aim
Aim
To study UJT as saw tooth wave generator
416
23.2
23.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
UJT 2N2616, Resistors (47 Ω, 220 Ω, 47 KΩ), Capacitor (0.1, 0.01, 0.001  F),
DC power supply (0-20V), Connecting wires, CRO.
23.3
23.3 Diagram
Diagram
Fig.-1 Circuit for Saw tooth Wave Generator
23.4 Formula
23.4 Formula
Time Period of Saw tooth wave
 1 
T  2.303RC log10  
 1  
Where R- resistance, C- capacitor in the circuit and  - standoff ratio of
Peak voltage V
UJT given as,   
Supply voltage VB
417
23.5
23.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
Fig.-1 Saw tooth Wave
23.6
23.6 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
Fig.-3 Block Diagram
418
A uni-Junction Transistor (UJT) is consist of a long bar of n-type semiconductor
that doped with a small part of p-type semi-conductor which form a p-n junction
between them.
It has three terminal, emitter terminal E connected to the small p-type region and
other two terminals B1 and B2 (known as Base) are connected with two ends of n-
type bar.(fig.3)
Circuit symbol of UJT is shown in fig. 4
Fig.-4 Circuit Symbol

The basic operation of UJT can be understand using fig 5, n type bar of UJT is
assumed to be consist of two ohmic resistances RB E and RB E between base B1 and
1 2
B2. Voltage drop across E and B, terminal is (peak voltage)

 RB1 E 
V p  VB    Vr
 RB E  RB E 
 1 2 
Or V p  VB  Vr
RB1E
where   Vr is cut in
RB1E  RB2 E is known as standoff ratio of UJT and
voltage  ~ 0.7V 
Since
Vr  VB ,
419
Hence V p  VB ----- (1)
Now if applied voltage across emitter and base VE < Vp then p-n junction is reverse
biased and no significant current (except small package current) will flow in
emitter circuit.
But when VE  Vp then p-n junction is forward biased and a large current with
decreasing voltage will flow in emitter circuit, which shows negative resistance
region.
Fig.-5
UJT saw tooth wave generator is shown in fig. 1
If voltage on capacitor ‘Vc’ is less then Vp (i.e. reserve biased condition) then
capacitor C charged through R towards VB hence charging equation of capacitor is

VC  V B 1  e
 t RC
 ----- (2)
where RC is time constant.
420
When capacitor voltage VC is equal to Vp , then p-n junction is forward biased hence
a large current flows and capacitor will discharge suddenly.
Since VC  V p at t  T
then from equation (2) V p  VB 1  e  T

RC

T
from equation (1)   1  e
RC
T
or  1  e RC
T
or ln(  1)  ln( e RC
)
or ln(  1)   T / RC
or T   RC ln(  1)
 1 
or T  RC ln  
1   
 1 
or T  2.303 RC log10  
 1  
These cycles of charging and discharging of capacitor appears as saw tooth wave
when observed using CRO.
23.7
23.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is full form of UJT?
Q.2 How many part it consist of?
Q.3 How many p-n junction it has?
Q.4 Is UJT a three terminal device?
Q.5 Give name of three terminals of UJT
Q.6 Write time period for waves generated by UJT.
Q.7 What is a capacitor?
Q.8 What is a resistor used in circuits?
Q.9 What is the resistance of a connecting wire? Explain.
421
Q.10Write charging equation of a capacitor.
23.8 Procedure
23.8 Procedure
(i) Connect the circuit as shown in fig-1 with a capacitor of a fixed capacitance.
(ii) Observe the wave form across capacitor using CRO, trace them with proper
scales.
(iii) Change the capacitor of different values and repeat step (ii)
(iv) Calculate time period theoretically and experimentally.
23.9 Observation
23.9 Observation
Observation should be taken on trace papers with proper scales of time and voltage
axis of CRO.
From CRO,
Scale on X-axis ------------------------------------------------
Scale on Y-axis -----------------------------------------------
Observation taken on trace paper
23.10
23.10Graph
Graph
Plot the graph .
422
23.11
23.11Calculations
Calculations
Model calculation:Since time period
 1 
T  2.303 RC log10  
 1  
Let   0.5 stand off ratio. (generally given in data sheet)
(i) When R  47k , C  0.001 F
T  2.303  47  103  0.001 10 6  log10  2 
 2.303  47  106   0.3 
 32.47  106
 0.03247mS
(ii) When R  47 k , C  0.01 F
T  2.303  47  103  0.01 10 6  log10  2 
 32.47  105
 0.3247mS
(iii) When R  47 k , C  0.1 F
T  2.303  47  103  0.1 10 6  log10  2 
 32.47  104
 3.247mS
23.12
23.12Result
Result
UJT as saw tooth wave generator is observed.
23.13 Discussion
23.13 Discussion
423
23.14
23.14Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. All connections should be tight
2. Do not apply voltage higher then rated values.
3. Three terminals of UJT should be identified carefully
4. Adjust scales of CRO properly.
5. Parallax error should be minimized.
23.15
Exercise-II
Q.1 What is the name of small current flows in reverse biased condition ?
Q.2 What is the unit of capacitance of a capacitor?
Q.3 What is  stand for?
Q.4 What is time period?
Q.5 What is the relationship between frequency and time period?
Q.6 What is mean by device rating?
Q.7 What is parallax error?
Q.8 A UJT circuit contain resistance R=1 KΩ, capacitance C= 40 µF.
Calculate time period and frequency for saw tooth wave generated by the
UJT.(Stand off ratio of UJT – 0.75)
23.16
23.16Glossary
Glossary
Leakage Current : Small current flows due to minority charge carriers
Forward characteristics : Relationship between voltage and current in forward
biased condition
Reverse characteristics : Relationship between voltage and current in reverse
biased condition
Junction Breakdown : Sudden rise in current due to p-n junction breaks down and
flows of large charge carriers through junction.
N-type semi-conductor : Semiconductor doped with Pentavalent impurity atoms
heaving high concentration of electrons as majority charge carriers
P-type semi-conductor : Semi conductor’s doped with trivalent impurity atoms
having high concentrations of holes
424
Device ratings : Maximum tolerable voltages/ powers of device data provide by
manufactures
Electronic switch: An electronic device that has ON and OFF states only hence
working as a switch
Connecting wire : wire used to connect different parts of the circuit
Negative resistance : When voltage decrease with increasing current, then
resistance of such device is assumed to be negative, known as negative resistance
Cut in voltage : Specific forward voltage at which forward current will starts to
flow through the UJT
Forward breakdown voltage : In open gate, forward applied voltage where
avalanche breakdown occurred.
Reverse breakdown voltage : Reverse applied voltage where breakdown occurred
Semi conductor : Material that have band gap between conduction and valance
band of the order of ev
p-n junction : Region without mobile charge carriers between p-type and n-type
semiconductor regions
Majority charge carrier : Charge carriers responsible for forward current
Minority charge carriers : Charge carriers responsible for leakage current
23.17
23.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1:Uni- Junction Transistor.
Ans.2:Two, one n-type bar, another p type doped region.
Ans.3:One.
Ans.4:Yes.
Ans.5:Emitter, Base one, Base Two.
Ans.1:Leakage current
Ans.2:Farad (micro Farad, Pico Farad)
Ans.3:Standoff ratio of UJT
Ans.4:Time required for completion of one full cycle
1
Ans.5: Freequency 
TimePeriod
425
Ans.8: Given R=1 KΩ = 103 Ω
C= 40 µF = 40 x 10-6 F
So,
 1 
T  2.303 RC log10  
 1  
or T=2.303x103 x40x10-6xlog10{1/(1-0.75)}
or T=2.303x103 x40x10-6xlog10{1/0.25}
or T=2.303x103 x40x10-6xlog10{100/0.25}
or T=2.303x103-6 x40xlog10{4}
or T=2.303x80x0.301x10-3
or T=55.45x10-3
or T= 55.45 mS
Since frequency of oscillation
f=1/T
So, f=1/(55.45x10-3)
or f=(1/55.45)x103
or f= 18 Hz
23.18
23.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What do you mean by semi conductor?
Q.2 What is p-n junction?
Q.3 What are majority charge carriers?
Q.4 What are minority charge carriers?
Q.5 Why biasing of p-n junction is necessary?
Q.6 What is cut in voltage?
Q.7 What is UJT?
Q.8 Define standoff ratio?
Q.9 Define peak voltage?
Q.10 Define time constant for R-C circuit?
Q.11 What is the nature of charging curve of a capacitor?
Q.12 If ln x  ' y ' log10 x , what is value of ' y ' ?
Q.13 What do you mean by CRO?
Q.14 What is negative resistance?
426
Q.15 What is general shape of A.C. Signals?
Q.16 How UJT is differ from an ordinary diode?
Q.19 What do you mean by capacitance?
Q.20 What is unit of RC?
Q.21 It R is doubled, then what is the value of time period of Saw tooth wave?
Q.22 If C is doubled, then what is the value of time period Saw tooth wave?
Q.23 If R is halved, then what is the value of time period of saw tooth wave?
Q.24 If C is halved, then what is the value of time period of saw tooth wave?
Q.25 Write formula for frequency of Saw tooth wave.
23.19Answers
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Material that have band gap between conduction and valance band of the
order of 1 eV?
Ans.2: Region without mobile charge carriers between p-type and n-type
semiconductor regions?
Ans.3: Charge carriers responsible for forward current.
Ans.4: Charge carriers responsible for leakage current.
Ans.5: Biasing of junction is necessary for flow of large current through it.
Ans.6: Minimum voltage required for flow of significant current through
junction.
Ans.7: UJT is an electronic device that has one p-n junction.
Ans.8: The ratio of internal resistance between emitter to base-1 and base-2 is
 RB1 E 
known as standoff ratio   
 RB1B2 
Ans.9: Minimum voltage required to for conducting p-n junction in UJT.
Ans.10: Product of value of resistance (R) and capacitance (C) is called time
constant for R-C circuit.
Ans.11: Exponential
Ans.12: y  2.303
427
Ans.13: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope used for display of waves.
Ans.14: When slope of curve which plotted between voltage and current is
negative, then resistance in this case is called as negative resistance.
Ans.15: Sinusoidal
Ans.16: UJT has three leads whereas diode has two leads.
Ans.17: It is necessary DC voltage which is required for any active device to
operate.
Ans.18: A resistance is the interption in flow of electrical current through a
wire/conductor. It is defined as the ratio of voltage to current across wire.
Ans.19: The capacitance is the ratio of charge on plate to potential between the
plates of the capacitor.
Ans.20: When R is in ohms and C is in farads then unit of RC is second.
 1 
Ans.21: Since T  2.303 RC log10  
 1  
So if R1  2 R , then T 1  2T
i.e. time period is also doubled.
Ans.22: Since T  2.303 RC log10  1 

 1  
So if C1  2C , then T 1  2T
i.e. time period is doubled.
Ans.23: Since T  2.303 RC log10  1 

 1  
R
So if R1  , then T 1  T
2 2
i.e. time period is halved.
Ans.24: Since t  2.303 RC log10  1 

 1  
So if C1  C , then T1 
T
2 2
i.e. time periods is halved.
1
Ans.25:Formula for frequencies F
 1 
2.303 RC log10  
 1  
428
Where R-resistances,
C-capacitance and
 - stand off ratio
Referencesand
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. D. Chattopadhyay, P.C. Rakshit, B. Saha, N.N. Purkait, Foundations of
Electronics (Second Edition), (New Age International Pub. Ltd.) Wiley Eastern
Limited, 1988.
2. V.K. Mehta, principles of Electronics, S. Chand and company Ltd, 2001
429
UNIT-24
Triode by Bridge Method
24.1 Aim
24.2 Apparatus
24.3 Diagram
24.4 Formula
24.7 Procedure
24.8 Observation
24.9 Graph
24.10 Calculations
24.11 Result
24.12 Discussion
24.15 Glossary
24.17 Viva questions
24.1 Aim
Determine the µ, gm & rp of a triode by bridge method and study the variation of
these quantities with grid voltage.
430
24.2 Apparatus
Triode valve, two power supply, three standard resistance box, Low impedance
head phone, Signal generator, DC voltmeter.
24.3
24.3 Diagram
Diagram
V
V
P Q
Figure 24.1: Bridge method to determine the A.C. resistance of the triode [2].
B
A
T
C
R D
Figure 24.2: Circuit diagram to determine the mutual conductance of the triode
431
B
A
T
C
P D Q
Figure 24.3: Circuit diagram for the measurement of the amplification factor of
the triode [2].
24.4
24.4Formula
Formula
(i) Plate ac (or dynamic) Resistance
∆
= (at constant VG)
∆
(in Ohm)
(ii) Mutual conductance (or grid-plate transconductance)
∆
= (at constant Vp)
∆
(in Mho)
(iii) Amplification factor
∆
=− (at constant Ip)
∆
Here:
Vp = Plate voltage,
432
Ip = Plate current, and VG = Grid voltage.
24.5
24.5 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
(i) Thermionic Emission: Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from
a heated filament or substance. If a filament like tungsten is heated to high
temperature, some electrons acquire sufficient energy and are able to break away
from the surface of the material and get in free space. This process is accelerated if
the filament is heated in a vacuum. The electrons emitted are also called thermions.
The rate of emission of electrons depends on [5]:
 The material used for the filament.
 The temperature of the filament
 The surface area of the filament
(ii) Triode: A triode is an electronic amplification device, which consists of three
electrodes: the filament or cathode, the grid, and the plate or anode. It was
invented by De Forest in 1906, who inserted a third electrode, called the grid in the
vacuum diode. He found that the current in the triode could be controlled by
adjusting the grid potential with respect to the cathode. The grid acts as a valve that
reduces current as it becomes more negative. A sufficient negative grid voltage
will put the triode in its cutoff condition, where no current will flow [1, 2].
Maximum current will flow when the grid is at 0 volts.
(a) Construction: All triodes have a cathode heated by a filament, which releases
electrons, and a flat metal plate electrode (anode) to which the electrons are
attracted, with a grid consisting of a screen of wires between them to control
the current. These are sealed inside a glass container from which the air has
been removed to a high vacuum, about 10-9 atm. [6].
(b) Operation: In the triode, cathode emits electrons by a process called
thermionic emission. The electrons are attracted to the positively-charged plate
(anode), and flow through the spaces between the grid wires to it, creating a
current through the tube from cathode to plate. The voltage on the grid
controls the flow of electrons from the cathode to the plate.
433
Figure 24.4: Construction and symbol of triode [2].
(iii) Triode characteristic Curve:
In a triode we are interested in three electrical quantities. These are the plate
voltage Vp, the plate current Ip, and the grid voltage VG. They are interrelated.
For every value of anode voltage there is now a whole range of possible
anode currents, depending on the grid voltage. The static anode characteristics of a
triode can therefore be drawn as a family of curves, each corresponding to a
different grid voltage, so they are called the grid curves. We can plot the following
curves:
 Between Vp and Ip for constant value of Vg. -- Static plate characteristics.
 Between VG and Ip for constant values of Vp. – Mutual or transfer
characteristics.
 Between VG and VP for constant values of Ip. -- Voltage transfer or current
transfer characteristic.
(a) Static Plate Characteristics: The plate characteristics are graphs between
plate current and plate voltage when the grid voltage is constant. The experimental
circuit to determine these is given below:
Procedure: Set the grid voltage VG at a convenient value (say, 0 volts). Now
increase the plate voltage Vp from zero in a number of steps. At each step, note the
plate current Ip. Change the grid voltage (say, -1 V) and repeat the measurements.
The plot of these values gives a family of curves as shown in the figure. The curves
434
are linear over much of their range. The operation of triode is limited in this linear
part [1].
IP
− +
mA
+ +
− V VP
− VPP
VGG V VG − −
+ +
Figure 24. 5: circuit Diagram for determination of the static characteristics of a

triode [1].
= 0V
-1 V
1 -2 V
-3 V
1
(mA)
∆
5
∆
0 5 10 15 20 25
(volt)
Figure 24.6: Static plate characteristics of a triode [1].
435
(b) Mutual characteristics: The mutual or transfer characteristics are plot of
plate current against grid voltage for constant values of plate voltage. They can
also be determined using the experimental circuit given above.
Procedure: First the plate voltage is set at a convenient value (say, 100 V). The
grid voltage is then increased negatively, starting from zero, in steps. At each step
the plate current is noted. The plate voltage is set to other different values and then
the procedure is repeated. The plot of these curves gives a family of curves given
in the figure. The point at which the curves meet the VG axis gives the cut off
voltage [1].
25
20
15
50 V (mA)
200 V 100 V
10
∆
5
∆
- 10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
(volt)
Figure 24.7: Mutual characteristics of a triode [1].
436
(iv) Triode parameters: A triode tube has three useful parameters:
(a)Plate ac (or dynamic) resistance, rp
(b)Mutual conductance or transconductance, gm
(c)Amplification factor, µ
a. Plate ac (or dynamic) Resistance (rp)
It is the ratio small change in plate voltage vp to the small change in plate current ip
when grid voltage VG is kept constant. It is generally denoted by rp.
∆
= (at constant VG)
∆
The value of rp can be obtained from the plate characteristic and its value remains
constant along the linear portion of the characteristic.
b. Mutual Conductance (gm)
The mutual conductance (or grid-plate transconductance) is the incremental change
in the plate current divided by the incremental change in the grid voltage when
plate voltage vp is kept constant. It is denoted by gm.
∆
= (at constant Vp)
∆
c. Amplification Factor (µ)
The maximum voltage amplification which a valve is capable of giving under ideal
conditions is called the amplification factor. It is denoted by µ. The amplification
factor is defined as the ratio of incremental in plate voltage Vp to the small change
in the grid voltage VG when plate current Ip is kept constant. Mathematically, µ is
given by the relation
∆
=− (at constant Ip)
∆
As Vp and Vg are changed in opposite direction to keep ip constant, therefore the
ratio ∆Vp/∆VG is negative sign appearing in the formula for µ to make this ratio
positive.
The relation between µ, rp and gm:
= ×
437
24.6
24.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 Describe how the grid controls the plate current.
Q.2 Define the triode parameters.
Q.3 What are plate characteristic of triode?
Q.4 The control grid in a triode is
(a) very near to plate
(b) very near to cathode
(c) midway between plate and cathode
(d) None of these
Q.5 A triode can be used as an amplifier because
(a) It has three terminals and any three-terminal device can act as an amplifier
(b) any small change in grid voltage can cause a large change in plate voltage
(c) high power source is available in plate circuit
(d) None of these
24.7
24.7 Procedure
Procedure
Determination of valve constants: Bridge method
(i) Measurements of A.C. resistance:
1. Connect the valve in the unknown arm of the bridge as shown in figure 24.1.
2. Supply an alternating current to the bridge. Since the valve circuit contains no
alternating source the bridge will measure its alternating impedance. The
reactive component must be balanced out by connecting a variable resistance
across P.
3. By varying P, an exact balance condition for a valve, which acts as a pure
resistor, can be found out.
4. Make an experiment by keeping the voltage applied to the plate at a constant
value Vp, and by measuring the valve resistance, S, for different values of VG.
5. S is given by the usual bridge relation at balance: =
6. Plot a graph of S against VG. For different values of Vp, other graphs can be
438
obtained.
(ii) Measurements of mutual conductance
The mutual conductance (gm) is the ratio of small change in the plate current (Ip) to
the change in the grid voltage (VG) producing it while the plate voltage (Vp) is
constant. In the method described below the ratio of these two quantities are
measured directly.
1. Connect the apparatus as shown in figure 24.2.
2. Introduce an alternating EMF into the grid circuit. The amplitude of the EMF
must not be large enough to cause the grid potential to become positive.
3. Connect a variable resistance R in series with the anode circuit.
4. Connect one end of the headphone to the cathode and the other end to the
variable resistance R. The impedance of the headphone should be smaller than
that of the valve so that the plate potential difference is appreciably constant.
5. When the potential difference between A and D is zero, there is no sound in the
headphone. In this case along ABCD, the EMF in AB is ΔVG is equal to the
potential difference in CD i.e. RIp.
∆
6. The mutual conductance is then given by: =
∆
7. Draw a graph of the ratio for the grid potential ranging from -10 volts to 0 volt.
(iii) Measurements of amplification factor
1. Connect the valve including a fixed resistance P in the grid circuit and a
variable resistance Q in the anode circuit as shown in figure 24.3.
2. Connect the headphone between the filament of the valve and a point between P
and Q.
3. Introduce an alternating EMF across PQ. The part of this affecting the grid
must not be so large that the grid potential difference becomes positive.
4. Vary Q and find the point where the headphone is silent. In this condition the
EMF in the plate circuit which results from the change in the potential in the
grid circuit owing to the alternating current in P is balanced by the alternating
current in Q.
∆
5. Thus: =
∆
439
The ratio measures the average amplification factor for this range of the
variation under the condition at which the valve is working.
6. For different values of grid potential difference, ranging from -10 volts to 0
volt, a series of observations can be made.
7. A graph can then be plotted between the amplification factor and grid voltage.
24.8
24.8 Observation
Observation
Type number of the triode =
Information from the data book:
(a) Pin connections:
Connections for Pin number
Cathode
Plate
Control grid
Heater filament
(b) Maximum plate current rating = --------------- mA
(c) Maximum plate dissipation rating = ---------------Watt
Table 1: A.C. resistance measurements:
S. Grid Resistance of the unknown arm S = PR/Q
No. voltage
VG
(volts)
Va = --V Va = --V Va = --V Va = --V Va = --V
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
440
Table 2: Mutual conductance measurements:
S. No. Grid voltage VG Resistance R (when Mutual
(volts) there is no sound in the conductance
headphone) 1/R
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Table 3: Amplification factor measurements:

S. No. Grid voltage VG Resistance Q (when Amplification
(volts) there is no sound in the factor
headphone) Q/P
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
441
24.9
24.9 Graph
Graph
1. A.C. resistance measurement: A graph of S vs. VG can be plotted for various
values of plate voltage vp.
2. Mutual conductance measurement: A graph of the ratio Δip/ΔVG for various
values of grid potential.
3. Amplification factor: A graph of amplification factor vs. grid voltage.
24.10
24.10 Calculations Calculations
24.11Result
24.11 Result
The triode parameters obtained from bridge method are as below:
Parameter Value determined
r= ………………………………………….KΩ
gm = ………………………………………….mS
µ= ………………………………………….
24.12Discussion
24.12 Discussion
442
24.13Precautions
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. The applied EMF should not be large enough to make the grid positive.
2. Resistance should be varied until there is no sound in the headphone.
3. Specifications of the given valve about maximum plate voltage, heating
voltage, and grid voltage prescribed by the makers must be strictly adhered to.
4. For study of A.C. resistance, the plate voltage must be constant for each set of
observations.
5. The impedance of the headphone should be smaller than that of the valve.
24.14
24.14Self
Selflearning
learningexercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 For a triode, amplification factor usually ranges from
(a) 10 to 100
(b) 100 to 1000
(c) 1 to 10
(d) None of these
Q.2 Thermionic valves are evacuated because
(a) A lot of heat is produced if air is present
(b) Free path of electron is negligible in air
(c) Electrons cannot be produced in presence of air
(d) None of these
Q.3 An oxide coated filament is used in vacuum tubes because
(a) It increases the life time of the filament
(b) It can withstand higher voltage
(c) It protects the cathode from overheating.
(d) It emits electrons at lower temperature.
Q.4 Why we make grid bias negative?
Q.5 What is the unit of mutual conductance?
443
24.15
24.15Glossary
Glossary
Field emission: In field emission a large electric field is applied across the metal.
The electrons then experience the forces due to the electric field and hence are
emitted from the metal surface.
Thermionic Emission: Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a
heated filament or substance
24.16
24.16Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Please see the section theory and description.
Ans.4: (b) Very near to cathode.
Ans.5: (b) Any small change in the grid voltage can cause a large change in the
plate voltage.
Ans.1: (a) 10 to 100
Ans.2: (b) Free path of electrons in air is negligible.
If a thermionic valve is not evacuated, the electrons will collide with the gas
molecules and will lose their energy which will further cause in deflection from
their path and ionization of filled gas.
Ans.3: (d) It emits electrons at lower temperature.
Due to oxide coating the work function gets lowered and it emits electrons at lower
temperature.
Ans.4:There are two major reasons to make grid bias generally negative
 Current flowing in the grid circuit can distort the shape of the output
voltage with respect to the shape of input voltage
 Positive grid voltage can cause excessive plate current and result in damage
to the tube.
444
Ans.5:The unit of mutual conductance is ‘Siemens’.
24.17Viva
24.17 VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is thermionic emission?
Q.2 What are the differences among Field emission, Photoelectric effect, and
Thermionic emission?
Q.3 Explain the working of a triode.
Q.4 What are plate characteristics of a triode?
Q.5 Describe the function of the grid?
Q.6 Define the terms, plate resistance (rp), amplification factor(µ) and mutual
conductance(gm)?
Q.7 What is the relation between rp, µ and gm?
Q.8 Why the grid is always kept at negative potential with respect to cathode?
Q.9 What is Anode characteristic curve?
Q.10 What does the amplification factor tells us?
Q.11 What is the unit of amplification factor?
Q.12 On what things the amplification factors depend?
Q.13 What is the typical range of the amplification factor value?
Q.14 What are the dynamic characteristics of the valve?
Q.15 What is the basic principle behind the working of triode as an amplifier?
24.18
24.18Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: In thermionic emission the metal is heated. Due to this the kinetic energy
of electron is increased and if the kinetic energy is sufficient enough to overcome
the binding energy, then the electrons are free from columbic attraction and hence
emitted by the metal surface. The classical example of thermionic emission is the
emission of electrons from a hot cathode in a vacuum tube.
Ans.2: Field emission: In field emission a large electric field is applied across the
metal. The electrons then experience the forces due to the electric field and hence
are emitted from the metal surface.
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Photoelectric emission: Emission of electrons from a metallic surface by the
application of light is known as photoelectric effect. When a beam of light strikes
the surface of metal, the energy contained in the light is absorbed by the electrons
within the metal giving the electrons sufficiently free energy to be knocked out of,
which is emitted from the surface of the metal.
Thermionic emission: Please see the answer to question 1.
Ans.3:When the cathode is heated, it emits electron. The electron first emitted
repels other electrons which follow. So that a cloud of electron (space charge) is
formed near the cathode. When the plate is given a positive potential with respect
to cathode, electrons flow from cathode towards the plate passing through the grid.
A plate current thus flows in the circuit. As the plate potential is increased, more
electrons move towards it so that the space charges decreases and the plate current
increases. When all the electrons emitted by the cathode are attracted by the plate,
saturation is reached.
Ans.4:Please see the section theory and description.
Ans.5:Grid influences the space charge and controls the flow of current.
Ans.8:The negative charge on the control grid repels the electron in the vacuum.
Because of this it controls the flow of current between the anode and cathode.
When the grid is given a negative potential with respect to the cathode, it repels the
electrons escaping from the cathode and increases the effect of space charge, at
sufficiently negative grid potential the plate current falls to zero. This value of grid
potential for which the plate current falls to zero is called cut off grid bias.
Ans.10:The amplification factor tells us the relative effectiveness of the grid with
respect to plate. If µ=20 then the grid is twenty times more effective than the plate.
Ans.11:Amplification factor is a pure number. It has no units.
Ans.12:The amplification factor depends on the geometry of the valve, the
separation between the electrodes and their structures.
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Ans.13:The amplification factor µ is always greater than unity. It’s typical value
lies in the range of 10 to 100.
Ans.14:The characteristic curves of valve in presence of the load (i.e. under
practical condition) are called dynamic characteristics of the valve.
Ans.15:The amplifying action of the triode is based on the fact that a small change
in grid voltage causes a large change in the plate current.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. N. N. Bhargava, S. C. Gupta, and D. C. Kulshreshtha, Basic Electronics
and Linear Circuits .
2. Jacob Millman, and Christoph C. Halkias John D. Ryder, Electronic Devices
and Circuits by Electronic Fundamentals and Applications
3. B. L.Worsnop and H. T. Flint, Advanced Practical Physics for Students
4. http://www.preservearticles.com/
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode.
447
UNIT- 25
Cathode Follower Amplifier
25.1 Aim
25.2 Apparatus
25.3 Diagram
25.4 Formula
25.5 Model Graph
25.8 Procedure
25.9 Observation
25.10 Graph
25.11 Calculations
25.12 Result
25.13 Discussion
25.16 Glossary
25.1
25.1 Aim
Aim
To study the frequency response of cathode follower amplifier.
448
25.2
25.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Electronic board with Micro and Mili-Ammeter, A.C. Mili-Voltmeter, Audio
Frequency Generator, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).
25.3
25.3 Diagram
Diagram
Circuit Diagrams :
+ VCC
Rp
Triode Valve
Ci
Vin
Rg
Co
Rb
Vout
Rk
Fig. 1: AC coupled Cathode Follower circuit diagram.
449
25.4
25.4 Formula
Formula
Voltage Gain =
or = 20 dB
Here
Vout = Voltage at output terminals
Vin = Voltage at input terminals (Provided by frequency generator)
For the cathode follower circuit shown in figure 1
= ( − )
Gain =
=
1+
If ≫1
≅1
Here:
Ia = Cathode current
gm = mutual conductance of the tube
Rl = (Rb + Rk ) Load resistance
25.5
25.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
The frequency response curve for a cathode follower circuit can be obtained as
shown below:
450
Fig. 2: Model Frequency response curve for a cathode follower circuit.
 This curve is plotted in between voltage gain (at Y Axis) and the frequency
(at X axis) of input current.
 The voltage gain will be always in negative db, as the voltage gain is
always less than unity for cathode follower.
 Lower cut off frequency and higher cut off frequency is determined by
points lying at curve for which gain is falling by 3 db.
 Difference of higher cut off frequency and lower cut off frequency is
known as band width.
25.6 Theory
25.6 Theoryand
andDescription
Description
(i) Frequency response curves: frequency response of an electric or
electronics circuit allows us to see exactly how the output gain or the phase
changes with the frequency of input current. The frequency response analysis of a
451
circuit or system is in actual a plot of circuit gain (which is mostly the voltage of
output signal to its input signal) against a frequency scale over which the circuit or
system is expected to operate this curve which represent behavior of circuit with
changes in the input signal frequency.
The horizontal X-axis with frequency is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale
while the vertical Y-axis is with the voltage gain in decibel units, is usually drawn
as a linear scale. Since the gain from system (amplifier or circuit) can be either
positive or negative, the Y-axis can therefore have both positive and negative
values. Graphical representations of frequency response curves are called Bode
Plots. These Bode plots are generally said to be a semi-logarithmic graphs because
one scale (x-axis) is logarithmic and the other (y-axis) is linear as shown in figure
3 [4].
Fig. 3: A model frequency response curve of any amplifier [4].
Frequency points ƒl and ƒh relate to the lower cut-off frequency and the upper cut-
off frequency points respectively were the circuits gain falls off by 3 db at high and
low frequencies. These points on a frequency response curve are known commonly
as the -3dB (decibel) points. The bandwidth is simply defined the difference
between this lower and higher cut off frequency. The physical significance of the
band width is that it represents almost constant output gain by circuit in the
frequency range covered by band width. The output gains drops sharply beyond the
452
band width. This fall or reduction in gain is known commonly as the roll-off region
of the frequency response curve [4].
These -3 dB corner frequency points define the frequency at which the output gain
is reduced to 70.71% of its maximum value. The amount of output power delivered
to the load is effectively half at the cut-off frequency and as such the bandwidth
(BW) of the frequency response curve can also be defined as the range of
frequencies between these two half-power points [4].
(ii) The Triode value (tube):
Thermionic Emission: Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a
heated filament or substance. If a filament like tungsten is heated to high
temperature, some electrons acquire sufficient energy and are able to break away
from the surface of the material and get in free space. This process is accelerated if
the filament is heated in a vacuum. The electrons emitted are also called thermions.
The rate of emission of electrons depends on [5]:
 The material used for the filament.
 The temperature of the filament
 The surface area of the filament
Triode: A triode is an electronic amplification device, which consists of three
electrodes: the filament or cathode, the grid, and the plate or anode. It was
invented by De Forest in 1906, who inserted a third electrode, called the grid in the
vacuum diode. He found that the current in the triode could be controlled by
adjusting the grid potential with respect to the cathode. The grid acts as a valve that
reduces current as it becomes more negative. A sufficient negative grid voltage
will put the triode in its cut-off condition, where no current will flow [1].
Maximum current will flow when the grid is at 0 volts.
a. Construction: All triodes have a cathode electrode heated by a filament,
which releases electrons, and a flat metal plate electrode (anode) to which the
electrons are attracted, with a grid consisting of a screen of wires between them to
control the current. These are sealed inside a glass container from which the air has
been removed to a high vacuum, about 10-9 atm. [6].
b. Operation: In the triode, cathode emits electrons by a process called
thermionic emission. The electrons are attracted to the positively-charged plate
453
(anode), and flow through the spaces between the grid wires to it, creating a
current through the tube from cathode to plate. The voltage on the grid controls the
flow of electrons from the cathode to the plate.
Fig. 4: structure of a triode valve.

(iii) Cathode Follower: The cathode follower is a negative feedback amplifier
circuit, as shown in figure 1. The effective input voltage in this circuit Vin−Vout. The
whole output is fed back to the input side giving very low non-linear distortion and
a very linear response from very low to very high frequencies. It is reason that the
gain of this amplifier is drastically decreased and always less than unity. The
output voltage will be always less than the input voltage for cathode follower
amplifier; so, the cathode follower can be regarded purely as a current amplifier. In
this sense it has an advantage over transformer coupling, which cannot step up
current without stepping down voltage.
The output signal is taken off at the cathode and also the output signal is in-the
phase with the input signal means follows the input, it is reason this circuit named
as cathode follower. This circuit is typically used for impedance matching,
especially where a low impedance output is desired, since the output impedance of
most valve circuits is rather high (equal to the value of the plate load resistor). For
the cathode follower circuit the input impedance is very high while output
impedance is very low while gain is around unity. Hence, it works as buffer circuit;
convert high impedance (at output of an electronic circuit) to the desired low
impedance. In solid state electronics, the common collector is equivalent circuit to
454
the cathode follower and known as emitter follower, where the output taken at
emitter and collector junction (forward biased junction hence low resistance at
output) and input is given at base and collector junction (reverse biased junction
hence high resistance at input).
Simply attaching a load having low impedance to a signal amplifier (having high
output impedance) will cause the output level to be drastically reduced, so the
cathode follower is a useful as a final stage of signal amplifier. As it is the final
circuit of a signal amplifier circuits it become important to study the frequency
response of this electronic circuit. The output impedance of the circuit of Figure 1
can be expected to be about 1/10th the value of the cathode resistance Rk - but this
is highly dependent on the valve itself, and its operating current.
Fig. 5: Cathode follower circuit on printed board.
455
The cathode follower possessing two types of electronic configuration: AC
coupled and DC coupled. The AC-coupled cathode follower is normally used as a
means of coupling high output impedance to the low input impedance with
minimal loss of signal amplitude. The cathode follower has very low input
capacitance and a very high input impedance so it will not load down the previous
stage, and very low output impedance so very little signal is lost even when driving
a fairly low input impedance.
Fig. 6: DC coupled Cathode Follower (Courtesy: http://valvewizard.co.uk/)

“The cathode follower is an excellent buffer stage for driving a tone stack or
effects loop, or any circuit which would otherwise present a heavy load to a
"normal" stage. In addition, the DC-Coupled cathode follower can also be used to
produce a unique compressive quality, and is to be found in most of the classic
amplifier designs. The AC-coupled version is not so useful for this, since the input
coupling cap prevents the flow of quiescent grid current. The AC-coupled version
is therefore used as a tonally transparent stage, usually [7].
456
(iv) Description of cathode follower circuit shown in figure 1:
 Capacitor Ci is the input coupling capacitor. It is used to isolate the grid circuit
from the DC voltage at the output of the previous circuit. This capacitor, in
conjunction with the grid resistor, controls the frequency response of the stage.
 Rk is the cathode resistor, which is used to develop the cathode bias voltage.
Since the grid resistor references the control grid to ground potential, this
positive cathode voltage across Rk creates an effective negative grid voltage
with respect to the cathode, providing the bias operating point for the tube.
This resistor controls the headroom of the stage (output before clipping) and
linearity, or distortion level, of the stage.
 Rp is the plate resistor to bias the plate electrode in the triode valve.
 Rg is the grid resistor. Voltage drop on this resistor is used to control the grid
potential.
 Rb is biasing resistor. Voltage drop off on this resistor is fed back to input.
 Rl = (Rb + Rk) is load resistance. Output voltage taken off on this combination
of resistors.
 Capacitor Co is the output coupling capacitor. It is used to isolate the plate DC
voltage from the next stage it is driving. This capacitor, in conjunction with the
input resistance of the following stage, also controls the frequency response of
the stage.
(v) Electronic instruments used in circuit:
(a)Voltmeter: Refer unit 15
(b)Ammeter: Refer unit 25
(c)Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO): Refer Unit 15
(d)Function Generator: A function generator or frequency generator is an
electronic device, which produce desired repetitive waveform. This device contain
an electronic oscillator (An electronic oscillator is a circuit that produce a time
457
converts DC supply to a desired ac wave form with selected frequency. It is
possible to vary the amplitude of the wave also.
Fig. 10: Function generator.
25.7
25.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What do you understand by a signal amplifier?
Q.2 What is the job of a cathode in triode valve?
Q.3 What is a cathode follower amplifier?
Q.4 What is importance of cathode follower in the electronic circuits?
Q.5 What is normal gain of a cathode follower amplifier?
25.8 Procedure
25.8 Procedure
(i) Switch on A.C. generator and measure its output using A.C. Voltmeter.
(ii) Adjust the frequency of Generator at any value e.g. 100 Hz.
(iii) Adjust the output ac signal voltage of AC. Generator (around 1 volt or as per
tube specifications). It should be constant throughout the experiment,
(iv) Now connect the A.C. generator at input terminals (Vin) of Cathode follower
circuit and A.C. voltmeter at out terminal of the circuit across the load
resistance. Output signal distortion can be check by CRO.
458
(v) Vary the frequency of generator from 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
(vi) Measure the output voltage through this voltmeter at different frequencies.
(vii) Repeat this experiment for different values of input voltages (Vin).
(viii) Calculate the voltage gain using given formula.
(ix) Plot the graph between logfi on X axis and voltage gain (in db) on Y axis.
(x) Determine lower cut off and higher cut off frequency.
25.9
25.9 Observation
Observation
Following observations should be made before experiment
 Least count of AC mili-voltmeter:............................................................. volt
 Frequency range of AC signal Generator:................... Hz to .................... Hz
Observation tables to study frequency response in cathode follower at different

input voltage levels
(I) Vin = ...............................Volt
S. Input Output Gain in
No. frequency Log (fi) Voltage G = Vout/Vin Decibel
(fi) (Vout)
Hz Volt dB
1. 20
2. 30
3. 40
4. 50
5. 100
6. 200
7. 300
8. 400
9. 500
459
10. 600
11. 700
12. 800
13. 900
14. 1,000
15. 2,000
16. 3,000
17. 4,000
18. 5,000
19. 6,000
20. 7,000
21. 8,000
22. 9,000
23. 10,000
24. 15,000
25. 20,000
(II) Vin = ...............................Volt
S. Input Output Gain in

No. frequency Log (fi) Voltage G = Vout/Vin Decibel
(fi) Hz (Vout) Volt dB
1. 20
2. 30
3. 40
4. 50
5. 100
460
6. 200
7. 300
8. 400
9. 500
10. 600
11. 700
12. 800
13. 900
14. 1,000
15. 2,000
16. 3,000
17. 4,000
18. 5,000
19. 6,000
20. 7,000
21. 8,000
22. 9,000
23. 10,000
24. 15,000
25. 20,000
25.10Graph
25.10 Graph
Plot the graph between logfi on X axis and voltage gain (in db) on Y axis.
25.11Calculations
25.11 Calculations
Calculate voltage gain for each value of frequency
Voltage gain
461
= 20
Measure the output voltage at each frequency e.g.

Vout = 1.7 Volt (when input frequency fi = 4 KHz)
Vin = 2 Volt
1.7
= 20
2.0
= −1.41
(In the similar way gain can be calculate for each frequency)
25.12
25.12Result
Result
5. The frequency response of Cathode follower is shown in graph.
6. The lower cut of frequency for give cathode follower circuit is
fh = .................................................................Hz.
7. The higher cut of frequency for give cathode follower circuit is
fh= ..................................................................Hz.
8. The band width of this circuit is
W = fh – fl = ................................................. Hz
25.13
25.13Discussion
Discussion
25.14Precautions
andSources
Sourcesofoferrors
error
6. The amplitude of input signal should be low and maintained constant for one
set of measurements.
7. Connections should be tight.
462
8. Note the reading after warming up the valve.
9. Various Resistors used should be appropriate value.
25.15
Exercise-II
Q.1 What do you understand by frequency response curve?
Q.2 What is importance of such curves?
Q.3 What is band width?
Q.4 How can we decide the lower cut off and higher cut off frequency points in
frequency response curves?
Q.5 Why the lower and higher cut-off frequency points are taken on reduction of
gain by 3 dB?
25.16 Glossary
25.16 Glossary
unit time
Signal: In alternating current (AC, also ac), the flow of electric charge periodically
reverses direction
Value: vacuum tubes such as diode, triode, tetrode, and pentode some time
commonly known as by valves in electronics.
Phase: If a wave as having peaks and valleys with a zero-crossing between them,
the phase of the wave is defined as the distance between the first zero-crossing and
the point in space defined as the origin [6].
Impedance: measure of the total opposition that a circuit or a part of a circuit
presents to electric current. Impedance includes both resistance and reactance. The
resistance component arises from collisions of the current-carrying charged
particles with the internal structure of the conductor. The reactance component is
an additional opposition to the movement of electric charge that arises from the
changing magnetic and electric fields in circuits carrying alternating current.
Impedance reduces to resistance in circuits carrying steady direct current [8].
463
25.17
25.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Answer to Self Learning Exercise-I
Ans.1: An electronic device which increase the magnitude of voltage, current or
power of the input signal without changing in its frequency.
Ans.2: Cathode is source of electrons in a vacuum tube.
Ans.3: The cathode follower is a negative feedback amplifier circuit, for
impedance matching.
Ans.4: This circuit is used for impedance matching. It is outer most circuit mostly
in signal generator. With the help of this circuit signal generator give
constant performance without getting effect by output load.
Ans.5: The gain of cathode follower amplifier always less than unity.
Answer to Self Learning Exercise -II
Ans.1: Frequency response curve for an electronic circuit is plot between output
gains with frequency of input current.
Ans.2: It reflects how the behaviour of circuit changes with frequency of input
signal. Using these curves a circuit can be design to work in particular
frequency range with maximum performance.
Ans.3: The difference of higher frequency and lower cut-off frequency is known
as bandwidth. In this region the performance of circuit and gain ideally
does not vary with frequency.
Ans.4: The points which lie on curve at fall of gain with 3 db are pointed as lower
and higher cut of frequencies.
Ans.5: For this falling in gain of 3 db, the power at output reduced exactly half
from its maximum value. These points corresponding to half power points.
25.18
25.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What are you doing ?
Q.2 How do you perform this experiment ?
Q.3 What is cathode follower amplifier ?
464
Q.4 Why is called cathode follower ?
Q.5 What are the names of electrodes in triode except cathode ?
Q.6 What is role of cathode in triode valve ?
Q.7 Where this circuit is used ?
Q.8 What is the voltage gain of cathode follower amplifier ?
Q.9 Which is equivalent circuit using transistor ?
Q.10 What are advantage using tubes instead of transistor ?
Q.11 How much change in phase at output with respect to input signal by this
amplifier ?
Q.12 What are the Bode plots ?
Q.13 Why the impedance matching is required in electronic circuits ?
Q.14 How many types of cathode follower circuits are there as per coupling?
Q.15 Where the AC coupled cathode follower used ?
Q.16 What are the benefits of DC coupled cathode follower over AC coupling ?
Q.17 What do you understand by frequency response curves ?
Q.18 How can you determine band width ?
Q.19 Is large band width good or shorter for an amplifier ?
Q.20 Why it so ?
25.19Answers
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Studying the frequency response of cathode amplifier.
Ans.2: (Procedure)
Ans.3: The cathode follower is a negative feedback amplifier circuit, for
impedance matching.
Ans.4: The output signal is taken off at the cathode and also the output signal is
in-the phase with the input signal means follows the input, it is reason this
circuit named as cathode follower.
Ans.5: Grid and Plate.
Ans.6: As a source of electrons.
465
Ans.7: This circuit is typically used for impedance matching, especially where a
low impedance output is desired, since the output impedance of most
valve circuits is rather high.
Ans.8: Less than one always.
Ans.9: Emitter follower.
Ans.10: Tubes can handle high power as well as high frequencies.
Ans.11: No change in phase by cathode follower.
Ans.12: Graphical representations of frequency response curves are called Bode
Plots and as such Bode plots are generally said to be a semi-logarithmic
graphs because one scale (x-axis) is logarithmic and the other (y-axis) is
linear.
Ans.13: Simply attaching a low impedance load to a signal amplifier (having high
output impedance) will cause the output level to be drastically reduced.
Ans.14: Two types AC and DC coupled cathode follower.
Ans.15: The AC-coupled cathode follower is normally used as a means of
coupling a high output impedance to a low input impedance with minimal
"insertion loss".
Ans.16: The DC-Coupled cathode follower can used to produce a unique
compressive quality, and is to be found in most of the classic amplifier
designs. The AC-coupled version is not so useful for this, since the input
coupling capacitor prevents the flow of quiescent grid current.
Ans.17: Frequency response curve for an electronic circuit is plot between output
gains with frequency of input current.
Ans.18: The difference of higher and lower cut off frequencies.
Ans.19: Larger band width is better.
Ans.20: Long frequency range available with maximum gain and less and
distortion.
1. N.N. Bhargava, D.C. Kulshreshtha, S.C. Gupta, Basic Electronics and Linear
Circuits, 2nd Edition, Mc Graw Hill Publications.
466
2. Richard Kuehnel, Circuit Analysis of a Legendary Tube Amplifier: The Fender
Bassman 5F6-A, 3rd Ed., (Seattle: Pentode Press, 2009).
3. A.P. Blackburn, The Radio Constructor, page 248, November 1955.
4. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/frequency-response.html
5. http://www.preservearticles.com/
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode
7. http://www.valvewizard.co.uk/accf.html
8. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
467
UNIT-26
e/m by Zeeman Effect
26.1 Aim
26.2 Apparatus
26.3 Diagram
26.4 Formula
26.5 Model Graph
26.8 Procedure
26.9 Observation
26.10 Graph
26.11 Calculations
26.12 Result
26.13 Discussion
26.16 Glossary
26.1
26.1 Aim
Aim
The purpose of this experiment is to observe the splitting of spectral lines in a
magnetic field and to determine charge to the mass ratio (e/m ) of the specific
468
elementary charge.
26.2
26.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
A cadmium lamp with holder, An electromagnet, A red filter, Lummer-Gehrcke
plate, A polarization filter, A telescope.
26.3
26.3 Diagram
Diagram
Figure: (a) Picture of the setup and (b) the schematic diagram of the Zeeman Effect
experiment
26.4
26.4 Formula
Formula
Then e/m ratio can be calculated by using the following formula
4 ( − 1)
/ =
2 △ ( – 1)
where
a = distance of one of the split lines from the original position of the
interference lines (without magnetic field)
∆a = distance between two adjacent interference lines without magnetic
field
469
 = refractive index of the Lummer-Gehrcke quartz glass = 1.4567
t = the thickness of the Lummer-Gehrcke plate = 4.04 mm
B = magnetic flux density (Teslas)
c= velocity of light
26.5
26.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
Figure: Interference lines observed in the presence of a magnetic field and without
a magnetic field.
26.6
26.6 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
The experimental observation of the quantisation of orbital angular momentum in a
uniform magnetic field is called the normal Zeeman effect. The total angular
momentum of an atom is given by
= +
470
where and are the total orbital and spin angular momentum, respectively. For
a single electron atom, the magnitude of is associated with the orbital angular
momentum quantum number as
= √ ( + 1)ℏ
Assume that, the spin angular momentum of the electron is neglected, or that the
total net spins is zero. Thus, the total angular momentum is due to the orbital
angular momentum of the atom. The magnetic moment of a single orbital electron
of the atom is given by
 = − /2
Here, is quantised since is quantised. The magnetic potential energy of an
atom in a magnetic field is; therefore,
= − .
Then
( . )
=
2
. = and = , the magnetic potential energy
becomes
=
2
since = ℏ, hence we get
ℏ
=
2
ℏ
The quantity, is called Bohr magneton, . Since has (2 + 1)-fold
degeneracy, i.e., for a given value of l, ml can take (2 + 1) different values:
− , −( − 1), . . . , −2, −1,0,1,2, . . . , ( − 1), , therefore, from above
equation, can also take (2 + 1) values. Thus, a state that is in a quantum
state with energy when placed in a magnetic field, will split into (2 + 1)
substates with their energies given by the expression
471
= + = +
When = 2, = −2, −1,0,1,2; will take the following values
= − 2
= –
=
= +
= +2
Here, it may be noted that the levels are equally spaced.
In actual practice one cannot observe the resulting new levels. The only way to get
information about the levels is to observe the transitions between the levels. In the
absence of the magnetic field, the photon energy ℎ is
ℎ = −
In a magnetic field, , the expressions for the energies take the form
= + +
= + +
Therefore, the photon energy ℎ of the transition between the initial and the final
states in a magnetic field can be found by subtracting above equations as
ℎ = −
= + ++ −( +
+ )
ℎ = – +  )
where  = − . Thus, the frequency of the transition is,
= 0+
4
Due to the selection rule, only those for which the change in magnetic quantum
number is 0 or ±1, i.e.,
 = 0, ±1
472
Combining Equations will show that the original transition frequency is
replaced by these transitions with the following frequencies,
= −
= 0
= +
4
As an example, the normal Zeeman effect for the transition between the 51D2 state
and 51P1 state of Cadmium (Cd) is shown in Figure
Figure 11.1: Normal Zeeman Effect of a transition between 51D2 and 51P1
This specific transition gives off a red line with a wavelength of 6438 ˚A, which is
studied in our experiment. Here, it may be seen from the term symbol of these
states that the total spin angular momentum is zero in both levels; therefore, the
total angular momentum is purely orbital angular momentum so the transition is
studied under the normal Zeeman effect.
473
Although there are nine transitions, the magnitudes of the separations are such that
show up as only three groups of different frequencies, each containing a group of
three lines. However, a doublet or a triplet is observed when the transitions are
viewed in the direction parallel or perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field.
Figure: Zeeman splitting of a line when viewed in the direction parallel and
perpendicular to the direction of an external magnetic field
In above figure the abbreviation represents the vibrations parallel to the external
field and represents the vibrations perpendicular to.
The nature of the light emitted in these transitions are described as follows:
1. When the Zeeman Effect is viewed along the direction of the magnetic field B,
only a doublet is observed. The view can be obtained through a hole in the pole
face and only the two components corresponding to right-handed and left-handed
circularly polarised light are observed. The right-handed components correspond to
the transition  = 1 while the left-handed component correspond to
 = −1. This is because, light is transverse in nature and the
electromagnetic field must always have the field vectors E and B normal to the
direction of propagation, thus, according to Figure no light will be emitted in the x-
direction parallel to the direction of field B.
474
2. When the Zeeman Effect is viewed in a direction perpendicular to the direction
of the magnetic field B, a triplet is observed. Meanwhile, the other two lines are
observed as plane polarised light with the electric field vector, which is
perpendicular to the direction of the external magnetic field. Meanwhile, the third
line is observed in the same position of field free line and it is the same as plane
polarised light with the electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave parallel to
the direction of the external magnetic field.
The polarisation values may be summarised as follows:
Viewed  to
 = ±1; plane polarised  to ; components
 = 0; plane polarised  to ; components
Viewed ∥ to
△ = ±1 ; circularly polarised ; components
△ = 0; forbidden ; components
The two -components, or outer secondaries of the triplet, or the two lines of the
doublets are shifted as
△ = ± = ±
4
△ may be derived from the resolution of the Lummer-Gehrcke plate as follows:
Figure: Lummer-Gehrcke Plate
475
The Lummer-Gehrcke plate is a kind of interferometer with high resolving power
( = ≈ 50000). As a result, △ = 0.01˚ is measurable from the
△
visible displacement of a spectral line. It is a parallel plate of quartz, provided with
the prism, at the left end as shown in Figure, for introducing the light. The incident
light is multiply reflected internally at the plate surfaces, since both sides of the
plate are coated with a thin metal providing high reflectivity, but low transmission
for light. At each reflection, which is arranged to be near the critical angle, a beam
emerges from the surface of the plate at an almost grazing angle. If the emerging
beams are collected by a lens, the fringes are formed at the lens focus. For
constructive interference, the path difference between beam I and II in the figure
will be
= ( + )− =
= ; = (90 − )
= 2
= 2
and
=
where : refractive index of the quartz plate (=1.457)
: order number
∶ thickness of the plate (= 4.04mm)
∶ emerging angle of the beam
: the reflection angle
Since the relationship between and s:
=
Then
2 − 2 =
2 ( − sin ) =
2 (cos ) =
476
2 =
or in terms of the angle :
2 ( − sin ) =
taking the square of both sides:
4 ( − sin ) =
Differentiating with respect to gives:
= −
2 2
The change in angle △ corresponding to a change of a single order ( = 1)
is given by
( – sin )
△ =− /(2 2)=−
2 2
since sin ≈ 1, then,
( − 1)
△ =−
2
The dispersion, which is the rate of with is found by differentiating with
respect to ;
= 2 2 − 2
2 − 2( – sin )
=
2
The wavelength range between the successive orders is given by equating with
△ which gives △ , the order separation as:
477
( − 1)
△ =
2 − 1–
by ignoring the , Equation becomes;
( − 1)
△ =
2 ( – 1)
In the experiment, spectral lines are always observed in several interference levels
at the same time. Instead of one line, a whole system of lines appears.
From the above figure, the distance, , of the splitted line from the original
interference line is proportional to △ , which is the distance between two
interference lines without a magnetic field. If the change in is small (e.g. △ ),
the corresponding displacement also decreases:
△ = △
△
( − 1)
△ =
△ 2 ( – 1)
Since = , the frequency shift is △ = ± △ , the frequency shift
turns out to be
( − 1)
△ =
△ ( – 1)
Then / value can be found as
4 ( − 1)
/ =
2 △ ( – 1)
The picture and schematic diagram of the Zeeman Effect experiment are shown in
Figure. The necessary magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet. For the
478
fixed spacing, between the poles of the magnet, the magnetic field strengths
associated with the currents passing through the coils are given in Table.
Table 1: Magnetic field strength associated with a current passing through the
coils.
I [A] B [T]
2.0 0.050
4.0 0.105
6.0 0.163
8.0 0.223
10.0 0.279
12.0 0.336
14.0 0.421
16.0 0.445
18.0 0.494
Although the information given above describes the Zeeman splitting in both
cases; when viewed parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the external
magnetic field, you will carry out the experiment only by viewing the spectra in the
direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
26.7
26.7Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 For a single electron atom, relate orbital angular momentum with the orbital
angular momentum quantum number.
479
Q.2 Define the magnetic moment of a single orbital electron of the atom.
Q.3 When = 2 calculate .
Q.4 Show the normal Zeeman effect for the transition between the 51D2 state and
51P1 state of Cadmium (Cd).
26.8
26.8 Procedure
Procedure
1. Turn the cadmium lamp on. It takes about 5 minutes for the red Cd line to be
emitted sufficiently strong.
2. For pre-adjustment, remove the eyepiece. Turn the whole optical system in a
clock-wise direction until a fine straight pattern can be seen on the Lummer-
Gehrcke plate.
3. Adjust the height of the Lummer-Gehrcke plate until it reaches the Cd lamp
(screw it to the base of the column of the optical system).
4. Set the position of the incident window relative to the Lummer-Gehrcke plate; to
do this, loosen the covering cup, either lift or lower these and then tighten the
knurled screws again.
5. Repeat steps 3 to 5 until a bright and clear line pattern is seen above and
underneath the Lummer-Gehrcke plate.
6. Put the eyepiece back in, and by moving the eyepiece, focus the spectral line.
Focus the graticule by turning the eyepiece.
7. To measure the line pattern and the distance, ∆ , between them in the absence
of a magnetic field, align the cross-hair in the eyepiece with any line you have
chosen, and set the micrometer clockwork to an initial reference value.
8. By turning the screw at the bottom of the clockwork, align the cross in the
eyepiece with the next line and then read the distance, ∆ , on the micrometer
clockwork relative to the reference value. Record it in Table 9. Turn on the
power supply unit of the electromagnet in order to observe the Zeeman splitting
of the lines. Set the coil current of the magnet to 19A, observe the splitting of
the lines into three components.
Note: Before turning on the magnetic current, make sure that the poles of the
magnet are firmly screwed on. When the magnetic field is turned on, do not
480
come close to the spectral lamp with ferromagnetic objects. Treat the Lummer-
Gehrcke plate very carefully so that the smooth surface of 1/100 mm remains
intact.
10. Take one triplet that you can see clearly, but do not lose the position of that
triplet until the experiment is over.
Note: Since the lines generated by the Lummer-Gehrcke plate are not equidistant,
∆ and distances must be measured on the same triplet.
11. Align the cross in the eyepiece with the lower component of the triplet, and
then take the micrometer clockwork position as a reference point. By going
through the upper component of the triplet, measure the distance 2 relative
to the reference point obtained before. Record it in Table.
12.Repeat step 11 to obtain, 2 , for lower values of the current passing through
the coil. And then, tabulate your data on Table. It will be necessary to observe
the decrease in splitting, since the magnetic field strength is directly
proportional to the splitting distance, or in other words, to the frequency shift.
13. Plot a graph of / ∆ vs . Obtain the worst and best lines for this plot,
and then find the slopes of these lines. Show your calculations and report them
in the space below Table..
14. Using the slope of the best line, find the ratio. Show your calculations and
record them in the space below Table.
15. Using the slopes of the worst and best lines, calculate your error in (e/m).
Record it in the space below Table.
16. Obtain the magnetic field strengths from the corresponding currents passing
through the magnet by interpolating the data in above Table. Record them in
Table 6.2.
26.9
26.9 Observation
Observation
Spacing between successive lines without a magnetic field △ = ⋯mm.
481
I(A) B(T) 2 [× 10 ] [× 10 ]mm /△
mm
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
Magnet Current
Magnetic Field Strength
2 Spacing between 2 extreme lines
Spacing between successive lines
26.10
26.10Graph
Graph
Plot the required graph on graph paper.
482
26.11Calculations
26.11 Calculations
26.12
26.12Result
Result
The slope of the best line = ...................
The slope of the worst line =....................
=…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
∆ =………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
26.13
26.13Discussion
Discussion
26.14
26.14Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. The Zeeman effect apparatus should be used in a dry room with a good
ventilation. Cover the unit when it is not in use.
483
2. Lubricate the surface of the optical bench periodically to prevent it from
rusting.
3. When not in use, the fabry perreault at tom should be stored in a sealed
container with a desiccators.
4. Do not touch any optical part with your hand. To remove dust or dirt, use a
photographic lens brush, or blow the dust off with canned air.
5. To prolong the life to the mercury lamp avoid turning it on and off frequently.
6. When applying the magnetic field, increase the current slowly and avoid
leaving the potentiometer in the zone marked by yellow dots for long period.
This will avoid excessive heat generation in the magnetic coils.
26.15
26.15Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Why one should increase the current slowly.
Q.2 How to calculate error?
Q.3 In the measurement of the splitting, you measured 2 a instead of a. Does
this make any sense?
Q.4 Define Zeeman Effect.
26.16
26.16Glossary
Glossary
Electromagnet - A magnet consisting of a solenoid with an iron core, which has a
magnetic field only during the time of current flow through the solenoid.
Magnet - A magnet is an object made of certain materials which create a magnetic
field. Every magnet has at least one north pole and one south pole. By convention,
we say that the magnetic field lines leave the North end of a magnet and enter the
South end of a magnet. This is an example of a magnetic dipole ("di" means two,
thus two poles).
Magnetic Field (B) - When specified on our site, the surface field or magnetic
field refers to the strength in Gauss. For axially magnetized discs and cylinders, it
is specified on the surface of the magnet, along the center axis of magnetization.
For blocks, it is specified on the surface of the magnet, also along the center axis of
magnetization. For rings, you may see two values. By,center specifies the vertical
component of the magnetic field in the air at the center of the ring. By,ring specifies
484
the vertical component of the magnetic field on the surface of the magnet, mid-way
between the inner and outer diameters.
Magnetic quantum number. (m )
Quantum number that labels different orbitals within a subshell. ml can take on
values from - to + . The number of orbitals in a subshell is the same as the
number of possible m values.
Orbital.
A wavefunction that describes what an electron with a given energy is doing inside
an atom or molecule.
26.17
26.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: L = l(l + 1)ℏ
Ans.2:  = − /2
Ans.3: = −2, −1,0,1,2
= − 2
= –
=
= +
= +2
Ans.1: This will avoid excessive heat generation in the magnetic coils.
Ans.2: The slopes of the worst and best lines, calculate error in (e/m).
Ans.3: Yes
Ans.4: The Zeeman effect is the name for the splitting of atomic energy levels or
spectral lines due to the action of an external magnetic field. The effect was
first predicted by H. A. Lorenz in 1895 as part of his classic theory of the
485
electron, and experimentally confirmed some years later by P. Zeeman.
26.1826.18
VivaViva Questions
Questions
Q.1 Explain the Zeeman effect and its experimental detection. What means
“transverse” and “longitudinal” Zeeman effect?
Q.2 Why does the magnetic field force the magnetic dipoles of atoms to precess,
instead of aligning with the field?
Q.3 Why do completely filled shells not contribute to the total angular momentum
J of an atom?
Q.4 Why is a normal Zeeman effect expected for the transition 31D2 to 21P1.
Q.5 What implies setting Landé factor to unity?
Q.6 Why is the general Zeeman effect also known as”anomalous” Zeeman
effect?
Q.7 What is the most important general statement you can make after performing
this experiment?
Q.8 What do you think the spectral lines may correspond to?
Q.9 In the measurement of the splitting, you measured 2δa instead of δa. Does
this make any sense? Why?
References
References andand Suggested
Suggested Readings
Readings
1. A.C. Melissinos & J. Napolitano, Experiments in Modern Physics, 2nd Edition,
pp 215 – 228.
2. R. Eisberg and R. Resnick, Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids,
Nuclei, and Par ticles, pp 364 – 370.
3. H.G. Kuhn, Atomic Spectra.
4. A.C. Melissinos & J. Napolitano, Experiments in Modern Physics, 2nd Edition,
pp 172 – 177.
5. E. Hecht, Optics.
6. Jenkins and White, Fundamentals of Optics
486
UNIT-27
Logic Gates
27.1 Aim
27.2 Apparatus
27.3 Diagram
27.4 Formula (Truth Tables)
27.7 Procedure
27.8 Observation
27.9 Result
27.10 Discussion
27.13 Glossary
27.1
27.1 Aim
Aim
(I) Verify the truth tables of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR gates.
(II) Implement the logic functions AND, OR, NOT using NAND gates only
(III) Implement the logic functions AND, OR, NOT using NOR gates only
(IV) Verify the truth table of X-OR gate. Construct and realize the logic function
X-OR using different logic combinations of AND, OR, NOT gates.
487
27.2
27.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Power supply, Digital logic trainer, connecting leads.[ or Breadboard, DC supply
5 volt, connecting wires, LED, IC 7400 (NAND), IC 7402 (NOR) IC 7404 (NOT),
IC 7408 (AND), IC 7432 (OR), IC 7486 (XOR), as required]
27.3
27.3 Diagram
Diagram
Logic Diagrams :
Part (I)(a)
AND Gate:
Figure 27.1
AND Gate:
Figure 27.2
AND Gate:
Figure 27.3
488
(b) OR Gate:
Figure 27.4
OR Gate:
Figure 27.5
OR Gate:
Figure 27.6
(c)NOT Gate
Figure 27.7
489
(d)NAND Gate
Figure 27.8
(e)NOR Gate
Figure 27.9
Part (II)
(a) Implementation of AND Gate using NAND Gates
Figure 27.10
(b) Implementation of OR Gate using NAND Gates
Figure 27.11
490
(c) Implementation of NOT Gate using NAND Gate
Figure 27.12
Part (III)
(a) Implementation of AND Gate using NOR Gates
Figure 27.13
(b) Implementation of OR Gate using NOR Gates
Figure 27.14
(c) Implementation of NOT Gate using NOR Gate
Figure 27.15
491
Part (IV)
(a) XOR Gate
Figure 27.16
(b) Logic diagram for Y = A  B = AB + B A
Figure 27.17
(c)Logic diagram for Y = A  B = (A+B) ( AB )
Figure 27.18
492
(d)Logic diagram for Y = A  B = AB  AB
Figure 27.19
27.4
27.4 Formula
Formula(Truth
(TruthTables)
Tables)
Formula (Truth Tables)
Part I, II, III
(a) AND Gate
output Y = AB
Truth Table of AND Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
For three input variables

Output Y = ABC
Truth Table of AND Gate
493
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
(b) OR Gate
Output Y = A+B
Truth Table of OR Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
For three input variables

Output Y = A+B+C
Truth Table of OR Gate
494
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
(c) NOT Gate (Inverter)

Output Y  A
Truth Table of NOT Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A Y
0 1
1 0
(d) NAND Gate

Output Y  AB
Truth Table of NAND Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B AB
0 0 1
0 1 1
495
1 0 1
1 1 0
(e) NOR Gate

Output Y  A  B
Truth Table of NOR Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B A B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Part IV
XOR Gate
Output Y  A  B
We can write Y as
Y  AB  BA
Y  ( A  B ) AB
Y  AB  AB
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B A B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
496
27.5
27.5 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
Logic Gates:
Gate is a digital circuit with one or more inputs (Voltages) but only one output
voltage. The digital circuits use only two digits ‘0’ and ‘1’.
George Boole developed Boolean Algebra .
AND Gate:
It has two or more inputs and only one output.
Y=A.B
This is read as “ Y equals A AND B ”.
OR Gate:
It has two or more inputs and only one output.
Y=A+B
This is read as “ Y equals A OR B ”
NOT Gate: (Inversion Gate)
It has one input and one output.
YA
This can also be written as Y  A
This is read as “ Y equals compliment of A ”
We can read as “ Y equals NOT A ”
De Morgan’s Theorems
It consists two parts
(i) A  B  A.B
The compliment of the sum of two variables is equal to the product of the
complement of the variables.
(ii) A.B  A  B
The complement of the product of two variables is equal to sum of complements of
the variables.
For more than two variables De Morgan’s theorems can be written as
A  B  C  A.B .C
ABC  A  B  C
Digital Integrated Circuits:
A digital integrated circuit(IC) is designed by an interconnection of resistors,
transistors and small capacitors etc. that are formed on the surface of a
497
semiconductor wafer. Various digital logic circuits are being fabricated using
bipolar and unipolar technologies. Popular bipolar logic families are Resistor –
transistor logic (RTL), Diode –Transistor logic (DTL), Transistor transistor logic
(TTL),Direct coupled transistor logic (DCTL), Integrated –Injection logic (I2L),
High threshold logic (HTL), Emitter coupled logic(ECL).The unipolar logic
families are PMOS,NMOS,CMOS.
Pinout diagram of Quad two input OR gate 7432 is shown in the diagram
1 14 VCC
2 13
3 12
4 11
5 10
6 9
GND 7 8
Figure 27.20: Pinout Diagram of OR Gate 7432
27.6
27.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What do you mean by ‘bit’?
Q.2 What is the final value of following Boolean expressions
(i) A+1 (ii) A+0
Q.3 What do you mean by RTL.
Q.4 Prove the following A B  A B
498
27.7
27.7 Procedure
Procedure
(a) For AND Gate (Fig. 27.1)
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the circuit to an appropriate power source and turn it on.
3. Observe the output on LED for each input combination.
4. Write down the corresponding logic level in the observation table.
For Breadboard Arrangement
(a) For AND Gate (Fig. 27.1)
1. Insert IC 7408 (AND Gate) in the breadboard
2. Before you wire the circuit for logic gate, we should label the associated Chip
Pin Number on the circuit diagram.
3. Assemble the connection (using components, connecting wires etc.) to
implement the circuit illustrated in figure 27.1
4. Connect output to LED with correct polarity and connect a series current
limiting resistor (about 270Ω) to LED to limit the current and prevent burn out.
5. For IC 7408 (14 pin IC), connect Pin 7 to ground (0V) and Pin 14 to Vcc (+5V
DC supply).
6. Turn on the power and observe output at LED indicator corresponding to all
possible combinations of inputs (via input switches). Write down
corresponding output in the observation table and verify the truth table.
7. If there is any mismatched result, troubleshoot result.
8. Turn off the power and disconnect the circuit connections.
For other parts of experiment, repeat the above steps using appropriate circuit
diagrams (appropriate ICs, etc.) to demonstrate remaining experiments of this unit.
27.8
27.8 Observation
Observation
Part I
(a) Truth Table of AND Gate (Figure 27.1)
499
For two Inputs
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
Truth Table of AND Gate (Figure 27.2/27.3)

For three Inputs
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C Y
(b) Truth Table of OR Gate (Figure 27.4)

For Two Inputs
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
500
Truth Table of OR Gate (Figure 27.5/27.6)
For three inputs
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C Y
(c) Truth Table of NOT Gate (Figure 27.7)

INPUTS OUTPUT
A Y
(d) Truth Table of NAND Gate (Figure 27.8)

INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
501
(e) Truth Table of NOR Gate (Figure 27.9)
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
Part II
(a) Implementation of AND Gate using NAND Gate
Truth Table (Figure 27.10)
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
(b) Implementation of OR Gate using NAND Gate

INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
502
(c) Implementation of NOT Gate using NAND Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A Y
Part III
(a) Implementation of AND Gate using NOR Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
(b) Implementation of OR Gate using NOR Gate

INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
503
(c) Implementation of NOT Gate using NOR Gate
INPUTS OUTPUT
A Y
Part IV
(a) Truth Table of XOR Gate (Figure 27.16)
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
(b) Implementation of logic function Y = A B = AB + BA
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
504
(c) Implementation of logic function Y = A  B = (A+B) ( AB )
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
(d) Implementation of logic function Y = A  B = AB  AB

INPUTS OUTPUT
A B Y
27.9
27.9 Result
Result
(I) Demonstration of logic functions AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR were done
and their truth tables were verified.
(II)
(III)
(IV)
27.10Discussion
27.10 Discussion
505
27.11
27.11Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. Circuit components (LED etc.), power supply must be connected with correct
polarity.
2. DC supply voltage must not exceed the value of 5 Volt otherwise it will
damage the ICs used during the experiment.
3. LED indicator should be used with series current limiting resistor.
4. Arrangement of IC chips on the breadboard should be such that short wire
connections are needed.
5. Power supply should be turned off when connecting or disconnecting the
components, wires etc.
6. Circuit should be assembled in systematic and organized fashion because
improper connections cause overheating of ICs due to short circuit.
7. Jumper wires used for experiment should not be in broken state.
8. Insertion and removal of the ICs should be done gently to avoid the bending of
the pins of ICs
27.12
27.12Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Show that
(i) A  AB  A
(ii) A  B  B   A
Q.2 Prove the following using De Morgan’s theorem.
AB  CD  AB .CD
Q.3: What are the main properties of ECL ?
Q.4 Draw logic symbol of NAND gate and give its Truth table.
27.13
27.13Glossary
Glossary
IC : Integrated Circuits
LED : Light Emitting Diode
506
27.14
27.14Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: A binary digit (1 or 0 ) is called bit.
Ans.2: (i) A+1=1 , (ii) A+0=A
Ans.3: Resistor Transistor logic
Ans.4: A  B  AB  B A  AB  BA  A  B

Ans.2: AB .CD  AB  CD  AB  CD
Ans.3: Emitter coupled logic(ECL) has considerably faster speed in the TTL
families, but power consumption is higher for each gate.
Ans.4: Refer section 27.3 & 27.4
27.15
27.15Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is dc positive logic?
Q.2 What do you mean by logical variables?
Q.3 Evaluate the following functions
(i) A A 1
(ii) A  A  B
Q.4 Prove that
AB  A  AB  A
Q.5 What do you mean SSI,MSI &VLSI?
Q.6 What do mean by figure of Merit?
Q.7 What do you mean by DTL &TTL.
Q.8 What is MOS logic?
Q.9 Give function of EX-NOR.
Q.10 Give the truth table of EXNOR
507
27.16
27.16Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: If more positive voltage is the 1 level and the other is the 0 level then it is
called dc positive logic. In dc negative logic binary 0 stands for high
voltage and binary 1 for low voltage.
Ans.2: The binary variables are referred as logical variables.
Ans.3: (i) A A 1  0 1  1
(ii) A A  B  1 B  1
Ans.4: AB  A  AB  A  B  1  AB
 A 1  AB
 A 1  B 
 A(1)
 A A
Ans.5: SSI: Small Scale Integration(No. of components on chip up to 99)
MSI: Medium Scale Integration(No. of components on chip 100 to 999)
VLSI: Very Large Scale Integration(No. of components on chip 10,000 to
99,999)
Ans.6: Figure of merit = Propagation delay time(ns)×Power(mW)
A low value of figure of merit is required.
Ans.7: DTL: Diode Transistor Logic
TTL: Transistor Transistor Logic
Ans.8:MOSFETs are used in logic circuits due to high density of fabrication and
low power dissipation.
Ans.9: Y  A EX-OR B
A  B  A B  BA
A  B  AB  AB
508
Ans.10: A EXNOR B
Inputs Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
References and and

References Suggested Readings
Suggested Readings
1. R.P. Jain, Modern Digital Electronics(Second edition2002),Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Donald P. Leach &Albert Paul Malvino, Digital Principles and
Applications(Fifth Edition),2003,Tata McGraw Hill.
3. Jacob Millman Christos C. Halkias ,Integrated Electronics(1999) ,Tata
McGraw Hill.
4. D. Chatopadhyay, P.C.Rakshit ,B.Saha ,N.N. Purkait, Foundation of
Electronics ,Second Edition(1995),New Age International Publishers Limited,
Wiley Eastern Limited .
509
UNIT-28
Hall Effect
28.1 Aim
28.2 Apparatus
28.3 Diagram
28.4 Formula
28.5 Model Graph
28.8 Procedure
28.9 Observation
28.10 Graph
28.11 Calculations
28.12 Result
28.13 Discussion
28.16 Glossary
28.1
28.1 Aim
Aim
To study the Hall Effect and to calculate:-
1) The Hall coefficient (RH) and
510
2) To measure the unknown magnetic field (BY1) and to compare it with that
measured by the Gaussmeter (BY2).
28.2
28.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
 Gauss meter with probe,
 Electromagnet,
 Constant current source to Pass current through electromagnet,
 Specimen of semi-conducting material with connecting terminals to Pass
current (IX) through it and to measure the Hall voltage (VH)
 Constant current source to Pass current (IX) through semiconductor specimen,
 Milli-ammeter to measure IX,
 Voltmeter to measure Hall voltage (VH)
Connecting terminals.
28.3 Diagram
28.3 Diagram
511
28.4
28.4 Formula
Formula
1) Hall coefficient
2) Magnetic induction
=
where
VH = Hall voltage developed between the upper and lower faces of the specimen
(V)
IX = Current sent through the specimen (A)
t = Thickness of the specimen (Distance between the side faces) (cm)
512
28.5
28.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
28.6
28.6 Theory
Theoryand
andDescription
description
Hall effect is a phenomenon that occurs when a conductor or semiconductor is
placed in the magnetic field and a voltage (i.e. the electric field in the above
definition) is applied through the material perpendicular to the magnetic field.
While this voltage induces current flow along the electric field direction, the
charge carriers also experience a magnetic deflection from their path. This results a
separation of positive and negative carriers, and thus the generation of an electric
field perpendicular to the direction of current flow. Note that, at sufficient
temperature, the net current in a semiconductor is made up of counteracting
currents of p-type and n-type carriers.
Consider a uniform thick semiconductor (or) metal strip (specimen)
placed with its length parallel to X-axis. A current IX is passed through the
conductor along X-axis. A magnetic field BY is applied along Y – axis, then the
charge carriers experience a force (F) perpendicular to X-Y plane i.e. along Z- axis
as per the Fleming’s Left Hand rule as shown in the figure. If electrons are the
charge carriers, they accumulate at the upper surface. This surface acquires
negative charge while the lower surface gets positive charge and some potential
513
difference is developed between these two surfaces. This is electrostatic field. This
voltage is called Hall Voltage (VH) and the Electric field is called Hall electric field
(EH). (In this case the Hall voltage VH is negative, this –ve sign indicates the charge
carriers are negatively charged i.e. electrons. If it is +ve the charge carriers are
holes.
These F and EH act in opposite directions. i.e. The forces due to magnetic
field and electrostatic field on charge carrier act in opposite direction.
Ultimately, the net force on the charge carrier becomes zero.
∴ q (V X B ) + q E = 0
(or)
(V X B ) + E = 0
Here
Vd is the drift velocity of the charge carrier = J/nq.
J = Current density
q = Charge of the carrier
n = No. of charge carriers/cm3
Here is another physical quantity called Hall coefficient which is equal to the
reciprocal of the amount of charge per unit volume.
Hall coefficient
Hall coefficient is a parameter that measures the magnitude of the Hall Effect in
the sample. It has units of m/Tesla. (Contrast this with resistivity, which has
units of m.) The Hall coefficient is defined as
1
= =
1
⇒ =
514
1
⇒ =
⇒ =
Where
E, J, and B are the magnitudes of the electric field, the current density, and the
magnetic field, respectively. (In the experimental setup to determine the Hall
coefficient, these three vectors are mutually perpendicular.)
t = Thickness of the specimen
d = Height
A = Area of cross-section
This experiment can be used to find
1) the nature of the charge carrier
2) the Hall voltage
3) current through the specimen
4) applied magnetic field
5) Conductivity of the conductor etc.
But for the present it is confined to measure the unknown magnetic field.
Description of the experimental set-up:-
The experimental set-up consists of 3 main instrumental parts.
(1)Digital Gaussmeter with Hall probe:-
Hall probe cable is to be plugged-in to the socket of the digital gaussmeter and the
power should be given to the gaussmeter. This probe also operates basing on the
principle of Hall effect. A small current sent through the Hall probe develops a
small Hall voltage when it is placed in a magnetic field and the Hall voltage is
amplified by an amplifier whose output is calibrated in Gauss which directly gives
the magnetic induction (B) value in the gaussmeter.
515
(2)Electromagnet with constant current supply:-
Two insulated Copper wires are wound on two soft iron bars whose faces are
facing each other. When a D.C. current (in amperes) from a constant current source
is sent through the coils, the faces of the iron bars acts as the two poles of a magnet
(electromagnet) creating a magnetic field in between them. The gap between poles
can be varied, in general, the gap should be 1 cm.
(3)Hall effect board with Hall probe semi-conductor specimen mounted on
sun mica PCB:-
A specimen of rectangular semi-conductor slab in which Hall effect is to be studied
is fixed to a printed circuit board (PCB) with the help of 4 supporting terminals.
Out of 4 terminals, 2 terminals are along the length and these (Middle & green)
terminals are connected to the current source of the Hall effect board. The other 2
terminals are along the width and these (Red) terminals are connected to the
Voltmeter of the Hall effect board.
The Hall effect board has 2 uses.
1. To pass current (IX) through the specimen & to measure that current.
2. To measure the Hall voltage (VH) developed across the specimen.
To meet these two purposes a two mode switch is arranged to the digital meter of
the board. First mode is to measure the current (IX), sent through the specimen and
the second mode is to measure the Hall voltage (VH) developed across the
specimen.
28.7
28.7 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 Define Hall Effect?
Q.2 What causes Hall Effect?
Q.3 What is Lorentz force?
Q.4 What is Hall Coefficient?
28.8
28.8 Procedure
Procedure
This experiment comprises of two parts
1) Measurement of Hall coefficient (RH)
516
2) Measurement of applied magnetic field (BY) by using Hall effect.
Measurement of Hall coefficient (RH)
1. In the 1st part give the power supply to the gaussmeter. Keep the range switch
of the gaussmeter in minimum range and adjust the zero adjustment such that
the reading in the gaussmeter shows zero. If the gaussmeter does not come to
zero, then keep its value at minimum and take it as zero error. This zero error is
to be corrected while taking the final reading of magnetic induction (BY).
2. Now adjust the distance between the poles of the electromagnet equal to 1cm &
pass 1A current through the electromagnet from its constant current source,
then some magnetic field (BY) is created between the poles of electromagnet.
3. The magnetic field or magnetic induction (BY) is measured by the gaussmeter
by keeping its probe between the poles of the electromagnet. The position of
the probe is adjusted such that the flat faces of the probe are perfectly vertical
and perpendicular to the magnetic field. Then the gaussmeter shows maximum
value.
4. Keep the mode switch of the current source of the semiconductor specimen in
the current mode (Here also the zero error and zero correction are to be made)
and pass 0.5 mA (or) 1 mA current (IX) through the specimen. Place this
specimen between the poles of the electromagnet such that the faces of the
specimen are perfectly vertical and note the voltage (V1) developed between the
upper and lower faces of the specimen after turning the mode switch of the
current source of the specimen in to voltage mode.
5. Now reverse the position of the specimen (up side down and vice versa) and
keep it between the poles once again and measure the voltage (V2) developed
between the upper and lower faces of the specimen.
6. Now calculate the Hall voltage
~
=
2
Note the values of IX, V1, V2 in the table 1 and calculate VH.
7. Repeat the experiment for different values of IX by increasing its value in equal
intervals of 0.25 mA.
Measurement of applied magnetic field (By)
517
1. In the 2nd part of the experiment keep the current through the semi-conductor
specimen (IX) at constant value of 1 mA and pass 1A current through the
electromagnet and measure the voltages V1 and V2 by placing the specimen
between the poles of the electromagnet & from that calculate the Hall voltage
VH (as measured in the 1st part).
2. Also measure the magnetic induction (BY1) with gaussmeter by placing its
probe between the poles of electromagnet.
3. Substitute the values of IX, VH, t and Hall coefficient RH (as calculated in 1st
part ) in the formula – 2 and calculate value of applied magnetic field (BY2).
4. The experiment is repeated by increasing the current through the electromagnet
(it means by changing the magnetic field BY ) in equal intervals of 0.5 A. Note
the values in the table 2.
In the 2nd part the experiment the magnetic field BY is measured with
gaussmeter as BY1 and also measured by using the Hall effect as BY2. These two
are compared in the table 2.
28.9 Observation
28.9 Observation
Thickness of the semi-conductor specimen t = ……cm.
Current through the Electromagnet = 1 A
Applied magnetic field measured with gaussmeter BY =……
Table I
S.No. Current through Measurement of Hall Voltage VH (V)
the specimen IX
(mA)
V1 V2 ~
=
2
1.
2.
518
3.
4.
5.
6.
Current through the semi-conductor specimen IX = 1 mA
Table 2
S.No. Current Measurement of Hall Magnetic Magnetic
through Voltage induction induction
the VH (V) measured with measured
specimen Hall effect with
IX (A) gaussmeter
V1 V2 (BY1)
~ =
= (Gauss)
2 ( )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
519
More accurate method to measure VH
In the above two parts of the experiment i.e. while measuring RH and BY the Hall
voltage (VH) shall be measured first. In measuring VH, the following is the accurate
method.
1. First some current (1A) is sent through the electromagnet to create the
magnetic field between the poles of the magnet.
2. Now the current IX (1mA) is sent through the semiconductor specimen and put
the specimen between the poles and measure the voltage (V1) developed
across the specimen (after switch over the mode switch in to voltage mode) as
said above.
3. Now the current in the specimen is reversed by interchanging the current leads
of the specimen and measure the voltage (V2).
4. Then Hall voltage VH1 = (V1~V2)/2.
5. Now reverse the current direction in the electromagnet by interchanging its
current leads.
6. Once again measure the voltages (V3 & V4) developed across the specimen
by placing the specimen between the two poles, before and after reversing the
current direction in the specimen by inter changing its current leads.
7. Now the Hall voltage VH2 = (V3~V4)/2.
8. Then the Hall voltage
+
=
2
The above method is to be adopted while measuring VH
28.10Graph
28.10 Graph
Draw the graph by taking the current through the specimen IX on X- axis and Hall
voltage VH on Y- axis. This gives a straight line passing through the origin. Take a
particular value of IX and note its corresponding value of VH Note the thickness (t)
of the specimen which was noted on the board of the specimen. Substitute the
values of IX, VH, t and BY in the formula – 1 and calculate Hall coefficient (RH)
28.11
28.11Calculations
Calculations
A graph is plotted in VH and Ix. From its slope
520
= VH / Ix
Then Hall coefficient is
Mean RH=………
The number of charge carriers per unit volume
1
=− =⋯
28.12Result
28.12 Result
Then Hall coefficient is RH=………
The number of charge carriers per unit volume n=……
28.13
28.13Discussion
Discussion
28.14
28.14Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. Before starting the experiment, check the gaussmeter is showing zero value.
2. Ensure that the specimen is located at the centre between the pole faces and is
exactly perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3. To measure the magnetic flux the hall probe should placed at the center the
pole faces, parallel to the crystal.
521
4. Check the direction of electromagnet coils so that it generates the maximum
magnetic field, this can be check by placing the soft iron near the generated
magnetic field, if soft iron attracts forcefully the magnetic field produced is
strong, otherwise magnetic field is weak.
5. Electromagnet power supply should be connected to a 3 pin main socket
having good earth connection.
6. Switch “ON” or “OFF” the power supply at zero current position.
7. Adjust the distance between the poles of the magnet nearly 1 cm, then only the
gaussmeter shows correct reading.
8. Hall voltage developed is very small and should be measured accurately with
the help of a millivoltmeter of potentiometer.
28.15Self
28.15 SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Define Charge carrier concentration.
Q.2 Why Hall voltage differ for different type of charge carrier?
Q.3 What is unit of Hall coefficient?
28.16
28.16Glossary
Glossary
Conductor:
Conductor is a type of material in which charge carriers (effectively electrons or
holes) can be made to flow with arbitrarily small voltages. A conductor is
distinguished by having a partially filled conduction band, and, hence, no gaps
between the highest occupied and the lowest unoccupied electronic states.
Common examples of conductors are copper and iron.
Electron Concentration :
Electron Concentration is the number of electrons per unit volume in the
conduction band of the material.
Extrinsic material :
Extrinsic material is a material whose number of free electrons is not equal to the
number of free holes (positive carriers).
Hall field:
522
Hall field is an electric field perpendicular to the direction of current flow
generated by the Hall effect.
Hall voltage :
Hall voltage is the potential difference across the semiconductor that is produced
by the Hall field. This is the voltage which is exactly enough to compensate for the
deflection of charge carriers by the magnetic field, so that the net current
perpendicular to the applied voltage is zero.
Hole :
Hole is an effective positively charged "empty state." The description of current in
terms of the motion of positively charged holes rather than negatively charged
electrons is convenient and accurate when describing a material with an almost
filled conduction band.
Hole concentration:
Hole concentration is the number of holes (positive carriers) per unit volume in the
conduction band of the material.
Intrinsic material:
Intrinsic material is a material in which the number of negative carriers (electrons)
is the same as the number of positive carriers (holes).
Insulator : It is a material in which electrons cannot be made to flow with low
voltages. Using the quantum mechanical description of periodic solids, insulators
are characterized by having completely filled valence bands, and large energy gaps
to the lowest-lying unoccupied conduction bands.
Drift mobility: It is the drift velocity per unit applied electric field,
=
Drift velocity : It is the average velocity in the direction of an applied electric field
of the all conducting charge carriers in the sample.
Lorentz force:
= ( × )
523
Lorentz force is the force, which a moving charge experiences when subjected to a
magnetic field. Here, B is the magnetic field, v is the velocity of the carrier,
and q its charge.
N-type material :is a material in which the negatively (n) charged carriers are
mostly responsible for the conduction.
P-type material :is a material in which the positively (p) charged carriers are
mostly responsible for the conduction.
Resistivity :is a material parameter that is a measure of the resistance to current.
The resistivity is defined as the resistance of the sample times the cross sectional
area of the sample divided by the length of the sample,
=
The resistivity has units of Ωm and it is inversely proportional to the conductivity
of the sample,
1
=
Semiconductor :is a material which is, intrinsically, barely insulating in that the
filled conduction band lies very close to the valence band. Semiconductors can be
deliberately modified through patterned doping to produce complex, compact, and
reliable electronic devices.
28.17
28.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: When a current carrying specimen is placed in a transverse magnetic field
then a voltage is developed which is perpendicular to both, direction of
current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is known Hall Effect.
Ans.2: Whenever a charge moves in a mutually perpendicular electric and
magnetic field it experiences Lorentz force due to which it deflects from
its path and Hall voltage is developed.
Ans.3: If charge ‘q’ moves in a magnetic and electric field ‘B’ &’E’ respectively
with velocity v then force on it is given by
524
F= qE+ Bqv.sinθ
Ans.4: It is the electric field developed per unit current density per unit magnetic
field
Ans.1: No. of charge carriers per unit volume.
Ans.2: Because direction of Lorentz force is different for different type of charge
carrier.
Ans.3: Ohm-meter/Tesla.
28.18
28.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is Hall Effect?
Q.2 What are n-type and p-type semiconductors?
Q.3 What is the effect of temperature on Hall coefficient of a lightly doped
semiconductor?
Q.4 Do the holes actually move?
Q.5 Why the resistance of the sample increases with the increase of magnetic
field?
Q.6 Why a high input impedance device is generally needed to measure the Hall
voltage?
Q.7 Why the Hall voltage should be measured for both the directions of current
as well as of magnetic field?
Q.8 On what factors the sign of Hall potential depends?
Q.9 How do you define Hall coefficient?
Q.10 What is mobility?
Q.11 If hall-coefficient is negative what does it indicate?
Q.12 Significance of hall coefficient. What information do we get?
Q.13 Hall effect?
Q.14 n- and p- type impurities?
Q.15 Define specific resistance.
525
Q.16 What is meant by conductivity?
Q.17 What are the applications of Hall effect?
Q.18 Give the expression for the Hall coefficient.
Q.19 What are the dimensions of Hall probe in your experiment?
Q.20 Give the value of those physical quantities determined in this experiment.
Q.21 Write down the uses of Hall Effect?
Q.22 Which type of magnet is used in the experiment, temporary or permanent?
Q.23 What is the unit of charge carrier concentration?
28.19
28.19Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.21: To determine the sign of charge carrier and charge carrier concentration
Ans.22: Temporary.
Ans.23: Per Cubic-centimeter.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. D. K. Schroder, “Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization”, John
Willey & Sons Inc. 1990.
2. https://psbrahmachary.wordpress.com/
3. Department of physics, I.T.M.University, Lab Manuals For Physics Lab.
526
UNIT-29
Young
Young Modulus
modulus of theofglass
the Glass by
by Newton’s
Newton’s
ring Ring
methodMethod
29.1 Aim
29.2 Apparatus
29.3 Diagram
29.4 Formula
29.7 Procedure
29.8 Observation
29.9 Calculations
29.10 Result
29.11 Discussion
29.14 Glossary
29.1
29.1 Aim
Aim
To determine the Young modulus of the glass (taken in the form of the bar) by
Newton’s Ring Method.
527
29.2
29.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Sodium vapour lamp, glass beam, convex lens, travelling microscope, two knife
edges, vernier calipers, screw gauge, a set of weights, weight hanger.
29.3
29.3 Diagram
Diagram
Travelling
Microscope
Glass plate
Convex lens
Monochromatic
light source
Plano-convex lens
Beam under test

L Knife edges L
Mass Mass
Fig. 1: The arrangement of Cornus method.
528
29.4
29.4 Formula
Formula
Young modulus by Cornu’s method
12
=
And longitudinal radius of curvature R is given by

1 ( ) ×( )
=
4 ( ) −( )
Here:
m = mass suspended on the beam (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravitation (9.8 m/s2 )
L = length of the section of beam under test (in between knife edge and
hanger).
b = breadth of Glass beam (meter)
d = Thickness of beam under test (meter)
λ = wavelength of sodium light source (5892 Å or 5892 x 10-10 m)
n = order of fringe.
= Diameter of nth order fringe without mass (meter).
= Diameter of nth order fringe with mass m (meter).
29.5
29.5 Theory
Theoryand
anddescription
description
Cornus method is particularly used to determine the elastic constant such as
Young’s modulus of given material in the shape of beam. This method includes
Newton’s ring experiment partially to determine the bending of beam optically
with high accuracy.
(i) Elasticity: elasticity is property of material by which it opposes to change
of its shape and return to their original shape after being deformed.
(ii) Stress: in the object reaction force per unit area due the strain is known as
stress in the equilibrium stress is given in the term of the external force
=
(iii) Strain: The strain is a ratio of change in dimension with original
529
dimension, according to the deformation there are three types of strain
1. Longitudinal strain
2. Volume strain
3. Sharing strain
(iv) Hook’s law: according to hooks law in the limit of elasticity stress is
directly proportional to strain
= ×
Here: E is elasticity constant
(v) Elasticity constants: There are three types of elasticity constant according
to strain
1. Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y): Young’s modulus is ratio of longitudinal
stress with longitudinal strain in the limit of elasticity
=
2. Bulk Modulus of elasticity (K): It is ratio of normal stress to volume stress

in the limit of elasticity
=
3. Modulus of rigidity (η): It is ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain in

the limit of elasticity:
Tangential
=
ℎ
Table 1: Young’s modulus for some material

S. No. Material Young’s Modulus (N/m2)
1. Aluminium 7 × 1010
3. Iron 9 × 1010
4. Steel 21 × 1010
5. Glass ~6 x1010
530
6. Rubber ~107
(vi) Bending of Beam: A beam is considered as made up of number of planes
which are parallel to each other when uniform beam is loaded by mass on end in
the result of it all planes beam are bent into shape of arc. Planes inward of arc get
compressed and planes outward side of arc get elongated in between these two
portion there is layer neither elongated nor the shorten such a surface s called
neutral surface or neutral plane. Expending and compressed layers form a bending
couple. Moment of bending couple is known as bending moment. Internal Bending
moment of beam (G) is given as:
= ……………….. (1)
Here,
b = breadth of the beam an
d = thickness (depth) of beam
R = radius of curvature of glass of beam.
Bending moment due to mass attached to its ends
= …………….(2)
Here,
g = gravitational acceleration
m = mass loaded by ends
L = length of beam
Under the mechanical equilibrium the equation 1 and 2 should be equal
= =
12
12
=
(vii) Interference: When two coherent light waves travel in the same direction
and superimposed at a point in space as a result the intensity of light is
redistributed and the resultant light is maximum at some points and minimum on
others, this phenomenon is known as interference of light. We can infer from Fig.
(2) and (3), that the superposition of two trains of sine waves of the same
frequency and travelling along the same line is to produce another sine wave of
that frequency but having a new amplitude which is determined for given values
531
their amplitudes by relative the phase difference between these two waves.
If the phase difference between the waves is 2nπ (here n = 0, 1, 2, 3….) or in
phase, it will give maximum resultant intensity (Solid line) and it known as
constructive interference.
Fig. 2: Constructive interference
For those points where the waves meet in the phase difference of (2n+1) π or
opposite phase, the resultant intensity will be minimum (Solid line) i.e. destructive
interference.
Fig. 3: Destructive interference.
(viii) Newton ring: In Newton’s ring experiment setup( see Fig.1), rays from
sodium lamp are reflected from a transparent glass plate inclined at 45◦ to the
vertically and fall normally on the air gap between a plano-convex lens and a plane
glass surface the rays reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of air gap are
transmitted through the inclined glass plate and an received by travelling
microscope. Interference between these two reflected gives a pattern in which
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alternate bright and dark concentric circular rings with their dark centre is
occurred. These circular fringes are called as Newton’s ring. Where diameter of nth
ring is given as
= 8
Here, tn is the thickness of the air film for nth order of fringe.
The travelling microscope can be moved along horizontal rails and can be locked
at any position. Now read the main scale reading and vernier scale reading of the
travelling microscope and use it for calculation of diameter of Newton’s rings.
Cornu’s method: This is an extension of Newton’s ring experiment with the help
of Cornu’s experiment elastic constant can be calculated as shown experimental set
up in the figure 4. We use glass beam instead of plane glass plate below the convex
lens. When mass is loaded on the beam it get circular in result of Newton’s rings
change into elliptical shape due to the bending. The new Newton’s rings get
shrinks along the length of beam. Let Dn0 is the diameter of nth circular ring in the
absence of bending and Dn1 indicates the diameter of nth ring after bending of
beam (see Fig 5.). Longitudinal bending also causes small lateral bending so the
Newton rings get small extension in the lateral direction. Let the diameter of nth
ring in lateral direction is Dn2. Due to small extension in lateral direction
considered as Dn2= Dn0.
Fig. 4: Cornu’s Method.

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Dn2
Dn0 Dn1
Fig. 5: Newton’s Rings in Cornu’s Method.

For the Young’s modulus longitudinal strain is only to be considered so we count
only Dn1. The longitudinal radius of curvature of beam can be calculated as:
1 1 1
=4 [ − ]
( ) ( )
(ix) Vernier calipers: A vernier caliper (see Fig. 6) consists of a metal ruler
(called main Scale) with a vernier scale attached. A Vernier scale is a small,
moveable scale placed next to the main scale of a measuring instrument (see Fig.
7). Using vernier scale with main scale we can made a measurement of distance (or
length) to an accuracy of a tenth of a millimeter or better. For measurement of
distance, use either the inside edges of the jaws, or the outside edges of the two
prongs at the top of the caliper (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 6: Vernier caliper.

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To read the caliper, the main metric scale is read first and record the numbers of
line on main scale correspond to the last line on the rule just before the index line
on the vernier scale (In Fig.7 this number is 13). Next find out the number of a
vernier line which lines up with a line on the rule . In figure we can see this
number is 21. Here we can see that the least count of main scale is 1 mm and 1 mm
further divided into 50 division of variner scale, hence list count of this variner
caliper is 1mm/50=0.02mm.
Fig. 7: Vernier caliper (enlarged view of vernier and main scale).

Thus, the reading of variner caliper in figure 7, can be calculated as following:
Main scale reading + Variner scale reading X least count
or
13 mm+21 X 0.02 mm=13.42 mm.
(xi) Screw Gauge: Micrometer screw gauge is a small metallic device whose
working principle based on the “screw” principle (See Fig. 8). A screw gauge
having a U shaped metallic frame.This instrument generally used to measure the
diameter or thickness of any object like thin wire with very good accuracy.
(xii) A micrometer screw gauge also carries two scales similar to vernier caliper
- a main scale and a circular scale (see Fig. 9). Generally the main scale is a
millimeter scale and circular scale divided into 100 equal divisions. In order to
measure the small length with a screw gauge, the object like thin wire is placed
between the jaws which are moved by the thimble. The main scale reading is
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considered as the number of last visible line on main scale just to the left of the
thimble (see fig.9). From figure 9, we can infer that the last line number 9 is
visible; hence main scale reading is 9 mm. The circular scale reading read as the
number of divisions on the thimble scale matches with the main scale ( in Fig 9,
this reading is 40).
Fig. 8: Screw Gauge.

Furthermore, in one complete revolutions of the thimble the main scale reading
change by 1mm. Hence the least count of circular scale is 1mm divided by number
of divisions on the circular scale (n=100) or least count of screw gauge =
1mm/100=0.01mm.
Fig. 9: Enlarged view of scales of the Screw Gauge.
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So reading of screw gauge in figure 9 will be:
Main scale reading + circular scale reading X least count
or
= 9 mm+40 X 0.01 mm=9.40 mm.
(xiii) Travelling Microscope: It is an optical instrument used for measuring the
length order of 0.01 mm. it consist of a microscope mounted on two rails. Position
of the microscope can be varied by sliding it on the rails. It has two scales (main
scale and vernier scale) and main scales attached with moving direction. For the
measurement of Newton’s ring diameter, the travelling microscope is moved along
horizontal rails and locked at any position. Now read the main scale reading and
vernier scale reading of the travelling microscope and use it for calculation of
diameter of Newton’s rings. The reading is read as similarly to vernier calipers.
Fig. 10: Travelling microscope.
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Sodium Lamp: A sodium vapour lamp is a gas discharge lamp. The sodium lamp
contains a double-walled envelope having a special glass that is resistant to
blackening by hot sodium vapour. The inner envelope contains inert gases (argon
or neon at low pressure) and a small amount of metallic sodium. Initially the
discharge is started in the rare gas due to electrons emitted by the coiled filament
F. A relatively small positive potential is applied to the anode to sustained
discharge. Since the space between the double walls is highly evacuated to prevent
heat loss so that the temperature inside the lamp increases rapidly to the point
where the sodium melts and vaporizes into the arc. So, due to vaporizations of
sodium, the rare-gas spectrum disappear gradually, a yellow colour due to radiation
from the more easily ionized atoms of sodium appears. After few minutes, we got
almost yellow colour due to the sodium doublet. These radiations can be use as
monochromatic light without the use of filters. The doublet is so narrow
(separation 5.97 Å) that for our interference measurements with small path
difference it may be assumed to be a single line (monochromatic) with the average
wavelength 5892 Å.
Fig. 7: Sodium lamp.
538
29.6
29.6 Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 What is SI unit of Young’s modulus?
Q.2 Why you use sodium light in the experiment?
Q.3 What is the beam?
Q.4 What do you mean by elastic deformation?
Q.5 What is the stress?
29.7 Procedure
29.7 Procedure
(i) To determine the breadth of glass beam
1. Adjust breadth of Glass beam in external jaw of vernier caliper and note the
main scale reading and vernier scale reading and calculate total reading.
2. Repeat same process for other two any position along the length of beam and
the note down the measurements.
3. Take the average breadth of beam.
(ii) To determine the thickness of glass beam
1. Adjust thickness of glass beam in the Anvil and Spindle of screw gauge by
rotating the knob.
2. Note down the main scale reading and vernier scale reading of screw gauge.
3. Repeat the above process for different position, taking the thickness of glass
beam.
4. Take the average breadth of beam.
(iii) To find the diameter of rings without mass
1. Put the given glass beam symmetrically over the two knife edges.
2. A convex lens is placed over the beam.
3. It must be ensure that the light should be fall normally on the air film with the
help of glass plate on inclination of 45◦.
4. The interference fringes are clearly viewed by means of travelling microscope.
5. Fix the cross wire on any of the nth bright ring (or dark) on one side (left or
right) using the knob and the reading by micrometer of travelling microscope
is observed
6. Further move the cross wire to the (n-1)th bright ring (or dark) on the same
539
side and note down reading of micrometer.
7. In similar way observe the readings of the rings on either side of the centre
position.
(iv) Diameter of rings with mass
2. Adjust the distance between the weight hanger and the knife edges.
3. Add mass on the weight hanger.
4. Repeat steps 5 to 7 to measure the horizontal and vertical position of rings.
29.8 Observation
29.8 Observation
For travelling Microscope:
Main scale least count (S) = ……. .meter
No. of verniers scale division N =……….
Least count (S/N ) =……….meter
To find the breadth of glass beam using Vernier calipers:
Least count of vernier calipers = …………… meter
S. Main Vernier Total Reading= Main scale reading +
No. scale scale Variner scale reading X least count
reading reading (meter)
(meter)
1
2
3
4
Breadth of plate, b = ………… meter.
To find the thickness of glass beam using screw gauge:

Least count of screw guage = …………… meter
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S. No. Main Circular Total Reading Total Reading= Main
scale scale scale reading + circular scale reading X
reading reading least count (meter)
(meter)
1
2
3
4
Thickness of glass beam, d = ……….. meter

To find the diameter of rings in horizontal direction:
λ = ………………. meter; L =………………. meter
Table: to measure the diameters of Newton’s Rings without loading of the beam
Microscope reading
S. Orde Left Right
No r Main Vernie a Main Vernie b =(b-a)
. (n) scale r scale Total scale r scale Total (meter
readin readin Readin readin readin Readin )
g g g g g g
(meter) (meter)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Table: to measure the diameters of Newton’s Rings when the beam is loaded.
541
Microscope reading
S. Orde Left Right =(b-a)
No r Main Vernie a Main Vernie b
. (n) scale r scale Total scale r scale Total (meter
readin readin Readin readin readin Readin )
g g g g g g
(meter) (meter)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Table: To measure the average R the beam is loaded

S. ( ) ( ) ( ) ×( ) ( ) −( ) R Average
No. (meter) of
(meter2) (meter2) (meter2) (meter2) R
(meter)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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29.9 Calculations
29.9 Calculations
Model Calculations:
m = mass suspended on the beam =100g = 0.1Kg
g = gravitation acceleration=9.8m/sec2
L= Length of the beam = 10cm=0.1m
b = breadth of glass beam =3cm=.03m
d = Thickness of beam under test=1mm=.001m
λ = wavelength of light source =5892 x10-10m
n = order of fringe = 6
= Diameter of nth order fringe without mass. = 0.345cm=.00345m
= Diameter of nth order fringe with mass m= 0.281cm=0.00281 m
1 ( ) ×( )
=
4 ( ) −( )
1 (0.00345) × (0.00281)
=
4 × 6 × 5892 × 10 (0.00345) − (0.00281)
= 1.659 meter
12 12 × 0.1 × 9.80 × 0.1 × 1.659
= =
0.03 × (.001)
≈ 6.5 × 10
29.10
29.10Result
Result
For a given beam Young’s modulus, Y=………………N/m2.
29.11
29.11Discussion
Discussion
543
29.12
29.12Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
1. Weight load on hanger slowly and carefully
2. Wait for taking the measurements for after loading of weight on hanger.
3. Position of glass beam should be remaining same for whole experiment.
4. The measurement of thicknesses of glass beam, should be made carefully
because of Young’s modulus depends upon cube of thicknesses of beam.
5. The experiment should be performed in a dark room, to achieve better contrast
of rings.
6. Move travelling microscope in unidirectional during the measurements.
29.13
29.13Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 What is the unit of strain?
Q.2 What is Young’s modulus?
Q.3 What do you mean by neutral layer of bent beam?
Q.4 Why the centre of Newton’s rings is dark?
Q.5 What is the purpose of the glass plate which is inclined at 45̊ in the
experiment?
29.14 Glossary
29.14 Glossary
Collimator: A device for producing a parallel beam of rays.
Elongation: Be long or stretched out.
Beam: A rod which having small cross section in compare to length.
Quasi: Partly similar
29.15
29.15Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: Nm-2
Ans.2: Because sodium is quasi monochromatic light source.
Ans.3: A rod of uniform cross section and having very low thickness compared
to its length known as a beam.
Ans.4: Elastic deformation is described as the change in the geometry of a body
under the action of external forces.
Ans.5: Force per unit area.
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Ans.1: Unit less
Ans.2: Longitudinal stress/ Longitudinal strain.
Ans.3: A layer between compressed plane and elongated plane.
Ans.4: Due to contact plano-convex lens and glass beam.
Ans.5: For the normal incidence of light on plano-convex lens.
29.16
29.16Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is Young’s modulus of elasticity?
Q.2 What is longitudinal strain?
Q.3 What do you understand by elastic constants?
Q.4 What is the elastic limit?
Q.5 How the Young’s modulus depends upon the temperature?
Q.6 Which property of material is indicated by the higher value of Young’s
modulus?
Q.7 What are the factors that are affecting the elasticity of material?
Q.8 What is the order of Young’s modulus for metals?
Q.9 Why the Newton’s rings are circular?
Q.10 Why should the light to falls the normally on Plano-convex lens?
Q.11 What is the basic principle of Newton’s rings experiments?
Q.12 What will happen with Newton’s ring pattern after loading the beam?
Q.13 What will happen with Young’s modulus, if the thickness of beam is
doubled?
Q.14 What will happen with Young’s modulus, if the loading mass is doubled?
Q.15 What are coherence light sources?
Q.16 What is the relation between path difference and phase difference?
Q.17 What is the condition for constructive interference?
Q.18 What is the condition for destructive interference?
Q.19 If the yellow is replaced by green light source, how will it affect the
experiment?
Q.20 What will happen if the sodium lamp is replaced by mercury lamp?
29.17Answers
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: Ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain in the limit of elasticity.
545
Ans.2: It is the ratio of the change in length of object to original length of object.
Ans.3: Elastic constant is ratio of stress to strain in the elastic limit.
Ans.4: Elastic limit is maximum limit of stress in which object returned to its
original shape after removing deforming force.
Ans.5: Young’s modulus decrease with incensement in the temperature.
Ans.6: Higher the Young’s modulus indicated higher stiffness.
Ans.7: Temperature, impurity, a effect of hammering, crystalline structure.
Ans.8: ~1010 NM-2
Ans.9: Due to the circular geometry of plano-convex lens the locus of the points
satisfying the condition for dark or bright fringes is circular.
Ans.10: The normal incidence of light in Newton ring experiment makes
convenient the calculation. For normal incidence of light the angle of
refraction can be taken zero.
Ans.11: Interference phenomena (division of amplitude).
Ans.12: Newton’s rings become elliptical.
Ans.13: Young’s modulus decrease by a factor of one by eight.
Ans.14: The value of Young’s modulus will be remaining unchanged.
Ans.15: The light sources having same frequency (monochromatic) and their
relatively phase difference should be zero or remain constant with time.
Ans.16: Phase difference = (2π/λ) path difference.
Ans.17: Phase difference = 2nπ
Ans.18: Phase difference = (2n+1) π
Ans.19: The Newton’s ring diameter and their thicknesses altered.
Ans.20: Newton’s ring will be colourful.
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, “Fundamentals of Optics” 4th Ed.,The
Mcgraw-Hill Companies, Inc., USA(2001).
2. Eugene Hecht, “Optics” 4th Ed., Addison Wesley, San Francisco, CA (2002).
3. http://www.iiserpune.ac.in/~surjeet.singh.
4. http://amrita.vlab.co.in.
5. http://www.maths.tcd.ie/~rshort/college.
546
UNIT-30
Bipolar Junction Transistor
30.1 Aim
30.2 Apparatus
30.3 Diagram
30.4 Formula
30.5 Model Graph
30.8 Procedure
30.9 Observation
30.10 Graph
30.11 Calculations
30.12 Result
30.13 Discussion
30.16 Glossary
25.1
30.1 Aim
Aim
To study the input and output characteristics of a NPN transistor in a common
emitter configuration.
547
30.2
30.2 Apparatus
Apparatus
Transistor, Voltmeter, ammeter, resistor, regulated power supply.
30.3
30.3 Diagram
Diagram
30.4
30.4 Formula
Formula
From the input characteristics

ri =∆VBE /∆IB at VCE =constant
(volts / A or )
From the output characteristics
ro = ∆VCE /∆IC at IB =constant
(volts / A or )
From the transfer characteristics
β = ∆ IC /∆IB at VCE =constant
30.5
30.5 Model
ModelGraph
Graph
Model graphs for input characteristic, output characteristics and transfer
characteristics are shown in following figures
548
549
30.6
30.6 Theory
Theoryand
andDescription
Description
A BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) transistor has two similar semiconductor
materials, and between them there is a third semi-conductive material of different
type. So, if the two similar materials are P and the middle one is N, then we have a
P-N-P transistor. Similarly, if the two materials are N and the middle one is P, then
we have a N-P-N transistor.
Working principle of n-p-n and p-n-p transistor:-

In upper figure a n-p-n transistor is shown. In the left side, the emitter base
junction is forward biased. P region is more positive than n-region. So electrons
from n region can move easily towards the p region. It is meant that electrons come
to the base from the emitter. On the right side collector-base junction is reverse
biased so the collector region is more positive. Hence electrons travelling from the
emitter towards the base are attracted strongly by the collector i.e. collector
collects those electrons. While coming through the base some electrons and holes
550
recombine in the base but about 95% electrons are speeded towards the collector
and current flows from base to collector. Base is made very thin and lightly doped
so that only a few number of electrons recombine with holes in the base and passes
quickly through the base region.
For p-n-p transistor the biasing is done in a different way. Holes from the p-region
enter into the base region and since collector is more negatively biased these holes
speedily move towards the collector. In this way a strong current is produced.
Current flowing in the emitter region due to the flow of charges is called emitter
current (IE), current produced for the recombination of electrons and holes is called
base current (IB) and the current generated in the collector region due to the flow of
charges is called collector current (IC). The base current does not flow in the
collector region. This current comes out through the base terminal. So it is seen
that total emitter current does not flow to the collector region, i.e. the collector
current is less than the emitter current. The relation between IE, IB and IC is
IE = IB + IC
The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and base. Before knowing about
the bipolar junction transistor characteristics, we have to know about the modes of
operation for this type of transistors. The modes are
i) Common Base (CB) mode
ii) Common Emitter (CE) mode
iii) Common Collector (CC) mode
All three types of modes are shown below
(A) Common base (CB) mode
551
(B) Common emitter (CE) mode
(C) Common collector (CC) mode
Characteristics of BJT
There are different characteristics for different modes of operation. Characteristics
is nothing but the graphical forms of relationships among
different current and voltage variables of the transistor. The characteristics for pnp
transistors are given for different modes and different parameters.
552
(A) Common Base Characteristics
Input Characteristics:- For pnp transistor, the input current is the
emitter current (IE) and the input voltage is the collector base voltage (VCB).
As the emitter-base junction is forward biased, therefore the graph of IE Vs VEB is

similar to the forward characteristics of a p-n diode. IE increases for fixed
VEB when VCB increases.
Output Characteristics:- The output characteristics shows the relation between
output voltage and output current IC is the output current and collector–
base voltage and the emitter current IE is the input current and works as the
parameters. The figure below shows the output characteristics for a pnp transistor
in CB mode.
553
As we know for pnp transistors IE and VEB are positive and IC, IB, VCB are negative.
These are three regions in the curve, active region ,saturation region and the cut off
region. The active region is the region where the transistor operates normally. Here
the emitter junction is reverse biased. Now the saturation region is the region
where both the emitter collector junctions are forward biased. And finally the cut
off region is the region where both emitter and the collector junctions are reverse
biased.
(B) Common Emitter Characteristics
Input characteristics:-IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base-Emitter
Voltage) is the input voltage for CE (Common Emitter) mode. So, the input
characteristics for CE mode will be the relation between IB and VBE with VCE as
parameter. The characteristics are shown below
The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward biased of p-n
diode. But as VCB increases the base width decreases.
Output characteristics:- Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph
between collector current (IC) and collector – emitter voltage (VCE) when the
base current IB is the parameter. The characteristics is shown below in the figure.
Like the output characteristics of common-base transistor CE mode has also three
regions named (i) Active region, (ii) cut-off regions, (iii) saturation region. The
active region has collector region reverse biased and the emitter junction forward
biased.
554
For cut-off region the emitter junction is slightly reverse biased and the
collector current is not totally cut-off. And finally for saturation region both the
collector and the emitter junction are forward biased.
Application of BJT
BJT’s are used in discrete circuit designed due to availability of many types, and
obviously because of its high transconductance and output resistance which is
better than MOSFET. BJT’s are suitable for high frequency application also.
That’s why they are used in radio frequency for wireless systems. Another
application of BJT can be stated as small signal amplifier, metal proximity
photocell, etc.
30.7
30.7 Self
Selflearning
Learningexercise-I
Exercise-I
Q.1 Define BJT transistor.
Q.2 Write down different types of BJT transistor.
Q.3 Explain working principle of n-p-n and p-n-p transistor.
Q.4 Define
(a)Emitter current
(b)Base current
(c)Collector current
Q.5 What is Characteristics of the transistor.
555
Q.6 Explain application of BJT
30.8
30.8 Procedure
Procedure
The scheme of connections is shown below in the figure
Input characteristics of a transistor:-
1. Adjust collector to emitter voltage at any suitable value (5 volts) and keep it
constant.
2. Set the base current to a suitable value (10µA or 20µA) and note the
corresponding base emitter voltage
3. Increase iB and note the corresponding base emitter voltage VBE.
4. Repeat steps ‘2’ &’3’ for different constant values of VCE. Take at least three
sets of observations at three different values of VCE.
5. Plot the graph between base current (iB) and base emitter (VBE) with collector
emitter (VCE) voltage to be constant.
6. Plot at least three curves by choosing three different values of VCB.
7. Draw a tangent to VBE – IB curve & determine its slope .The reciprocal of the
slope gives the value of input resistance of transistor.
Output characteristics of a transistor:-
1. Adjust base current iB to 10µA by the base power supply and rheostat.
2. Adjust the collector emitter voltage VCE is -5V and note the collector current iC.
3. Reduce the collector emitter voltage VCE and note the collector IC every time
corresponding to every VCE keeping base current constant.
4. Repeat steps ’2’ and ‘3’ for different constant values of base currents.
5. Draw a graph between collector currents (iC) and collector emitter voltage VCE
with constant base current.
6. Take at-least three observation sets.
7. Draw a tangent on a VCE-IC curve and determine its slope. Reciprocal of the
slope gives the value of output resistance of transistor.
Transfer characteristics of a transistor:-
1. Adjust collector voltage at suitable value and maintain it constant.
2. Adjust base current IB to a suitable small but measurable value and
556
note down the corresponding collector current Ic. Increase IB in small steps and
note down the collector current Ic each time.
3. Plot a graph by taking base current IB along x-axis and collector current IC
along y- axis as shown in fig. The slope of the graph gives the value of current
gain 
30.9
30.9 Observation
Observation
1. Input characteristics
S.No. Emitter base voltage VBE Base current iB (A)
(Volts)
VCE=...volts VCE=...volts VCE=...volts
2. Output Characteristics
S.No. Collector base Collector current iC(mA)
Voltage VCE(volts)
IB =…A IB =…A IB =…A
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3. Transfer Characteristics
Constant value of Collector Emitter voltage VCE (Volts)
S.No. Base current Collector current
30.10
30.10Graph
Graph
Plot the input characteristics, output characteristics and transfer characteristics of
NPN transistor in CE configuration.
30.11
30.11Calculations
Calculations
558
30.12
30.12Result
Result
1. Plot of input characteristics, output characteristics and transfer characteristics
of NPN transistor in CE configuration, is shown on the graph paper.
2. Transistor parameters are :
Common emitter configuration:
ri =………Ohm
ro =………Ohm
 =……….
30.13Discussion
30.13 Discussion
30.14
30.14Precautions
Precautionsand
andSources
Sourcesofoferror
error
4. Connections should be tight.
5. The voltage should be less than the breakdown voltage.
6. While doing the experiment the base end must be connected first and also while
disconnecting base end should be disconnected first.
7. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor.
This may lead to damage the transistor.
8. Connect voltmeter and ammeter incorrect polarities as shown in the circuit
diagram.
9. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram.
559
10. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the
transistor.
30.15
30.15Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise-II
Exercise-II
Q.1 Explain the various ways in which a transistor can be connected?
Q.2 Plot input, Output, and transfer characteristics?
Q.3 Define current gain of Common emitter transistor.
Q.4 What are input characteristics?
Q.5 What are output characteristics?
30.16Glossary
30.16 Glossary
Bipolar transistor, BJT : Bipolar Junction Transistor; a transistor consisting of
three semiconductor regions (emitter, base, and collector) with alternating
conductivity type (i.e. n-p-n or p-n-p); current flow comprises both majority and
minority carriers (hence, "bipolar"), is controlled by vertical dimensions; current
controlled device; key transistor structure in semiconductor electronics.
Base : Base region in bipolar transistor sandwiched between emitter and
collector; typically n-type so that highly mobile electrons act as minority carriers in
the base; should be very thin to allow rapid transfer of minority carriers from
emitter to collector; electric field is created in the base by nonuniform doping to
accelerate minority carriers moving from emitter to collector.
Collector : Collector region in bipolar transistor collecting carriers from the
base; should be lightly doped to assure proper transistor operation.
Emitter : Emitter very high conductivity region in semiconductor devices acting
as a source of free majority carriers typically injected into the adjacent region (for
instance into base in the bipolar transistor)
HBT : Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor; very high-performance transistor
structure; unlike conventional bipolar transistor built using more than one
semiconductor material, hence "heterojunction"; takes advantage of different
bandgap of semiconductors used to form emitter, base and collector; e.g. n-
AlGaAs/p-GaAs/n-GaAs, or SiGe in combination with Si; formed using high
precision epitaxy such as MBE or MOCVD.
560
Diode Rectifier : An electronic device with two wires or terminals. A rectifier
allows electrical current to flow through in only one direction and is used for
converting alternating current into direct current. Rectifiers were important for use
in radios, which required direct current to power the amplifiers driving speakers or
headphones.
Direct Current (DC) : Current which moves in a single direction in a steady flow.
Normal household electricity is alternating current (AC) which repeatedly reverses
its direction. However, many electronics devices require DC, and therefore must
convert the current into DC before using it. Diodes are used to convert AC to DC.
Holes : When an array of atoms in a crystal is missing a conducting electron, it's
said to have a "hole." Since conducting electrons are negative, holes are positive.
Even though holes are an absence of a conducting electron, scientists often talk
about holes flowing as if they were real particles.
N-type semiconductor : A semiconductor which has an excess of conduction
electrons. A semiconductor can be made into N-type by adding trace amounts of
another element to the original semiconductor crystal. Today's transistors all
require sections of both N-type and P-type semiconductors.
P-type semiconductor : A semiconductor which has an excess of conducting
holes. It is created by adding trace amounts of other elements to the original pure
semiconductor crystal. Today's transistors all require sections of both N- type and
P-type semiconductors.
Semiconductor : A material that conducts more than an insulator but less than a
conductor. Some semiconductors conduct at some times but not at others. Some
common semiconductors are silicon and germanium. Transistors are made out of
semiconductor crystals.
30.17
30.17Answers
AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercises
Exercises
Ans.1: A BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) transistor has two similar
semiconductor materials, and between them there is a third semi-conductive
material of different type. So, if the two similar materials are P and the
561
middle one is N, then we have a P-N-P transistor. Similarly, if the two
materials are N and the middle one is P, then we have a N-P-N transistor.
Ans.2: PNP and NPN
Ans.4: answers for part (a),(b),(c)are
a. Current flowing in the emitter region due to the flow of charges is called
emitter current (IE)
b. Current produced for the recombination of electrons and holes is called
base current (IB) and
c. The current generated in the collector region due to the flow of charges is
called collector current (IC).
Ans.5: Characteristics is nothing but the graphical forms of relationships among
different current and voltage variables of the transistor.
Ans.1: CE, CB, CC configuration.
Ans.3: β = ∆ IC /∆IB at VCE =constant
Ans.4: These curves relate input current and input voltage for a given value of
output voltage.
Ans.5: These curves relate output voltage and output current for a given value of
input current.
30.18
30.18Viva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Q.1 What is a transistor?
Q.2 Write the relation between  and ?
Q.3 What is the range of ?
Q.4 Why  is less than unity?
Q.5 Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?
Q.6 What do you mean by biasing of transistor?
Q.7 What is DC current gain in common base configuration?
562
Q.8 What is the typical value for DC current?
Q.9 What is AC current gain in CB configuration?
Q.10 Which configuration has highest voltage gain?
Q.11 Which configuration is most widely used?
Q.12 What is operating point?
Q.13 Which region is heavily doped in transistor?
Q.14 Which region is lightly doped in transistor?
30.19
30.19Answers
AnswerstotoViva
VivaQuestions
Questions
Ans.1: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch
electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor
material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a portmanteau of the
term "transfer resistor".
Ans.2:
= ↔ =
1− +1
Ans.3: The important parameter is the common-base current gain, . The
common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from
emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a
value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998.
Ans.4: It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross
the base region.
Ans.5: hib=VBE/IE,1/hoe=VCE/IC
Ans.6: When DC voltages are applied across the different terminals of the
transistor, it is called biasing.
Ans.7: It is the ratio of collector current Ic to emitter current IE.
Ans.8: 0.99
Ans.9: It is the ratio of charge in collector current to change in emitter current.
Ans.10: Common emitter.
563
Ans.11: Common emitter.
Ans.12: The zero signal values of Ic and Vcc.
Ans.13: Emitter
Ans.14: Base
References
Referencesand
andSuggested
SuggestedReadings
Readings
1. Device Electronics for Integrated circuits by R.S. Muller & T. I. Kamins &
Mansun Chang (Third edition) John Wiley & Sons
2. Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices by A.S. Grove.
3. Physics of Semiconductor Devices by S.M.Sze.
4. Transistor circuit Analysis and Design, Franklin C.Fitchen
5. J.J. Cathey, Schaum's Outline of Electronic Devices and Circuits.
6. W. Kleitz, Digital Electronics: A Practical Approach.
564

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UNIT-1

Fig1: Ray diagram of Michelson Interferometer

Fig 2: Formation of circular fringes

Fig3: Formation of various types of fringes

Fig 4: Inclined mirrors

Fig4: Origin of white light fringes

(B)For the Wavelength of difference of two D-lines

Figure: 2.2 Fabry-Perot Interferometer

(B) For difference of D lines of Sodium Light

Figure 1: Schematic sketch for fringes formation in Fresnel’s Biprism experiment.

Figure 2: Experimental arrangement of Fresnel’s Biprism Experiment.

Waves meet in the phase out of phase

Figure 3: Interference in light through two slits

Figure 4: Constructive Interference; waves meet in the phase.

Figure 6: Destructive Interference if amplitudes of both waves are not same

Figure 7: Picture of Fresnel’s Biprism.

Figure 8: The formation of virtual sources by Fresnel's Biprims [4].

Figure 9: Fringe pattern in Fresnel’s Biprism experiment.

Figure 10: Measurement of fringe width (β).

Figure 11: Measurement of d using a convex lens (www.mywbut.com).

Measurement of thickness of Mica sheet (t):

Slope of plot between n and xn = ………………………… cm

Mean d1 = …………………. Meter

Shift due to Mica sheet S = …………………………… Meter

Figure: graph between fringe number and position of corresponding fringe to

Fig. 1: The arrangement of Fresnel`s experiment.

Fig. 3: Degree of polarization as a function of incident angle.

Fig.4: A linearly polarised electromagnetic wave, propagating in the z-direction

Fig.5: Pictorial representations of side and end views of plane-polarized light

Fig.6: Pictorial representations of unpolarized light beams Each vibration can be

Fig.9: The amplitude coefficients of reflection as a function of incident angle for

Fig.10: Reflectance and transmittance. as a function of incident angle for air-

Fig.12: The arrangement of Fresnel`s experiment.

Figure 1: Block diagram of the experimental setup

Dispersion: Variation of n with λ

Figure 6: A Typical High Pressure Mercury Lamp

Model discussion:In this experiment we have proved the validity of Hartmann’s

Polariser Quarter wave plate

FIGURE 2: BABINET COMPENSATOR

(iii) (μe-μo) , the value of birefringence may be obtained by the relation ,

(B)To determine the initial phase difference (ϕ-α)between the components f

(3) Ratio of axes / and direction of axes:

When a plane polarized light wave is incident on a birefringent crystal

Answers to Self Learning Exercise-II

Fig.1. Diagram of optical Bench Arrangement for the Malus Law

Fig.2. Experimental Arrangement of OMEGA TYPE ES-266

Current Deflection (Φ)

Polarizer Polarized light along

Fig.4. Polarization by absorption

Fig.5. Polarization by reflection

Fig.6. Polarization by scattering

Fig.7. Birefraction in crystal

Fig.8. A photovoltaic cell

Current Deflection (I)

Angular Rotation (θ)

Answers to Self Learning Exercise-II

Ans.4: Viewing Unpolarized Vertically Horizontally

Ans.5: Perpendicular to the polarizing axis

Now adding the above equations, we get