Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

The cell was first seen by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a primitive, compound microscope. He
observed very thin slices of cork and saw a multitude of tiny structures that he resembled to
walled compartments of a monk. Hence, named them cells. Hooke's description of these cells
was published in Micrographia. The cell is smallest unit of a living system and fall in the
microscopic range of 1 to 100 μm. They attain various shapes and sizes to attain variety of
functions. The understanding of cell is necessary to understand the structure and function of a
living organism. One of most important characteristics of cell is ability to divide. The existence
of a cell indicates that it has evolved from an already existing cell and further it can give rise to a
new cell. This was first stated by Theodor Schwann. Pioneering work by Theodor Schwann,
Matthias Jakob Schleiden on cells, gave birth to the cell theory. Their theory states:
1. All living things are made of cells.
2. Cells are the basic building units of life.
3. New cells are created by old cells dividing into two.

In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added another point to the theory and concluded that all cells come
from pre-existing cells, thus completing the classical cell theory. The cell theory holds true for
all living things, no matter how big or small, or how simple or complex. Viruses are exception to
the cell theory. Cells are common to all living beings, and provide information about all forms of
life. Because all cells come from existing cells, scientists can study cells to learn about growth,
reproduction, and all other functions that

living things perform. By learning about cells and how they function, we can learn about all
types of living things.
Classification of cells:
All living organisms (bacteria, blue green algae, plants and animals) have cellular organization
and may contain one or many cells. The organisms with only one cell in their body are called
unicellular organisms (bacteria, blue green algae, some algae, Protozoa, etc.). The organisms
having many cells in their body are called multicellular organisms (fungi, most plants and
animals). Any living organism may contain only one type of cell either A. Prokaryotic cells; B.
Eukaryotic cells. The terms prokaryotic and eukaryotic were suggested by Hans Ris in the
1960‘s. This classification is based on their complexcity. Further based on the kingdom into
which they may fall i.e the plant or the animal kingdom, plant and animal cells bear many
differences. These will be studied in detail in the upcoming sections.
Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryote means before nucleus in Greek. They include all cells which lack nucleus and other
membrane bound organelles. Mycoplasma, virus, bacteria and cyanobacteria or blue-green algae
are prokaryotes.
Most prokaryotes range between 1 μm to 10 μm, but they can vary in size from 0.2 μm to 750
μm (Thiomargarita namibiensis). They belong to two taxonomic domains which are the bacteria
and the archaea. Most prokaryotes are unicellular, exceptions being myxobacteria which have
multicellular stages in their life cycles. They are membrane bound mostly unicellular organisms
lacking any internal membrane bound organelles. A typical prokaryotic cell is schematically
illustrated in Figure 1. Though prokaryotes lack cell organelles they harbor few internal
structures, such as the cytoskeletons, ribosomes, which translate mRNA to proteins.
Membranous organelles are known in some groups of prokaryotes, such as vacuoles or
membrane systems devoted to special metabolic properties, e.g., photosynthesis or
chemolithotrophy. In addition, some species also contain protein-enclosed microcompartments,
which have distinct physiological roles (carboxysomes or gas vacuoles).

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a prokaryotic cell

The individual structures depicted in Figure 1 are as follows and details will be discussed in
forthcoming chapters:
Flagella: It is a long, whip-like protrusion found in most prokaryotes that aids in cellular
locomotion. Besides its main function of locomotion it also often functions as a sensory
organelle, being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the cell.
Capsule: The capsule is found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects the
cell when it is engulfed by phagocytes and by viruses, assists in retaining moisture, and helps the
cell adhere to surfaces and nutrients. The capsule is found most commonly among Gram-
negative bacteria. Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae Haemophilus influenzae,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella are some examples Gram-negative bacteria possessing
capsules. Whereas examples of Gram positive bacteria are Bacillus megaterium, Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes.
Cell wall: Cell wall is the outermost layer of most cells that protects the bacterial cell and gives
it shape. One exception is Mycoplasma which lacks cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of
peptidoglycan which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides
containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and
fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also
distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan.
Morphology of prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells have various shapes; the four basic shapes are (Figure 3):
• Cocci - spherical
• Bacilli - rod-shaped
• Spirochaete - spiral-shaped
• Vibrio - comma-shaped

Eukaryote
A eukaryotic cell consists of membrane bound organelles. They belong to the taxa Eukaryota.
All species of large complex organisms are eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi and
most species of protist microorganisms. Eukaryotes appear to be monophyletic (organisms that
form a clade) and make up one of the three domains of life. The two other domains, Bacteria and
Archaea, are prokaryotes and have none of the above features. Eukaryotes represent a tiny
minority of all living things; even in a human body there are 10 times more microbes than human
cells. However, due to their much larger size their collective worldwide biomass is estimated at
about equal to that of prokaryotes. Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotic genome is enclosed in the
nucleus surrounded by the nuclear membrane. Other then the nucleus many membrane bound
organelles dwell in their cell cytoplasm. Cell division involves separating of the genome which is
in the form of tightly packed condensed structure known as the chromosomes, through
movements directed by the cytoskeleton.
Figure 5 Eukaryotic cell:

Classification
The eukaryotes are composed of four kingdoms:
• Kingdom Protista
• Kingdom Fungi
• Kingdom Plantae
• Kingdom Animalia

Cell features
Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotic cells. Range between 10 to 100 micrometers.
They have a variety of internal membranes and structures, called organelles, and a cytoskeleton
composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments, which play an important
role in defining the cell's organization and shape. Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several linear
bundles called chromosomes, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during nuclear
division.
Internal membrane
Eukaryote cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to as the
endomembrane system involved in various functions. Simple compartments, called vesicles or
vacuoles, can form by budding off other membranes. Many cells ingest food and other materials
through a process of endocytosis, where the outer membrane invaginates and then pinches off to
form a vesicle. It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles are ultimately derived
from such vesicles. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane (commonly referred to as a
nuclear envelope), with pores that allow material to move in and out. Various tube and sheet like
extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is called the endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which
is involved in protein transport and maturation. It includes the rough ER where ribosomes are
attached to synthesize proteins, which enter the interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they
generally enter vesicles, which bud off from the smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, these protein-
carrying vesicles are released and further modified in stacks of flattened vesicles, called golgi
bodies or dictyosomes. Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance,
lysosomes contain enzymes that break down the contents of food vacuoles, and peroxisomes are
used to break down peroxide, which is toxic otherwise. Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles,
which collect and expel excess water, and extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect
predators or capture prey. In multicellular organisms, hormones are often produced in vesicles.
In higher plants, most of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole, which primarily
maintains its osmotic pressure. The individual cell organelles will be discussed in detail in the
upcoming chapters.
Reproduction:
Nuclear division is often coordinated with cell division. This generally takes place by mitosis, a
process that allows each daughter nucleus to receive one copy of each chromosome. In most
eukaryotes, there is also a process of sexual reproduction, typically involving an alternation
between haploid generations, wherein only one copy of each chromosome is present, and diploid
generations, wherein two are present, occurring through nuclear fusion (syngamy) and meiosis.
There is considerable variation in this pattern.
Association/hierarchy: In the plant and animal kingdom cells associate to form tissue, tissue to
organs which finally makes the whole organism.

Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes:

The difference between prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are detailed below. Eukaryotes have a
smaller surface area to volume ratio than prokaryotes, and thus have lower metabolic rates and
longer generation times. In some multicellular organisms, cells specialized for metabolism will
have enlarged surface area, such as intestinal vili.
Table 1: Difference between Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
prokaryotes and eukaryotes:
Characteristic
Size of cell Typically 0.2-2.0 m m in Typically 10-100 m m in
diameter diameter
Nucleus No nuclear membrane or True nucleus, consisting of
nucleoli (nucleoid) nuclear membrane & nucleoli
Membrane-enclosed Absent Present; examples include
organelles lysosomes, Golgi complex,
endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria & chloroplasts
Flagella Consist of two protein Complex; consist of multiple
building blocks microtubules
Glycocalyx Present as a capsule or slime Present in some cells that lack
layer a cell wall
Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically
complex (typical bacterial cell simple
wall includes peptidoglycan)
Plasma membrane No carbohydrates and Sterols and carbohydrates that
generally lacks sterols serve as receptors present
Cytoplasm No cytosketeton or Cytoskeleton; cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic streaming streaming
Ribosomes Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S); smaller size
 (70S) in organelles
Chromosome (DNA) Single circular chromosome; Multiple linear chromosomes
arrangement lacks histones with histones
Cell division Binary fission Mitosis
Sexual reproduction No meiosis; transfer of DNA Involves Meiosis
fragments only (conjugation)

Table 1: Differences Animal cell Plant cell

between Animal and Plant
cell S.No
1. Animal cells are generally Plant cells are larger than
small in size. animal cells.
2. Cell wall is absent. The plasma membrane of
plant cells is
surrounded by a rigid cell
wall of cellulose.
3. Except the protozoan Plastids are present.
Euglena no animal cell
possesses plastids.
4. Vacuoles in animal cells are Most mature plant cells have
many and small. a large central sap vacuole.
5. Animal cells have a single Plant cells have many
highly complex Golgi simpler units of and
prominent Golgi apparatus.
apparatus, called
dictyosomes.
6. Animal cells have Plant cells lack centrosome
centrosome and centrioles. and centrioles.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the protein synthesis units of a cell described by G.E. Palade in 1952. They are
complex of ribosomal RNA and various proteins. Their presence in both free and endoplasmis
reticulum membrane attached form (rough endoplasmic reticulum) was confirmed by Palade and
Siekevitz by the electron microscopy. We will have discussion about endoplasmic reticulum in
this lecture after discussion about ribosome. Ribosomes are small, dense, rounded and granular
particles of the ribonucleoprotein. As mentioned, they occur either freely in the matrix of
mitochondria, chloroplast and cytoplasm or remain attached with the membranes of the
endoplasmic reticulum. They occur in most prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and provide a
scaffold for the ordered interaction of all the molecules involved in protein synthesis. They are
the most abundant RNA-protein complex in the cell, which directs elongation of a polypeptide at
a rate of three to five amino acids added per second. Small proteins of 100–200 amino acids are
therefore made in a minute or less. On the other hand, it takes 2–3 hours to make the largest
known protein, titin, which is found in muscle and contains about 30,000 amino acid residues.
Occurrence and distribution:
The ribosomes occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In prokaryotic cells the ribosomes
often occur freely in the cytoplasm or sometimes as polyribosome. In eukaryotic cells the
ribosomes either occur freely in the cytoplasm or remain attached to the outer surface of the
membrane of endoplasmic reticulum. The yeast cells, reticulocytes or lymphocytes, meristamatic
plant tissues, embryonic nerve cells and cancerous cells contain large number of ribosomes
which often occur freely in the cytoplasmic matrix. Cells like the erythroblasts, developing
muscle cells, skin and hair which synthesize specific proteins for the intracellular utilization and
storage contain also contain large number of free ribosomes. In cells with active protein
synthesis, the ribosomes remain attached with the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum.
Examples

are the pancreatic cells, plasma cells, hepatic parenchymal cells, Nissls bodies, osteoblasts,
serous cells, or the submaxillary gland, thyroid cells and mammary gland cells.
Types of ribosomes:
Ribosomes are classified into two types based on their sedimentation coefficient, 70S and 80S. S
stands for Svedberg unit and related to sedimentation rate (sedimentation depends on mass and
size). Thus, the value before S indicates size of ribosome.
70S Ribosomes: Prokaryotes have 70S ribosemes. The 70S ribosomes are comparatively smaller
in size and have sedimentation coefficient 70S with molecular weight 2.7× 106 daltons. Electron
microscopy measures the dimension of the 70S ribosomes as170 ×170 × 200 Ao. They occur in
the prokaryotic cells of the blue green algae and bacteria and also in mitochondria and
chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells.
80S Ribosomes: Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes. The 80S ribosomes have sedimentation
coefficient of 80S and molecular weight 40 × 106 daltons. The 80S ribosomes occur in
eukaryotic cells of the plants and animals. The ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts are
always smaller than 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes and are comparable to prokaryotic ribosomes in
both size and sensitivity to antibiotics. However their sedimentation values vary in different
phyla, 77S in mitochondria of fungi, 60S in mitochondria of mammals and 60S in mitochondria
of animals.
Number of ribosomes:
An E. coli cell contains 10,000 ribosomes, forming 25 per cent of the total mass of the bacterial
cell. Whereas, mammalian cultured cells contain 10 million ribosomes per cell.
Chemical composition:
The ribosomes are chemically composed of RNA and proteins as their major constituents; both
occurring approximately in equal proportions in smaller as well as larger subunit. The 70S
ribosomes contain more RNA (60 to 40%) than the proteins (36 to 37%). The ribosomes of E.
coli contain 63% rRNA and 37% protein. While the 80S ribosomes contain less RNA (40 to
44%) than the proteins (60 to 56%), yeast ribosomes have 40 to 44% RNA and 60 to 56%
proteins; ribosomes of pea seedling contain 40% RNA and 60% proteins. There is no lipid
content in ribosomes.
Ribosomal RNAs:
RNA constitutes about 60 percent of the mass of a ribosome. The 70S ribosomes contain three
types of rRNA, viz., 23S rRNA, 16S rRNA, 5S rRNA. The 23S and 5S rRNA occur in the larger
50S ribosomal subunit, while the 16S rRNA occurs in the smaller 30S ribosomal subunit.
Assuming an average molecular weight for one nucleotide to be 330 daltons, one can calculate
the total number of each type of rRNA. Thus, the 23S rRNA consists of 3300 nucleotides, 16S
rRNA contains 1650 nucleotides and 5S rRNA includes 120 nucleotides in it. The 80S ribosomes
contain four types of rRNA, 28S rRNA (or 25-26 rRNA in plants, fungi and protozoa), 18S
rRNA, 5S rRNA and 5.8S rRNA. The 28S, 5S and 5.8S rRNAs occur in the larger 60S ribosomal
subnit, while the 18S rRNA occurs in the smaller 40S ribosomal subunit. About 60 per cent of
the rRNA is helical (i.e., double stranded) and contains paired bases. These double stranded
regions are due to hairpin loops between complimentary regions of the linear molecule.
The 28S rRNA has the molecular weight 1.6 × 106 daltons and its molecule is double stranded
and having nitrogen bases in pairs. The 18S rRNA has the molecular weight 0.6x106 daltons and
consists of 2100 nucleotides. The 18S and 28S ribosomal RNA contain a characteristic number
of methyl groups, mostly as 2'-O-methyl ribose. The molecule of 5S rRNA has a clover leaf
shape and a length equal to 120 nucleotides. The 5.8S rRNA is intimately associated with the
28S rRNA molecule and has, therefore, been referred to as 28S-associated ribosomal RNA (28S-
A rRNA). The 55S ribosomes of mammalian mitochondria lack 5S rRNA but contain 21S and
12S rRNAs. The 21S rRNA occurs in larger or 35S ribosomal subunits, while 12S rRNA occur
in smaller or 25S ribosomal subunit. It is thought that each ribosomal subunit contains a highly
folded ribonucleic acid filament to which the various proteins adhere. But as the ribosomes
easily bind the basic dyes so it is concluded that RNA is exposed at the surface of the ribosomal
subunits, and the protein is assumed to be in the interior in relation to non-helical part of the
RNA.

Ribosomal Proteins:
A ribosome is composed of three (in bacteria) or four (in eukaryotes) different rRNA molecules
and as many as 83 proteins, organized into a large subunit and a small subunit. The primary
structure of several of these proteins has been elucidated. Most of the recent knowledge about the
structure of ribosomal proteins has been achieved by dissociation of ribosomal subunits into their
component rRNA and protein molecules. When both 50S and 30S ribosomal subunits are
dissociated by centrifuging both of them in a gradient of 5 M cesium chloride, then there are two
inactive core particles (40S and 23S, respectively) which contain the RNA and some proteins
called core proteins (CP) at the same time several other proteins—the so-called split proteins
(SP) are released from each particle (Fig. 14.3). There are SP50 and SP30 proteins which may
reconstitute the functional ribosomal subunit when added to their corresponding core. Some of
the split proteins are apparently specific for each ribosomal subunit. The split proteins have been
further fractionated and divided into acidic (A) and basic (B) proteins. According to Nomura
(1968, 1973) and Garett and Wittmann (1973) each 70S ribosome of E. coli is composed of
about 55 ribosomal proteins. Out of these 55 proteins, about 21 different molecules have been
isolated from the 30S ribosomal subunit, and some 32 to 34 proteins from the 50S ribosomal
subunit. Similar organization of ribosomal proteins and RNA is found in 80S Ribosomes.
Different rRNA molecules evidently play a central role in the catalytic activities of ribosomes in
the process of protein synthesis.
Metallic Ions:
The most important low molecular weight components of ribosomes are the divalent metallic
ions such as Mg++, Ca++ and Mn++.
Structure
The ribosomes are oblate spheroid structures of 150 to 250Ao in diameter. Each ribosome is
porous, hydrated and composed of two subunits. One ribosomal subunit is large in size and has a
domelike shape, while the other ribosomal subunit is smaller in size, occurring above the larger
subunit and forming a cap-like structure. The small ribosomal subunit contains a single rRNA
molecule, referred to as small rRNA. The large subunit contains a molecule of large rRNA and
one molecule of 5S rRNA, plus an additional molecule of 5.8S rRNA in vertebrates. The lengths
of the rRNA molecules, the quantity of proteins in each subunit, and consequently the sizes of
the subunits differ in bacterial and eukaryotic cells. The assembled ribosome is 70S in bacteria
and 80S in vertebrates. There are great structural and functional similarities between ribosomes
from all species which is another reflection of the common evolutionary origin of the most basic
constituents of living cells.
The 70S ribosome consists of two subunits, 50S and 30S. The 50S ribosomal subunit is larger in
size and has the size of 160 Ao to 180 Ao. The 30S ribosomal subunit is smaller in size and
occurs above the 50S subunit like a cap. The 80S ribosome also consists of two subunits, 60S
and 40S. The 60S ribosomal subunit is dome-shaped and larger in size. In the ribosomes which
remain attached with the membranes of endoplasmic reticulum and nucleus, the 60S subunit
remains attached with the membranes. The 40S ribosomal subunit is smaller in size and occurs
above the 60s subunit forming a cap-like structure. Both the subunits remain separated by a
narrow cleft. The two ribosomal subunits remain united with each other due to high
concentration of the Mg++ (.001M) ions. When the concentration of Mg++ions reduces in the
matrix, both ribosomal subunits get separated. Actually in bacterial cells the two subunits are
found to occur freely in the cytoplasm and they unite only during the process of protein
synthesis. At high concentration of Mg++ ions in the
matrix, the two ribosomes (monosomes) become associated with each other and known as the
dimer. Further, during protein synthesis many ribosomes are aggregated due to common
messenger RNA and form the polyribosomes or polysomes.
The actual three-dimensional structures of bacterial rRNAs from Thermus thermopolis recently
have been determined by x-ray crystallography of the 70S ribosome. The multiple, much smaller
ribosomal proteins for the most part are associated with the surface of the rRNAs. During
translation, a ribosome moves along an mRNA chain, interacting with various protein factors and
tRNAs and very likely undergoing large conformational changes (see Figure 2). Despite the
complexity of the ribosome, great progress has been made in determining the overall structure of
bacterial ribosomes and in identifying various reactive sites. X-ray crystallographic studies on
the T. thermophilus 70S ribosome, for instance, not only have revealed the dimensions and
overall shape of the ribosomal subunits but also have localized the positions of tRNAs bound to
the ribosome during elongation of a growing protein chain. In addition, powerful chemical
techniques such as footprinting, have been used to identify specific nucleotide sequences in
rRNAs that bind to protein or another RNA. Figure 1 illustrates the ribosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum:
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of interconnected internal membranes generally, the largest
membrane in a eukaryotic cell—an extensive network of closed, flattened membrane-bounded
sacs called cisternae (Figure 3). The name ―endoplasmic reticulum‖ was coined in 1953 by
Porter, who had observed it in electron micrographs of liver cells. The endoplasmic reticulum
has a number of functions in the cell but is particularly important in the synthesis of lipids,
membrane proteins, and secreted proteins.
Figure 3. The Endoplasmic reticulum.
Occurrence:
The occurrence of the endoplasmic reticulum is in eukaryotic cells with variation in its position
from cell to cell. The erythrocytes (RBC), egg and embryonic cells lack in endoplasmic
reticulum. ER is poorly developed in certain cells as the RBC which produces only proteins to be
retained in the cytoplasmic matrix (haemoglobin), although the cell may contain many
ribosomes). The spermatocytes also have poorly developed endoplasmic reticulum.

Morphology:
The endoplasmic reticulum occurs in three forms: 1. Lamellar form or cisternae which is a
closed, fluid-filled sac, vesicle or cavity is called cisternae; 2. vesicular form or vesicle and 3.
tubular form or tubules.
1. Cisternae: The cisternae are long, flattened, sac-like, unbranched tubules having diameter of
40 to 50 μm. They remain arranged parallely in bundles or stakes. RER mostly exists as cisternae
which occur in those cells which have synthetic roles as the cells of pancreas, notochord and
brain.
2. Vesicles: The vesicles are oval, membrane-bound vacuolar structures having diameter of 25 to
500 μm. They often remain isolated in the cytoplasm and occur in most cells but especially
abundant in the SER.
3. Tubules: The tubules are branched structures forming the reticular system along with the
cisternae and vesicles. They usually have the diameter from 50 to 190 μm and occur almost in all
the cells. Tubular form of ER is often found in SER and is dynamic in nature, i.e., it is associated
with membrane movements, fission and fusion between membranes of cytocavity network.
Ultrastructure:
The cavities of cisternae, vesicles and tubules of the endoplasmic reticulum are bounded by a
thin membrane of 50 to 60 Aº thickness. The membrane of endoplasmic reticulum is fluid-
mosaic like the unit membrane of the plasma membrane, nucleus, Golgi apparatus. The
membrane of endoplasmic reticulum remains continuous with the membranes of plasma
membrane, nuclear membrane and Golgi apparatus. The cavity of the endoplasmic reticulum is
well developed and acts as a passage for the secretory products. Palade in the year 1956 has
observed secretory granules in the cavity of endoplasmic reticulum amking it rough in
appearance. Sometimes, the cavity of RER is very narrow with two membranes closely apposed
and is much distended in certain cells which are actively engaged in protein synthesis (acinar
cells, plasma cells and goblet cells). The membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum contains
many kinds of enzymes which are needed for various important synthetic activities. Some of the
most common enzymes are found to have different transverse distribution in the ER membranes.
The most important enzymes are the stearases, NADH-cytochrome C reductase, NADH
diaphorase, glucose-6-phosphotase and Mg++ activated ATPase. Certain enzymes of the
endoplasmic reticulum such as nucleotide diphosphate are involved in the biosynthesis of
phospholipid, ascorbic acid, glucuronide, steroids and hexose metabolism.
Types of endoplasmic reticulum:
Agranular or smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
ER with no studded ribosomes makes it smooth in appearance. The adipose tissues, brown fat
cells and adrenocortical cells, interstitial cells of testes and cells of corpus luteum of ovaries,
sebaceous cells and retinal pigment cells contain only smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The
synthesis of fatty acids and phospholipids takes place in the smooth ER. It is abundant in
hepatocytes. Enzymes in the smooth ER of the liver modify or detoxify hydrophobic chemicals
such as pesticides and carcinogens by chemically converting them into more water-soluble,
conjugated products that can be excreted from the body. High doses of such compounds result in
a large proliferation of the smooth ER in liver cells.
Granular or rough endoplasmic reticulum:
Ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum make it appear rough. The rough ER synthesizes
certain membrane and organelle proteins and virtually all proteins to be secreted from the cell. A
ribosome that fabricates such a protein is bound to the rough ER by the nascent polypeptide
chain of the protein. As the growing polypeptide emerges from the ribosome, it passes through
the rough ER membrane, with the help of specific proteins in the membrane. Newly made
membrane proteins remain associated with the rough ER membrane, and proteins to be secreted
accumulate in the lumen of the organelle. All eukaryotic cells contain a discernible amount of
rough ER because it is needed for the synthesis of plasma membrane proteins and proteins of the
extracellular matrix. Rough ER is particularly abundant in specialized cells that produce an
abundance of specific proteins to be secreted. The cells of those organs which are actively
engaged in the synthesis of proteins such as acinar cells of pancreas, plasma cells, goblet cells
and cells of some endocrine glands are found to contain rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
which is highly developed.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum and protein secretion:

George Palade and his colleagues in the 1960s were the first to demonstrate the role of
endoplasmic reticulum in protein secretion. The defined pathway taken by secreted protein is:
Rough ER - Golgi - secretory vesicles- cell exterior. The entrance of proteins into the ER
represents a major branch point for the traffic of proteins within eukaryotic cells. In mammalian
cells most proteins are transferred into the ER while they are being translated on membrane
bound ribosomes. Proteins that are destined for secretion are then targeted to the endoplasmic
reticulum by a signal sequence (short stretch of hydrophobic amino acid residues) at the amino
terminus of the growing polypeptide chain. The signal sequence is K/HDEL which is Lys/His-
Asp-Glu-Leu. This signal peptide is recognized by a signal recognition particle consisting of six
polypeptides and srpRNA. The SRP binds the ribosome as well as the signal sequence, inhibiting
further translation and targeting the entire complex (the SRP, ribosome, and growing polypeptide
chain) to the rough ER by binding to the SRP receptor on the ER membrane. Binding to the
receptor releases the SRP from both the ribosome and the signal sequence of the growing
polypeptide chain. The ribosome then binds to a protein translocation complex in the ER
membrane, and the signal sequence is inserted into a membrane channel or translocon with the
aid of GTP. Transfer of the ribosome mRNA complex from the SRP to the translocon opens the
gate on the translocon and allows translation to resume, and the growing polypeptide chain is
transferred directly into the translocon channel and across the ER membrane as translation
proceeds. As translocation proceeds, the signal sequence is cleaved by signal peptidase and the
polypeptide is released into the lumen of the ER.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and lipid synthesis:
Hydrophobic lipids are synthesized in the ER and then they are then transported from the ER to
their ultimate destinations either in vesicles or by carrier proteins. Phospholipids are synthesized
in the cytosolic side of the ER membrane from water-soluble cytosolic precursors. Other lipids
that are synthesized in the ER are cholesterol and ceramide which is further converted to either
glycolipids or sphingomyelin in the golgi apparatus. Smooth ER are also the site for the synthesis
of the steroid hormones from cholesterol. Thus steroid producing cells in the testis and ovaries
are abundant in smooth ER.

Common functions of SER and RER:

1. The endoplasmic reticulum provides an ultrastructural skeletal framework to the cell and gives
mechanical support to the colloidal cytoplasmic martix.
2. The exchange of molecules by the process of osmosis, diffusion and active transport occurs
through the membranes of endoplasmic reticulum. The ER membrane has permeases and
carriers.
3. The endoplasmic membranes contain many enzymes which perform various synthetic and
metabolic activities and provides increased surface for various enzymatic reactions.
4. The endoplasmic reticulum acts as an intracellular circulatory or transporting system. Various
secretory products of granular endoplasmic reticulum are transported to various organelles as
follows: Granular ER− agranular ER − Golgi membrane−lysosomes, transport vesicles or
secretory granules. Membrane flow may also be an important mechanism for carrying particles,
molecules and ions into and out of the cells. Export of RNA and nucleoproteins from nucleus to
cytoplasm may also occur by this type of flow.
5. The ER membranes are found to conduct intra-cellular impulses. For example, the
sarcoplasmic reticulum transmits impulses from the surface membrane into the deep region of
the muscle fibres.
6. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a role in releasing calcium when the muscle is stimulated
and actively transporting calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum when the stimulation
stops and the muscle must be relaxed.

Plastids:
Plant cells are readily distinguished from animal cells by the presence of two types of
membrane-bounded compartments– vacuoles and plastids.
Types of plastids:
The term ‗plastid‘ is derived from the Greek word ―plastikas‖ (formed or moulded) and was
used by A.F.W. Schimper in 1885. Schimper classified the plastids into following types
according to their structure, pigments and the functions:
1. Leucoplasts
2. 2. Chromoplasts

3. Chloroplasts

The chloroplast (chlor=green; plast=living) is most widely occurring chromoplast of the plants.
It occurs mostly in the green algae and higher plants. The chloroplast contains the pigment
chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b and DNA and RNA.
Chloroplasts:
Chloroplasts were described as early as seventeenth century by Nehemiah Grew and Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek.
Distribution:
The chloroplasts remain distributed homogeneously in the cytoplasm of plant cells. But in certain
cells, the chloroplasts become concentrated around the nucleus or just beneath the plasma
membrane. The chloroplasts have a definite orientation in the cell cytoplasm. Chloroplasts are
motile organelles, and show passive and active movements.

Morphology:
Shape: Higher plant chloroplasts are generally biconvex or plano-convex. However, in different
plant cells, chloroplasts may have various shapes, viz., filamentous, saucer-shaped, spheroid,
ovoid, discoid or club-shaped. They are vesicular and have a colourless centre.
Size: The size of the chloroplasts varies from species to species. They generally measure 2–3μm
in thickness and 5–10μm in diameter (Chlamydomonas). The chloroplasts of polyploid plant
cells are comparatively larger than those of the diploid counterparts. Generally, chloroplasts of
plants grown in the shade are larger and contain more chlorophyll than those of plants grown in
sunlight.
Number: The number of the chloroplasts varies from cell to cell and from species to species and
is related with the physiological state of the cell, but it usually remains constant for a particular
plant cell. Algae usually have a single huge chloroplast. The cells of the higher plants have 20 to
40 chloroplasts. According to a calculation, the leaf of Ricinus communis contains about 400,000
chloroplasts per square millimeter of surface area. The chloroplasts are composed of the
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, chlorophyll, carotenoids (carotene and xanthophylls), DNA, RNA
and certain enzymes and coenzymes. The chloroplasts also contain some metallic atoms as Fe,
Cu, Mn and Zn. Chloroplasts have very low percentage of carbohydrate. They contain 20–30 per
cent lipids on dry weight basis. The most common alcohols of the lipids are the choline, inositol,
glycerol, ethanolamine. The proteins constitute 35 to 55 per cent of the chloroplast. Chlorophyll
is the green pigment of the chloroplasts. It is an asymmetrical molecule which has hydrophilic
head of four rings of the pyrols and hydrophobic tail of phytol. Chemically the chlorophyll is a
porphyrin like the animal pigment haemoglobin and cytochromes except besides the iron (Fe), it
contains Mg atom in between the rings of the pyrols which remain connected with each other by
the methyl groups. The chlorophyll consists of 75 per cent chlorophyll a and 25 per cent
chlorophyll b.
The carotenoids are carotenes and xanthophylls, both of which are related to vitamin A. The
carotenes have hydrophobic chains of unsaturated hydrocarbons in their molecules. The
xanthophylls contain many hydroxy groups in their molecules. Chloroplast have their own
genetic material which is circular like that of bacterial chromosome.

Isolation:
Chloroplasts are routinely isolated from plant tissues by differential centrifugation following the
disruption of the cells.
Ultrastructure:
Chloroplast comprises of three main components:
1. Envelope
The entire chloroplast is bounded by a double unit membrane. Across this double membrane
envelope occurs exchange of molecules between chloroplast and cytosol. Isolated membranes of
envelope of chloroplast lack chlorophyll pigment and cytochromes but have a yellow colour due
to the presence of small amounts of carotenoids. They contain only 1 to 2 per cent of the total
protein of the chloroplast.
2. Stroma
The matrix or stroma fills most of the volume of the chloroplasts and is a kind of gel-fluid phase
that surrounds the thylakoids (grana). It contains about 50 per cent of the proteins of the
chloroplast, most of which are soluble type. The stroma also contains ribosomes and DNA
molecules both of which are involved in the synthesis of some of the structural proteins of the
chloroplast. The stroma is the place where CO2 fixation occurs and where the synthesis of
sugars, starch, fatty acids and some proteins takes place.
3. Thylakoids
The thylakoids (thylakoid = sac-like) consists of flattened and closed vesicles arranged as a
membranous network. The outer surface of the thylakoid is in contact with the stroma, and its
inner surface encloses an intrathylakoid space. Thylakoids get stacked forming grana. There may
be 40 to 80 grana in the matrix of a chloroplast. The number of thylakoids per granum may vary
from 1 to 50 or more. For example, there may be single thylakoid (red alga), paired thylakoids
(Chrysophyta), triple thylakoids and multiple thylakoids (green algae and higher plants).

Like the mitochondria, the chloroplasts have their own DNA, RNAs and protein synthetic
machinery and are semiautonomous in nature. Chloroplasts are the largest and the most
prominent organelles in the cells of plants and green algae. Chloroplasts and mitochondria have
other features in common: both often migrate from place to place within cells, and they contain
their own DNA, which encodes some of the key organellar proteins. Though most of the proteins
in each organelle are encoded by nuclear DNA and are synthesized in the cytosol, the proteins
encoded by mitochondrial or chloroplast DNA is synthesized on ribosomes within the organelles.
Figure 3: Structure of chloroplast.
Chloroplasts have a highly permeable outer membrane; a much less permeable inner membrane,
in which membrane transport proteins are embedded; and a narrow intermembrane space in
between. Together, these membranes form the chloroplast envelope (Figure 3). The inner
membrane surrounds a large space called the stroma, and contains many metabolic enzymes.