CABATUAN, JAY-ANNE B. JAN.

08, 2023
211M1 BSED-ENG 2ND YEAR 1ST ASSIGNMENT FINALS

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING  

 Theories of Intelligence 

1. Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence

Charles Spearman, a British psychologist, came up with one of the earliest theories of
intelligence. He studied the results of the test conducted by Binet and Simon. He noticed
that students who performed well in one subject were likely to perform well in
corresponding subjects.

For example, he saw that a student who performed well in math also performed well in
music. He hypothesized that there’s a single underlying factor that helps an individual utilize
corresponding abilities. He called this ‘generalized’ form of intelligence the ‘g’ factor, which
can lead to a ‘specialized’ form of intelligence called the ‘s’ factor. In other words, the ‘g’
factor is the sum of multiple s-factor scores. This came to be known as the Two-Factor
Theory of intelligence in psychology.

IQ or intelligence quotient tests, which measures one’s general cognitive abilities, are
derived from Spearman’s theory of general intelligence.

2. Gardener’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner, a developmental psychologist, was best known for his multiple
intelligences theory. He believed that the traditional test of intelligence didn’t accurately
depict a person’s abilities. He outlined eight major types of intelligence:

 Naturalistic Intelligence
Having a strong connection with the outside world and the ability to categorize objects
in nature.

 Musical Intelligence
Having the ability to recognize and produce sound, rhythm, pitch and timbre.

 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
The ability to think conceptually and use deductive reasoning to identify logical patterns
or concepts.
  Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
The ability to control the physical form, like your bodily movements, and be effective
physical communicators.

 Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
The ability to convey or communicate ideas, feelings or theories. There’s sensitivity to
sound and meaning of words.

 Visual-Spatial Intelligence
The ability to relate well to the surrounding environment. It’s the capacity to visualize
thoughts and draw mental maps.

 Interpersonal Intelligence
The ability to understand others by using emotional intelligence. It’s the capacity to
detect the mood and motivation of others.

 Intrapersonal Intelligence
The ability to be self-aware and self-knowing. It’s also called the intelligence of the self.

3. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

American psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed the Triarchic Theory just two years
after Gardener’s theory. It was a three-category approach that addressed the gaps in
Gardner’s theory of intelligence in psychology. He found Gardner’s definition of
intelligence as a much broader, single and general ability. According to Sternberg, the
concept of intelligence involves three different factors:

 Analytical Intelligence
It refers to a person’s ability to assess information and how they use the information to
analyze problems and arrive at solutions.

 Creative Intelligence
The ability to do something in a novel or innovative way in order to create new ideas or
experiences. It involves imagination and problem-solving skills.

 Practical Intelligence
The ability to solve problems in daily life and adapt to changing environments. People
with practical intelligence are also called ‘street smart’.

 Theories of Styles
1. David Kolb and Experiential Learning

David Kolb's model of "experiential learning" stated that we learn continually, and, in the
process, build strengths. Those strengths were said to give rise to personal preferences, which
Kolb described in terms of four learning styles: Accommodating, Converging, Diverging, and
Assimilating.

As Kolb saw it, Accommodators were "hands-on" types, keen to learn from real experience.
Convergers were supposed to deal better with abstract ideas, but still liked to end up with
concrete results. They understood theories but wanted to test them out in practice.

Divergers tended to use personal experiences and practical ideas to formulate theories that
they could apply more widely.

And Assimilators, according to Kolb, were most comfortable working with abstract concepts.
They extended their understanding by developing new theories of their own.

Kolb said that it was beneficial to know which type of learner you were, in order to "play to
your strengths." He also believed that educators and trainers could tailor their teaching
methods to different people's learning styles.

2. Honey and Mumford's Learning Styles

Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed Kolb's model by focusing on how learning is used in
practice, particularly at work. They identified four new learning styles: Activist, Pragmatist,
Reflector, and Theorist – using terms that we might naturally pick to describe ourselves and our
colleagues.

3. Anthony Gregorc's Mind Styles

Anthony Gregorc and Kathleen Butler went into more detail about how we think, and how this
might affect the way we learn.

This theory put us all on a spectrum between concrete and abstract thinking, and between
sequential and random ordering of our thoughts.

 Concrete perceptions happen through the senses, while abstract perceptions deal with
ideas.
 Sequential thinking arranges information in a logical, linear way, while a random
approach is multidirectional and unpredictable.
In Gregorc's model, our strengths and weaknesses in each of these areas determined our
individual learning style.

4. Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic Learners (VAK)

Educational psychologist Walter Burke Barbe and his colleagues proposed three "modalities" of
learning: Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic (movement and touch). These were often referred to
simply as VAK.

Barbe was clear that everyone had strengths, weaknesses and preferences in each of the three
modalities. The most effective learning, he said, utilized all three in combination. He said that
the mix we achieved depended on many factors and would likely change over time.

The VAK model was popular and widely applied. But, like some of the earlier models, it became
associated with a fixed outlook on learning. Many people took it to mean that learners could be
classified by a single modality – as a "visual learner," for example – with little room for
maneuver. And there was confusion over whether the VAK definition referred to someone's
innate abilities, their personal preferences, or both.

5. The Learning Styles Task Force

In the 1980s, American educationalists were still trying to find out as much as they could about
learning styles, to help classroom teachers to achieve the best possible results.

The National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) formed research "task force,"
and proposed additional factors that might affect someone's ability to learn. These included the
way study was organized, levels of motivation, and even the time of day when learning took
place.

They divided learning styles into three categories: Cognitive, Affective and Physiological.

Cognitive: how we think, how we organize and retain information, and how we learn from our
experiences.

Affective: our attitudes and motivations, and how they impact our approach to learning.

Physiological: a variety of factors based on our health, well-being, and the environment in
which we learn.
 Learning Styles Preferences  
Learning Preferences

Rather than talking about learning styles, it’s more helpful to think about learning
modalities, or learning preferences. These learning preferences can make a big difference
in how open an individual is to learn about a new topic. When an instructor is considering
how to split up a 50-minute class meeting, or a student realizes they’ve reread the same
paragraph repeatedly and still doesn’t grasp the meaning, consideration of different
learning modalities could provide important new perspectives that might help the new
information.

We do know that learning happens when students encounter the same information
through a variety of modalities, rather than only being approached through one method
(only listening, only reading, or only doing, for example). And if learners prefer one
modality over another, and they always give preference to that modality, then they may
be missing out on opportunities to see information in a new way.

A Visual Approach

Any visual (a graph, chart, map, or diagram) conveys information differently than a written
paragraph might. A student reading that the number of diagnosed cases of a viral infection
doubles every five days may comprehend that information easily, but seeing the graph rise
exponentially might drive that fact home. Similarly, reading about a battle may be helpful
for describing what life is like on the battlefield, but it may be difficult to picture just
where that frontline was drawn, or how the line moved over time. A map can convey this
information quickly and succinctly and takes away the guesswork of the reader who might
struggle to remember where a line two miles south of a town and running to the east
might be.

Listening and Speaking

The now-debunked VARK defines those learners who learn best through hearing and
speaking as auditory learners. While it’s unlikely that someone learns best by listening to a
lecture on its own, the ability to listen to a lecture and repeat information (speaking is part
of the auditory learning preference) is key for communicating, whether in a classroom or
work environment. Students who practice taking information, choosing what to present,
and how to present it, make use of the auditory mode. Similarly, students who listen to a
lecture, think about what they’re hearing, and take notes on the most important
information will remember information far better—in more detail and for longer—than
their colleagues who simply listen.
 Learn by Doing

Folks who prefer kinesthetic learning tend to be doers; they might watch a video on
YouTube that shows how to replace a washer on a sink and then do it themselves. After
they’ve done this a few times, they can do the task practically in their sleep! In this
example, as with practically every other example, you’ll note that there are few learning
examples that only draw on one modality. Most kinesthetic learners are reading
instructions, listening to someone talk them through the steps, or watching a video first to
understand what they’re doing. None of those means of providing information are
kinesthetic; it’s the execution or checking to see that a thing can be completed, repaired,
or made that provides the proof that something has been learned.

As a result, with certain topics and learning goals, a kinesthetic approach is a great way to
test knowledge that’s not just theoretical, such as a driving test where a 16-year-old gets
behind the wheel, in addition to taking a written test they take at the DMV.

 TEACHING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

It is inevitable that you will have the opportunity (and pleasure) of working with special
needs students in your classroom. You may need to make accommodations for some and
modifications for others. Providing for the needs of special education students will
certainly be one of your greatest challenges as a professional educator. Consider these tips
and strategies.

When working with special needs students, two terms you are sure to encounter are
accommodation and modification. An accommodation is a device, material, or support
process that will enable a student to accomplish a task more efficiently. Modification
refers to changes to the instructional outcomes; a change or decrease in the course
content or outcome.

Students with Learning Disabilities

Learning disabled students are those who demonstrate a significant discrepancy, which is
not the result of some other handicap, between academic achievement and intellectual
abilities in one or more of the areas of oral expression, listening comprehension, written
expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation,
mathematics reasoning, or spelling.
 Following is a list of some of the common indicators of learning-disabled students. These
traits are usually not isolated ones; rather, they appear in varying degrees and amounts in
most learning-disabled students. A learning-disabled student …

 Has poor auditory memory—both short term and long term.

 Has a low tolerance level and a high frustration level.

 Has a weak or poor self-esteem.

 Is easily distractible.

 Finds it difficult, if not impossible, to stay on task for extended periods of time.

 Is spontaneous in expression; often cannot control emotions.

 Is easily confused.

 Is verbally demanding.

 Has some difficulty in working with others in small or large group settings.

 Has difficulty in following complicated directions or remembering directions for

extended periods of time.

 Has coordination problems with both large and small muscle groups.

 Has inflexibility of thought; is difficult to persuade otherwise.

 Has poor handwriting skills.

 Has a poor concept of time.

Sources: Theories of Intelligence - What is Intelligence in Psychology - Harappa Education - Learning

Styles - The Models, Myths and Misconceptions – and What They Mean for Your Learning
(mindtools.com) - Learning Styles vs. Learning Preferences | Well-Trained Mind Academy
(wtmacademy.com) - Teaching Students with Special Needs – Teacher Vision