Oscillations 1

1. Oscillations  The oscillating mass is in equilibrium at

1. Four different kinds of motion in Physics are: the midpoint of its oscillation, or rest
 Linear (in a straight line) position. The equilibrium position is
 Circular (going round in a circle) where there is no resultant force on the
 Rotational (spinning on an axis) mass.
 Oscillations (going backwards and  Both the restoring force and acceleration
forwards in a to-and-fro movement.) is a maximum at the extreme ends of
2. An oscillation is a to and fro motion of an the oscillation, and acts towards the
object about a fixed point, where the object equilibrium position
retraces its path in equal time intervals,  Velocity is the greatest at the midpoint,
assuming there are no frictional forces present acceleration is zero at the equilibrium
so the amplitude is constant. Such oscillations position,
are called free oscillations.  When the mass is oscillating, its inertia
3. Examples of oscillations include a swinging carries it through the midpoint.
pendulum, a spring bouncing up and down, or  At maximum displacements the potential
a spring with a mass on a small truck going energy is at a maximum and the kinetic
from side to side. energy is zero. At the equilibrium
position the kinetic energy is a maximum
and the potential energy is zero.
4. When the mass is moving away from the
equilibrium position, the velocity and
acceleration are in opposite directions.
When the mass is moving towards the
equilibrium position, the velocity and
acceleration are in the same direction.
5. For the mass on a truck, we can write down
a relationship between the acceleration, a, and
the displacement, x.
(resourcefulphysics. F=ma and F=−kx
org) F −kx
(resourcefulphysics.org) Therefore a= =
m m
The acceleration is proportional to the
displacement from the equilibrium position.
The minus sign indicates the acceleration is
always in the opposite direction to the
displacement.
6. Simple harmonic motion is a special class of
oscillation where:
 the period (T) is the same for all
amplitudes, i.e. independent of
amplitudes; we say that the motion is
isochronic.
 the oscillation is sinusoidal,
 the acceleration is proportional to the
magnitude of the displacement but is
http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/shm.php#motion always directed towards the equilibrium
position,
3. Consider the examples.  the angular frequency (ω) is constant.
 Displacement is the greatest at the
extremes of the oscillation.
 Oscillations 2
2. Definition of SHM
1. SHM is the result of a restoring force that is
proportional to the displacement. The resultant
acceleration of the body behaves in the same
way as the restoring force.

2. SHM is defined as oscillating motion in

which the acceleration
(i) directly proportional to its distance from a
fixed point, (or displacement from the
equilibrium position) and
(ii) is always directed towards that point, (or
always directed to the equilibrium position).
a∝– x
a=−kx
2
a=−ω x
k = positive constant = ω2, https://penguinphysic.wordpress.com/tag/chapter-06-oscillations/
2π
ω= =2 πf = angular frequency,
T (b) Velocity- time graph
The minus sign indicates the acceleration is The gradient of the displacement time graph
always in the opposite direction to the gives the velocity.
displacement. x= A sin θ=A sin ( ωt )= A sin ( 2 π ft )
dx
a v= =ωA cos ( ωt )
dt
v=ωA cos(2 π ft )=ωA cos θ
When t = 0, the mass is at its midpoint and it is
moving fastest.
-x 0 +x
(c) Acceleration-time graph
The gradient of the velocity time graph gives
the acceleration.
gradient = - ω2 x= A sin( ωt)
dx
and v= =ωA cos (ωt )
dt
3. Graphs for an oscillating object dv 2
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/physics/simple-harmonic-motion-and- acceleration:a= =−ω A sin(ωt )
damping/revise-it/simple-harmonic-motion dt
but x= A sin ( ωt ) ,
(a) Displacement-time graph. hence a=−ω x
2

Provided friction is negligible, the amplitude is

constant. This is a sine curve, assuming that (iv) Phase
when time t = 0, displacement x = 0. The Phase of an oscillation is the amount the
x= A sin θ=A sin ( ωt ) oscillation lags behind, or leads in front of a
x= A sin(2 π ft ), reference oscillation.
where A = amplitude (= r in the diagram). The displacement is π / 2 radians (90o or ¼
If the motion is taken to start when the cycle) behind the velocity. The displacement
displacement x = A, when time t = 0 then and acceleration are π radians out of phase.
x= A cos θ= A cos ( ωt ) Oscillations can have phase differences of any
x= A cos (2 π ft) multiple of π. However, if they have a phase
 Oscillations 3
difference of either 0 or 2π they are said to be
in phase.
4. Circular motion and SHM
1. Simple Harmonic Motion and Circular
Motion are very closely related. P
θ

a=r ω2
2
a=−ω r sin θ

The acceleration of M is the component of the

acceleration of P parallel to AB, which is
http://www.antonine-education.co.uk/Salters/BLD/Linking_SHM.htm 2
https://ngsir.netfirms.com/ a=−ω r sin θ
x
But sin θ=
r
v x
A so a=−ω 2 r
P M r
2
θ a=−ω x
r x x A
θ
O O
The minus sign shows that the acceleration
and displacement are in opposite directions.
When x = 0, the acceleration is zero, M is at O
B on the screen with zero acceleration.
parallel light screen When x = r, maximum acceleration occurs, M
is at its maximum amplitude A on the screen.
P is a spike or peg on a turntable, moving with
4. Velocity and displacement:
uniform angular velocity ω round the circle.
From above:
M is the shadow of P on the screen. M moves x
with SHM about O on the screen. x= A sin θ , sin θ=
A
where A = amplitude of oscillation.
1. The time period:
and v=ωA cos θ
When P travels once round the circle, M makes
Using:
one complete oscillation from A to B and back 2 2
to A. sin θ+cos θ=1
circumference 2 πr 2 π so, cos 2 θ=1−sin 2 θ
T= = = ,
speed of P
since v=rω
v ω 2
cos θ=1− ( ) x 2
A
=1− 2
x2
A
But v=ωAcos θ
2. Displacement: so, v 2=ω2 A 2 cos2 θ

( )
The displacement of M with time is x2
x v 2=ω2 A 2 1− 2
sin θ= x=A sin θ A
A 2 2 2 2 2
x= A sin ( ωt )=sin(2 π ft), v =ω A −ω x
2 2 2 2
where A = amplitude of oscillation. v =ω ( A −x )

3. Acceleration: When x= A , the velocity is zero.

P is in uniform circular motion, its acceleration When x=0 , the velocity is a maximum.
a=r ω
2 The maximum velocity is given by
 Oscillations 4
2
v =ω A2 2
4. But F=ma , so ma=−kx
v=± ω A −k
a= x
m
The acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement. The negative sign shows that
the acceleration acts in the opposite direction
+v velocity v to increasing x.
5. From the defining equation for s.h.m.
2
a=−ω x
2 k 2π
ω = and T =
m ω
The period of the motion T is given by:
-r 0 + r displacement
√
T =2 π
m
k
and T =2 π
√e
g
6. A graph of e against T2 can be used to
determine g.
e g
The gradient ¿ 2 = 2
-v T 4π
when ω = 1, a circle is obtained, If the mass of the spring is significant we can
ω > 1 an ellipse is formed. allow for it and the corrected equation
becomes:

5. Mass
spring
on a
√(
T =2 π
k )
m+ M

where M is the mass of the spring.

6. The simple pendulum

www.schoolphysics.co.uk
1. A mass m suspended at rest from a spiral
spring produces an extension e.
mg=k e
where k is the spring constant.
2. The mass is then pulled down a small
distance x and released. The mass will
oscillate due to both the effect of the
gravitational attraction (mg ) and the varying
force in the spring (k (e+ x )).
www.schoolphysics.co.uk
3. At any point distance x from the midpoint:
restoring force F=k ( e+ x )−mg
 Oscillations 5
1. Consider a pendulum of length L with a where d is the density of liquid and A is the
mass m at the end displaced through an angle cross sectional area of tube.
θ from the vertical (Figure 1). 2. When displaced a distance x
the restoring force=new upthrust −weight
the restoring force F=m a
2. Perpendicular to the path of motion of the m a=d x A ( h+ x ) g−mg
bob, we have: m a=dAhg+dAxg−mg
v2 But
T −mgcos θ=m mg=dAhg
L
where v is the speed of the bob, T is the m a=dAxg
v2 −dAg
tension in the thread, and = centripetal a= x
L m
acceleration. The motion is simple harmonic.
3. The restoring force F is the component of The minus sign indicates that the acceleration
the weight of the bob towards the equilibrium and displacement are oppositely directed.
position: 2π 2 dAg
T= ω=
F=−m g sin θ=m a ω m
giving a=−g sin θ and m=dAh
4. When θ is small, sin θ=θ in radians,
and θ=
x
L
T =2 π
√ h
g

where x is the length of arc

x 8. Energy in SHM
a=−g
L 1. In SHM there is a continual interchange of
Since k.e. and p.e. Ignoring frictional forces, the total
a=−ω 2 x energy remains
2 g 2π constant.
ω= T=
L ω
T =2 π
√L
g

7. Floating tube
A

x
www.schoolphysics.co.uk
h
2. For SHM
v 2=ω2 ( A 2−x 2)
where A is the amplitude of oscillation (r in the
mg
diagram), and x is the displacement from the
rest position.
1. In equilibrium: 3. The kinetic energy of the mass.
2
weight=upthrust k . e .=½ m v ,
mg=weight of liquid displaced where v is the velocity.
mg=mass of liquid x g Therefore, the kinetic energy of the mass is
mg=d x volume x g k . e .=½ m ω2 ( A2−x 2 )
mg=d x A h x g
 Oscillations 6
4. When x = 0, the kinetic energy will be a
maximum, the mass is then passing through 2. Damping is the (continuous) loss of energy or
the centre of the oscillation with maximum reduction in amplitude (from the oscillating
velocity. system). There are twotypes:
The maximum velocity v max=ωA , (i) Natural damping, e.g. internal forces in a
spring, and fluids exerting a viscous drag,
2
k . e . max=½ mv max ¿ ½ m ω2 A 2

This will be equal to the total energy of the (ii) artificial damping, e.g. shock absorbers in
body. Therefore: cars, electromagnetic damping in
total energy=½ m ω2 A 2 galvanometers, the coating of panels in cars to
2 2 2 reduce vibrations.
¿ ½ m(4 π f ) A ,
since ω=2 πf
3. Artificial damping can be
5. The total energy ∝ A 2 (i) slight, where the system oscillates about the
To make the system oscillate with twice the midpoint, but the amplitude of oscillation
amplitude, you need to give it 4 times the decays exponentially with time. Increasing the
energy. damping, increases the period of oscillation
6. Since, and decreases the amplitude further.
total energy=potential energy+ kinetic energy (ii) heavy, in which the system takes a long
The potential energy at any point will be given time to reach equilibrium. Overdamping also
by: causes an exponential reduction in
2 2 2
potential energy=½ m ω A −½ m v displacement.
¿ ½ m ω A −½ m ω ( A −x )
2 2 2 2 2
(iii) critical, where there are no oscillations.
2 2
¿½mω x The time taken for the displacement to become
2 2
potentia l energy=½ mω x zero is a minimum. The minimum time is T/4
7. The variation of k.e. and p.e. with time of a where T is the natural period of oscillation of
mass vibrating on a spring is shown below. the system. Car suspensions use critical
damping.

9. Free, damped and forced oscillations

1. Three main types of simple harmonic motion
are:
(a) Free oscillations.
The amplitude, period and total energy remain
constant. These occur in theory. In practice
Maths24.net
there will always be some damping due to
external or internal forces. 4. Investigating damped SHM.
(b) Damped oscillations
Simple harmonic motion but with a decreasing
amplitude and varying period due to external or
internal damping forces.
(c) Forced oscillations
Simple harmonic motion but driven externally
 Oscillations 7
(iii) Resonance occurs when the driving
frequency equals the natural frequency of
oscillation of the mass spring system, the
A card is attached horizontally to a suspended amplitude of oscillation reaches a maximum.
oscillating mass-spring system. The frequency at which this occurs is called the
A graph of amplitude against number of swings resonant frequency.
or against time, is plotted. The graph is (iv) When the driving frequency is increased
checked for exponential decay of the amplitude further, the amplitude of oscillation of the mass
using the constant ratio property. decreases.
(v) The effect of damping on the amplitude of
10. Forced Oscillations and Resonance oscillation at resonance can be investigated by
1. Forced oscillations are vibrations that are attaching a stiff card to the mass. The area of
driven by an external periodic force, and the the card is increased to increase the damping.
oscillations occur at the frequency of that Air resistance slows down the motion and
vibrating force. energy is lost from the system in overcoming
2. When the force (or driving frequency) is this friction.
equal to the natural frequency resonance
occurs. Energy is transferred from the driver to
the oscillating system continuously, so the
amplitude of oscillation increases.
3. Resonance is when there is large or
maximum amplitude of vibration when the
impressed frequency equals natural frequency
of vibration.
A simple example of forced oscillations is a
child’s swing. If it is pushed in time with the
natural frequency of the swing, the amplitude
becomes large and resonance occurs.
extremepapers

4. Investigating forced oscillations and (vi) As the damping increases:

resonance  the amplitude of the resonance peak
decreases,
thread over a pulley  the resonance peak gets broader,
 the resonant frequency gets slightly
lower so the peak moves to the left on
vibrator to signal generator the graph.

Resonance can be destructive or useful.

(a) In 1940 the Tacoma Narrows suspension
helical spring bridge collapsed when a steady crosswind
caused swirling air, which set the bridge
vibrating. The vibrations matched a natural
mass frequency of the bridge and the bridge began
to resonate. The amplitude of oscillation
became too large for the structure and caused
(i) The vibrator provides the forcing or driving the main span to collapse.
frequency. The mass begins to oscillate as the (b) Microwave ovens use resonance. The
frequency of the vibrator is gradually increased. frequency of the microwaves is almost equal to
(ii) The amplitude of oscillation of the mass the natural frequency of vibration of a water
increases as the driving frequency increases. molecule. The water molecules in the food
 Oscillations 8
begin to resonate and heat is produced which is the incident intensity, Z1 and Z2 are the
cooks the food. specific acoustic impedance of the two media.
2
I R ( Z 2−Z 1 )
α= =
I ( Z2 + Z 1 )2

For example a boundary between fat and

11. Specific acoustic impedance, muscle would give 1% reflection while that
between fat and air would give almost 100%
Intensity reflection coefficient reflection. Hence the need for a coupling gel
1. When an ultrasonic pulse enters the body it
between the transducer and the skin.
is reflected from the boundary between
different types of tissue. The ease with which
an ultrasonic pulse can travel through a 12. Attenuation of ultrasound, and X-
material depends on a property of the material rays
called specific acoustic impedance Z . This is 1. For a parallel beam passing through a
defined as: medium, the intensity of the transmitted beam
decreases exponentially with thickness of the
medium.
specific acoustic impedance ( Z )=density of material ( ρ ) x speed of sound∈¿
the material ( c )
Z=ρc
The units for acoustic impedance are kg m-2 s-1
and values for the acoustic impedance of some
materials are given in the following table:

Material Density Velocity Acoustic

(kg m-3) (m/s) Impedance
(= ρc) 
(kg m-2 s-1)
Air 1.3 330 429
Water 1000 1500 1.50 × 106
Blood 1060 1570 1.59 × 106
Brain 1025 1540 1.58 × 106
Fat 925 1450 1.38 × 106 keele.ac.uk
Muscle 1075 1590 1.70 × 106
Bones 1908 4080 7.78 × 106 2. The transmitted intensity is given by
−µx
(varies) I =I o e
PZT 7650 3791 29.0 × 106 where µ is the linear absorption coefficient of
Transducer
Quartz 2650 5736 15.2 × 106
the medium,
Transducer I is the transmitted intensity,
http://www.antonine-education.co.uk/ I o is the initial incident intensity,
x is the thickness of medium.
2. The greater the difference between the The unit of µ is mm-1 or cm-1 or m-1.
acoustic impedances of the two materials at a
boundary in the body the greater the amount of 3. The thickness of medium required to reduce
reflection – two materials with the same the transmitted intensity by 50% of its initial
acoustic impedance would give no reflection value is called the half-value thickness (HVT),
(or refraction) while two with widely separated symbol x ½. . Double it, and the intensity goes
values would give much larger reflections. down to 25 %. Treble it and it goes down to
1/8 or 12.5 % or the original value.
3. The intensity reflection coefficient α is the For a thickness x½, the intensity I will be equal
I to ½ I o.
ratio R ,where I R is the reflected intensity and I
I
 Oscillations 9
−µx
Hence ½ I o=I o e
which gives ln 2=µ x ½