REVIEWER Social, Science and Philosophy (SSP)

MODULE 6
“Sex, Gender and Sexuality”

DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Sex – the biological aspect of sex: maleness or femaleness
 Gender – the social interpretation of sex: masculinity, femininity, etc.
 Sexuality – the totality of our own experience of our sex and gender
 Intersex – individuals with composite genitals (possessing some characteristics of both male and female genitals.

What does it mean to be a male or female, to be feminine or masculine or to be a man or a woman? The human
mind and body are so complex such that to answer these questions, we have to trace our journey from the moment we
were born and go back to the journey, we humans, have across the life span.
First thing you need to understand is the complexities of defining and differentiating sex, gender, and sexuality.
Moreover, we need also to understand how a person’s gender is expressed from birth to adulthood. Our ultimate goal is
to foster understanding of the diversity of how humans experience and express their sexuality.

SEX
Sex is a biological dimension of your gender and sexuality. It is also referred to as biological sex or physical sex – the
term generally pertains to your identity depending on your sexual anatomy and physiology, the parts that are relevant
to reproduction and the function of these parts.
Sex is typically determined by examining your genitals (external organs that are associated with reproduction or the
process to create offspring.

BIOLOGICAL MARKERS / YARDSTICKS:

SEX GENTALS CHROMOSOMES HORMONES
Male Penis XY testosterone
Female Vagina XX Progesterone/ estrogen

 Hermaphroditism – also known as intersexuality is a conglomerate of male and female organs. It is naturally
occurring variation in humans and animals (1 in 1,500 births) according to American Psychological Association (APA)
(2006).

GENDER
According to World Health Organization (2013), gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities
and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. Unlike sex which refers to the biological
characteristic of humans such as male or female, gender categories are more varied, accommodating identities such as
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex (LGBTQI), among others.

Several types of gender based on a person’s orientation:

1. Heterosexual – a person is inclined to be sexually attracted to a person of the opposite sex.
2. Homosexual – a person is sexually attracted to a person of the same sex.
3. Bisexual – is a person who is attracted to both sexes
4. Asexual – a person who is totally incapable of being attracted to any sex
5. Polysexual – an individual who is attracted to multiple types of gender identity
6. Pansexual – a person who accommodates all types of gender.

How we express our gender is largely based on our social and cultural setting. Most are comfortable with their sex
and gender; men who are masculine and women who are feminine. Each culture also has different standards on how to
be a man and a woman and how they should present themselves according to their sex and gender.
 However, there are cases wherein a person’s biological sex does not align with one’s gender identity. These people
are called transgender. They may undergo surgical or reassignment but due to many factors such as belief systems,
culture and economic, some do not opt for surgery.

APPRECIATING DIVERSITY
According to American Psychological Association (APA), nature and nurture play complex role in shaping our sexual
orientation. Homosexuality and heterosexuality are part of the human sexuality and is large part of human experience.
Identifying as a heterosexual, lesbian, gay, bi, or transgender is a deeply personal process, so it may be more difficult
for others to come out or for them to become comfortable enough with their sexuality that they feel safe to share it
with other people. For others, it comes early in adolescence while for some, it may take time to understand and discover
themselves.
That is why it is important for everyone to feel safe as they share their sexuality since it is a personal and sensitive
topic. We can do that in an environment wherein we do not feel judged and discriminated upon. People who experience
prejudice and discrimination suffer negative psychological effects, so we must work towards an inclusive environment
where everyone feels safe.

MODULE 7
“Gender and Sexuality Across Time”

DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Patriarchy – social system where men primarily holds the power in the political and private spheres.
 Feminism – continuing series of social movements that aim to challenge the patriarchal society that creates
oppressive political structures, beliefs and practices against women.

Historical accounts show that across time, human’s conception of gender and sexuality has also changed.
Archaeological artifacts reveal that in the distant past, during the dawn of civilization, human societies have high regard
for women. The concept of the divine feminine (the sacredness of the woman due to her ability to conceive children)
has prevailed and thus women are treated equally with men. This make society’s egalitarian (men and women have
equitable power and role).
In ancient Egyptian times, women were seen and honored as higher and holier than a man. The woman is the
mother of all, giving life and teaching. The ancients believed that when a man achieve a great deal of knowledge,
spirituality and power, he would be allowed to wear a long hair wig to symbolize that he had reached a certain level
equal to a woman.
As the two come together she holds her man, giving him strength and protection.
However, humans discovery of paternity (fatherhood/role of the father in conception), presumably during the
Agricultural era, when began to establish communities and tame rear cattle and stocks, have also changed how societies
have viewed women and men there from.
For the longest time thereafter, societies have privileged men over other genders, mainly because of the
preferential given to them in the productive sphere (world of public work). Women who have been revered to their
ability to conceive have been viewed as solely capable only of reproductive affairs (world of home and related tasks such
as suckling the young, child rearing and home management. The gender disparity was intensified by the Industrial Era
where factors were built and men were preferred because they did not have to bear children for nine months and
because of their perceived physical strength.

PATRIARCHY
It is a system based on the control and oppression of women wherein they are perceived to be weaker sex. It is a
structure that upholds male supremacy in the law, at home, in the workplace and in society.
It came from a Greek word patriarkhes which means “the rule of father”. It is a social system where men primarily
hold power in the political and in private spheres. This means that in this social system, society is organized and
maintained in a way that men rule over women and their children. In the social, legal, political and economic spheres,
men are expected to lead, while women are expected to obey and are relegated to house chores, bearing children and
child care.
 Friedrich Engels, a German philosopher and sociologist, argues that patriarchy came about when people started
having a private property instead of a communal living. The development of agriculture and domestication of animals
led to creating product surplus which allows people to have a private property. As a way to control the excess wealth
generated by these advancements, male dominance was asserted over women so only the male heir can inherit family
wealth.

HISTORICAL VIEWS ON GENDER

Greeks
• Aristotle, Plato and other Greek philosophers viewed women as the inferior sex and are properties of men
whose only job was to obey their husbands, bear children and take care of the household. They were forbidden
to learn philosophy, politics and science.

Egypt
• Herodotus, a Greek historian, observed the Egyptian civilization citing that Egyptian women enjoyed higher
social status than Greek women because they can inherit property and engage in trade and politics.

China
• Gendered biases in ancient patriarchal societies were very strict, heavily enforced and often violent. Imagine not
being able to go to school just because you are a woman, not being able to express your opinion on important
matters even when it concerns your future and not being able to say no to any man.

SUBTLE FORMS OF OPPRESSION THAT OFTEN GO UNNOTICED IN WOMEN:

• Sexism – prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination on sex
• Gender pay gap – men earn more than women
• Underrepresentation in politics, military, executive positions, etc.
• Rape on women
• Women do more housework and childcare
• Men are trained to be leaders while women were trained to do house chores.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Women’s liberation movement or feminism is a continuing series of social movements that aim to challenge the
patriarchal society that creates these oppressive political structures, beliefs, and practices against women.
During the 19th and 20th century, first wave of feminism spread across the western countries as women demanded
for their right to vote or participate in elections and to be able to legally own property.

SALIENT POINTS OF FEMINISM

1. Women Suffrage – women were not allowed to vote before because they were viewed as irrational and
temperamental. But during the World War 1 (1914-1918), women were uprooted from the household. They
took on jobs and made significant contributions to their country.
2. Equality in Politics and society – Representation is very important to women so that their genuine concerns are
heard in politics and in society.
3. Reproductive rights mean the woman is in control of her body and she can decide for herself on what she sees is
best for her. Contraception, abortion, and other reproductive options should be available to women because it’s
their body.
4. Domestic Violence – such as marital rape and physical abuse are often dismissed by society as part of a
“marriage”. RA 9262 simply says the Anti-Violence against Women and Children.
5. Sexual Harassment
6. Divorce

MODULE 8
“Stereotype, Prejudices and Discrimination”
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Stereotype – extremely generalized belief about a group of people
• Prejudice – unjustified or incorrect attitude towards others.
• Discrimination – when stereotype and prejudice translate into a negative act towards a person

There are 7.7 billion people across 195 countries and every race has their own belief systems, religion, culture and
tradition. Yet, each individual is a unique mix f their own. That is why appreciating diversity is very important to fully
understand the human experience and for us to coexist peacefully.
However, understanding diversity requires us to broaden our appreciation of the many facets of the human race and
recognize that we have our own stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination too.

STEREOTYPES
Stereotypes are an “over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people (Cardwell,1996). When we
meet someone for the first time, we associate with them certain characteristics and abilities that we usually base on the
group they belong to.
While some stereotypes convey positive examples like a student from University of the Philippines - Diliman would
be stereotyped as very intelligent or matalino or Filipinos being known for our hospitality, most stereotypes are drawn
from negative generalization like equating our Muslim countrymen as terrorists and viewing farmers and blue-collar
workers as lazy and less educated.
A stereotype can be considered as explicit, meaning the person is aware that they have these thoughts towards a
group of people and they can say it out loud. It can also be implicit wherein a person does not know if they have these
stereotypes since it lies in their subconscious. When stereotype is explicit, a person can choose not to turn their
stereotypes into actions. While with an implicit stereotype, a person has no control or awareness of it, and it may
manifest into actions or behavior.

PREJUDICES
Prejudices are unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the
individual’s membership of a social group. Prejudice represents our emotional response uon learning of a person’s
membership to a specific group like age, skin, race, disability, generation, religion, sex, sexual expression, gender
expression and so on.
This negative attitude can be dangerous since it often leads to a negative actions and behaviors. For example, a
sexist person is someone who has negative attitude towards the other sex and sees them as the lesser sex. It could
manifest into actions like bullying, discrimination and violence.
People who hold prejudices about others may engage in abuse and discrimination that plays a role in systematic
oppression. Their prejudgments of others may also undermine their ability to listen, to have relationships with those
unlike themselves, and to learn from others.
People victimized by prejudice may suffer immensely. Prejudice makes people more vulnerable to forms of
discrimination such as sexual abuse and unequal pay. It can also undermine physical and mental health.

EXAMPLES OF PREJUDICE
Prejudice is an attitude, not an action. It literally means to prejudge—to make a judgment without sufficient
evidence or in spite of evidence to the contrary. But like most other attitudes, prejudice tends to affect people’s actions.
When people work to overcome prejudice, they usually attempt to change both their actions and attitudes.
Prejudice can manifest as seemingly harmless stereotypes, such as the belief that all boys like rough play and sports.
Even these stereotypes can play into larger cultural messages that harm marginalized groups.
Prejudgments about race have long been used to support oppressive policies. For instance, Adolf Hitler used
stereotypes about Jewish greed to stoke anti-Jewish sentiment, and eventually to justify killing Jews. The belief that girls
aren’t good at math, or that gender necessarily reveals something about spatial reasoning, has been used to exclude
girls from STEM classes and projects, or to explain why men in STEM earn more money than women.

EFFECTS OF PREJUDICE ON MENTAL HEALTH

Exposure to prejudice and discrimination is a major risk factor for poor mental health. A 2008 study found that race-
related stress in African-Americans was a more significant mental health risk factor than stressful life events or
psychological distress. Research on other marginalized groups supports the link between exposure to prejudice and
mental health difficulties.
Every person is unique, and the effects of prejudice on mental health vary across culture, socioeconomic status, and
other social locations. Some common effects include:
a. Depression and anxiety.
b. Impostor syndrome, the belief that someone is not as capable as their peers.
c. Stereotype threat, the tendency of exposure to negative stereotypes to activate those stereotypes. For instance,
a girl who is exposed to negative stereotypes about female math performance may begin struggling in math
class.
d. Self-doubt. Prejudice is often subtle. Victims of prejudice may question their perceptions of prejudice;
perpetrators may encourage this self-doubt.
e. Loss of opportunities. Prejudice that leads to discrimination deprives victims of opportunities, and subjects them
to more challenges than their peers. For instance, a black person at an elite school may have to work harder
than a white peer to be taken seriously. Upon graduating, they may be paid less for the same work.

DISCRIMINATION
It refers to actions or behaviors toward an individual or a group of people. According to United Nations,
discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection.
People who are discriminated on are treated worse than the way people are usually treated just because they
belong to certain group or they have certain characteristics.

Examples:
• Genocide is the action recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded.
• Apartheid (separateness) is a form of racial discrimination wherein one race is viewed as less than the other
resulting in the separation of black and white and the mass murder of Jews in concentration camp.
• Gender discrimination is another common form of discrimination between men and women.
• LGBTQ Discrimination happrns when LGBTQ people are treated as lesser than straight people. It happens as
early as in their childhood as they get bullied when they act differently or dress differently than other kids.
During adolescence, they get judged, bullied or physically assaulted as they explore and express their sexuality.

FREEDOM AND EQUALITY

Article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) states that “all human beings are born free in dignity
and rights”. This declaration was drafted by member countries of the United Nations including the Philippines in 1948.
This monumental document outlines fundamental rights of every human being that should be protected by everyone at
all times.
Its preamble that the “inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is
the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
Appreciating diversity of the human race is key to making a safer and more inclusive environment for everyone
regardless of race, sex, religion, sexuality, gender or creed.

MODULE 9
“Gender Based Violence: Survivor, Victim- Perpetrator and Human Rights”

DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Gender-based violence – any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially
ascribed (gender) differences between males and females.

Gender-based violence is one of the most widespread and human rights abuses, but least recognized in the world. It
refers to any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed (gender)
differences between males and females. It results in physical, sexual and psychological harm to both men and women
and includes any form of violence or abuse that targets men or women on the basis of their sex.
 In the Philippines, gender-based violence has clearly been placed in the realm of women’s human rights over the
past decades. Prior to 1993, most governments regarded violence against women largely as a private matter between
individuals.
Gender-based violence experienced by women refers to battering and other forms of intimate partner violence
including marital rape, sexual violence, dowry-related violence, female infanticide, sexual abuse of female children in
the household, honor crimes, early marriage, forced marriage, female genital cutting and other traditional practices
harmful to women, sexual harassment in the workplace and educational institutions, commercial sexual exploitation,
trafficking of girls and women and violence perpetrated against domestic workers. (USAID 2009)
Gender-based violence cuts across public and private spheres, including home, school and work and takes place
during peacetime and conflict. It is both human rights and a development issue with negative consequences for both
men and women.

CONSEQUENCES OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

a. Health Consequences
• Unwanted pregnancies
• Complications from unsafe abortion
• Sexually transmitted infections including HIV injuries
• Mental, health and psychosocial effects (depression, post traumatic stress, suicide and death)
• Children survival, development and school participation
b. Social Consequences
• Extension to families and communities
• Families can also be stigmatized as a consequence of gender-based violence. When children are born
following a rape, or if a family member choose to stand by a survivor, fellow members of their community
may avoid them.
c. Economic Consequences
• Cost of public health and social welfare systems
• Reduced ability of many survivors to participate in social and economic life

SURVIVOR, VICTIM AND PERPETRATOR

Survivor is the preferred term (not a victim) of a person who has lived through an incident of gender-based violence.
A perpetrator is a person who commits an act of gender-based violence.
A perpetrator is a person, group or institution that inflicts supports or condones violence or other abuse against a
person or group of persons. Characteristic of a perpetrator includes:
a. Persons with real or perceived power
b. Persons in decision-making positions
c. Persons in authority
In all actions of GBV, there is always a survivor and perpetrator. Therefore, all actions in the prevention and
responses of GBV need to address both the survivor and the perpetrator.

HUMAN RIGHTS
Are universal, inalienable, indivisible, interconnected and interdependent. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and
freedom without distinction of any kind such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status.
Prevention ff and response to gender-based violence is directly linked to the protection of human rights. Acts of
gender-based violence violate a number of human rights principles enshrined in international human rights instruments
and in our Philippine Constitution.
These include the following:
• The right to life, liberty and property of persons
• The right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health
• The right to freedom from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
• The right to freedom of opinion and expression and to education.
 MODULE 10
“Gender and Media”

DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Communication – the process of exchanging information and co-creating meaning through various means.
• Media – means through which information is transferred or received

According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, 81% of Filipinos watch the television and it still remains to be the
most used and trusted source of information in our country. We watch TV for entertainment and information through
TV soap operas, news and entertainment programs.
We become passive consumers of what TV has to offer; information, shock, humor and etc. Therefore, the media
influences our perception on different topics. It is important for us to look deeply into what it presents or fails to
represent of our everyday realities.

MEDIA REPRESENTATION
Media representation is how the media presents or frames “aspects of society, such as gender, age, or ethnicity”
(BBC 2019). It is important because it shapes the audience’s knowledge and understanding and will contribute to their
ideas and attitudes.
Because of our exposure to TV, the media ultimately represents our social realities as it mirrors the ideologies, belief
systems and stereotypes. There are many factors affecting media representation, after all, what we see in the television
has already gone through a long process wherein many people are involved.
The people behind the production of the content have their own ideology ideas, and beliefs and that greatly
contribute to what we see in the media. Media producers, directors, writers and a network’s values reflect through its
content.

MEDIA STEREOTYPE
Media stereotypes are “simplified representations of a person, groups of people or a place, through basic or obvious
characteristics-which are often exaggerated.” (BBC 2019)
The LGBT communities are highly misrepresented in the Philippine media. There are many stereotypes of the LGBT
in the media and most are not flattering. Often, they are used as a comic relief in their portrayal of the loud and
boisterous “bakla”, the straight male who acts like a ”bakla” with exaggerated gestures, the sex-deprived muscular male
homosexual or the awkward “tomboy” who eventually becomes a feminine woman after meeting man of her dreams.
There are very few LGBT main characters in the international television and even very scarce in the Philippine
television. They are often relegated as sidekicks, victims or villains. Although there are a few LGBT celebrities in the
Philippines who are out and proud of their sexual orientation such as Boy Abunda, Vice Ganda, Aaiza Seguerra and Jake
Zyrus – their sexuality is rarely the focus of the programs they are in.
In fact, references on LGBT topics in children show cause controversy so they are omitted in the broadcast. Such as
in the case of GLEE, a popular American TV show that featured teenagers who are gay and lesbian. The gay kiss was
omitted in the Philippine broadcast although it was seen as a milestone in the international media.
News outfits followed popular ideologies of portraying homosexuality as a sickness. The AIDS pandemic in the
1970’s also added to the negative stereotyping of the gay male as a sexual deviant.
However, due to the pressure coming from the Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement, the international media was
forced to recognize and set media standards for LGBT News Coverage.
In the Philippines, there is lack of awareness on SOGIE among media practitioners as they are often left confused on
the LGBT terms and labels. Most of the news from the LGBT community are often on coming out stories of celebrities
(Aiza Seguerra, Jake Zyrus and Rosanna Roces), Pride March events, hate crimes and controversies.
Media coverage of the LGBT community in the Philippines went from no-coverage ridicule, censorship, to limited
portrayal. However limiting, it is taken as a sign of greater social acceptance as compared to its total black out just
decades ago.
There are landmark TV Shows about the LGBT community such as My Husband’s Lover (2013) and The Richman’s
Daughter (2015). There are also handful of LGBT themed movies that featured the different aspects of the LGBT person
from realization of their sexual orientation, their coming out, to their acceptance in their families and communities.