ALHT106 Week 4 Lecture Notes (Tim’s Lecture)

Group defined: “a collection of individuals who have relations to one another that make them
interdependent to some significant extent” Cartwright and Zander (1968)

Pooled Interdependence: characterised by shared resources and outcomes but no structure or roles,
low conflict but often ineffective. E.g group assignment and you all get the same grade at the end.

Sequential Interdependence: involving an asymmetrical chain of one-way interactions, such that

later stages depend heavily on early stages. E.g work production line.

Reciprocal Interdependence: involving expectation-governed interactions between multiple

specialised roles, vulnerable to poor coordination.

Cohesion and Harmony

Groupthink can occur when a group is required to decide via consensus. Describes the overall
reduction in critical scrutiny and consideration that occurs when member of a group are reluctant to
rick group cohesion by expressing disagreement.

The effects of groupthink common for majority of groups to notice problems but say nothing
about them in an attempt to avoid conflict. Pluralistic ignorance is when there is a problem and all
members of the group see the problem, but in order to maintain harmony nobody addressed the
problem.

Group Polarization risky groups get riskier, cautious groups get more cautious. The average
character of the group will naturally ‘lean’ in a particular direction on whatever matter is being
evaluated, and it is that initial bias that is magnified and taken to extremes.

Group Polarization is driven by Normalisation and Value Affirmation

Normalisation- groups are homogenous, constant exposure to an ‘echo-chamber’ of similar

perspectives lets us lose perspective on what wider contradictory alternatives exist.
Value Affirmation- expressing extreme attitudes signals loyalty.

Social Effort and Performance

The mere presence of others to witness one’s performance causes heightened physiological arousal.
Higher arousal improves performance on easy or well learned task, but impairs performance at
difficult or novel tasks.

Social Facilitation performance improves in presence of others

 Co-Action effects: changes in behaviour caused by presence of visible others

simultaneously engage in same activity
 Audience effects: changes in behaviour caused by presence of number of visible, passive
spectators.

Social Interference Performance is impaired in presence of others

Social Loafing motivation to perform is reduced when only group outcomes are assessed, reducing
actual output.

 Free-rider problem is a tendency for individuals to exploit systems that demand they pay a
cost, but where failure to do so is difficult to detect or punish.
 ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ dynamic is where the probable defection of others further
encourages otherwise motivated players defect too, and avoid being exploited.
 The larger the group you are participating in, the greater the ‘Diffusion of Responsibility’

Social Influence

Compliance- appear to agree with other, may privately dissent

 You change your behaviour in a social situation in order to be both ‘normal’ and ‘correct.’

Identification- emulating/agreeing with a liked/respected other

Internalisation- when a social communicated standard, belief or behaviours becomes sincerely

endorsed, privately and publicly.

Groups and Allied Health Lecture

Group defined- A group is an aggregate of people who share a common purpose which can be
attained only by group members interacting and working together.

Natural Group come together spontaneously on the basis of naturally occurring events i.e.. Family,
friends, street gangs.

Formed groups are those that come together through some outside influence or intervention.
Usually have some sponsorship or affiliation and are convened for a particular purpose i.e.. Therapy
groups, educational groups, committees.

Group Norms  different groups have different norms. Norms are present in every group; they
incorporate certain attitudes and standards of behaviour that are acceptable to the group. Norms
can be specified and verbalised by the leader, or they may not be verbalised but only implied by the
behaviours an interactions of the members.

Reference groups Norms matter to an individual and hence have an impact on the individual’s
behaviour. Example, family, gangs, friends.

 Positive as trying to emulate its members actions

 Negative if a person rejects its member and disavows their standards.

Group roles: the norms that operate in groups determine the roles that individual group members
have. A role is a position in a group that has norms specifying appropriate behaviour for its
occupants.

Leadership leaders are people who exercise greater influence than the average member of the
group. Take responsibility for seeing that the group completes its tasks.

Group Dynamics process involved when people in a group interact. The forces that influence the
interrelationships of member s and ultimately affect group outcome.
Group development stages

1. Forming

Group attempts to define the task and decide how it will be accomplished. Also attempts to
determine acceptable group behaviour and how to deal with group problems, develop group
identity.

2. Storming

Members may resist the tasks at hand, resist approaches different from those each individual is
comfortable with. Establishment of unrealistic goals, concern of excessive work and competition
among the members.

3. Norming

Begin to develop a sense of team closeness and are willing to discuss the team’s dynamics an to
express criticism constructively. Attempt to reach harmony or avoid personal conflict by
establishing ground rules.

4. Performing

Understanding of group’s strengths and weaknesses, able to work through group problems.
Works effectively and disagree without losing mutual respect.

5. Adjourning

The group reaches the end of its life and breaks up or has so many personnel changes that in
effect a new group forms. Group members may recognise what they have achieved and moved
on.