Magnetic fields in matter

PH 5503 Unit III

Lecture 1
Dr. Urvi Chhaya
St. Xavier’s College
Ahmedabad
6.1.Diamagnetism,Paramagnetism,Ferromagnetism
The source of magnetic field is a moving charge or electric
current. All matter is made up of atoms, atoms have electrons and
electron is a charged particle which is in motion inside the
atom.This gives rise to magnetism in matter. The origin of
magnetism lies in

• Electrons orbiting around nuclei (orbital motion)

• Electrons spinning about their axes (spin motion)

• and how the electrons interact with one another.

The circulating electrons in an atom, constitute a magnetic dipole with a
magnetic moment whose direction depends on the direction in which
the electron is moving

In the absence of a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles in a material are

randomly oriented and consequently the net magnetic moment of the
material is zero.

However, in the presence of a magnetic field, the substance may acquire

a net magnetic moment either in the direction of the applied field or in a
direction opposite to it.

When a net alignment of the dipoles occur in the presence of magnetic

field, the material is said to be Magnetised
The best way to introduce the different types of magnetism is to
describe how materials respond to magnetic fields.

All matter is magnetic however some materials are much more

magnetic than others.

The main distinction is that in some materials there is no collective

interaction of atomic magnetic moments, whereas in other
materials there is a very strong interaction between atomic
moments.
The magnetic behavior of materials can be classified into the following
five major groups:

1. Diamagnetism
2. Paramagnetism
3. Ferromagnetism
4. Ferrimagnetism
5. Antiferromagnetism

The first two exhibit no collective magnetic interactions and are not
magnetically ordered. Materials in the last three groups exhibit long-
range magnetic order below a certain critical temperature.
Magnetization

paramagnetism

random

External B field

Ferromagnetism Diamagnetism

6
The two most common types of magnetism are diamagnetism and
paramagnetism, which account for the magnetic properties of most of the
elements of the periodic element at room temperature. Only Fe, Co and Ni are
ferromagnetic at and above room temperature.
Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which have no net magnetic
moments (ie., all the orbital shells are filled and there are no unpaired electrons).
However, when exposed to a field, the magnetic dipoles align in the direction
opposite to the field.

Paramagnetic materials are those in which the atoms or ions in the material have a
non zero net magnetic moment due to unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals.
However, the individual magnetic moments do not interact magnetically, the
magnetization is zero in absence of the field . In the presence of a field, there is a
partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments in the direction of the field.

Ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel alignment of moments resulting in large

net magnetization even in the absence of a magnetic field. The atomic moments in
these materials exhibit very strong interactions. These interactions are produced by
electronic exchange forces and result even more alignment of atomic moments in
Assignment
1. List five major differences between
diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
materials.

2. Give three examples of each.

Thank You
Magnetic fields in matter
PH 5503 Unit III
Lecture 2
Dr. Urvi Chhaya
St. Xavier’s College
Ahmedabad
6.2 Torques and Forces on Magnetic dipoles
dipoles are atomic current loops
The magnetic moment of the dipole can be
considered to be a vector quantity with direction
perpendicular to the current loop in the right-hand-
rule direction. The torque is given by

τ = µ x В
where µ = IA (if there are N turns µ = NIA )

This torque tends to line up the magnetic moment with the magnetic field B, so this represents its lowest energy
configuration.
Right Hand Rule to determine the direction of the magnetic moment
Torque on Current Loop in uniform field

It is simplest to look first at a square or a rectangular loop carrying a

current. A coil carrying current in magnetic field experiences a
torque

❑ Consider a square (or a rectangular) current loop of side L The force on each side is given
▪ Forces in 1and 3 branches = 0 by F = IL × B.

▪ Forces in 2 and 4 branches cancel

▪ No net force!

In a uniform magnetic field the net force on a current loop

is zero.
❑ But there is a net torque!

▪ for side 2 the force point OUT, for side 4 force points IN
▪ Forces (F=IL B) equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction
▪ Each of the non zero force exerts torque τ = (L/2)F about the
center of the loop. (torque=any one force x perpendicular
distance )

▪ The total torque is τ = LF = IL2B = IAB

The torque tries to align the normal to the loop with the magnetic
field.

If there are N turns of the same area and same current τ = NIAB
Although the expression of torque is derived for a rectangular loop, the equation is valid
for any current distribution in uniform field.
Torque on the current loop inclined with magnetic field
Suppose the magnetic field makes an angle q with respect to
a line perpendicular to the plane of the loop .

Only the forces F1 and F3 contribute to the torque about the

axis of rotation O. The other two forces on the loop would
not produce a rotation as these forces would be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction

The forces F1 and F3 form a couple and produce a torque

about any point.

Figure The moment arm of F1 about the point O is equal to

(a/2) sinθ.

Likewise, the moment arm of F3 about O is also (a/2) sinθ.

Here, F1 = F3 = IbB, the net torque about O has the magnitude

For a current loop we have defined the magnetic moment μ as

μ=IA

If the normal of the plane makes an angle θ with B, The final form of torque on a current loop
will be

τ = IABSinθ = μBSinθ = µ x B (electrical analog: τ = P x E)

Maximum torque occurs when the plane of the loop is parallel to the magnetic field B.
τ max = IAB
Angle between plane of loop and B is 0°.
Angle between area vector A and B is 90°.

Zero torque occurs when the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field B.
τ min is zero
Angle between plane of loop and B is 90°.
Angle between area vector A and B is 0°.
Potential energy of a current loop:
Since a torque acts on a current loop when placed in an external field, it follows that work must be
done to change the orientation of such a dipole. This appears as potential energy.

Thus, in analogy with the case of electric dipole in an electric field, the potential energy of the
magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is given by

U = -µB cos θ = -µ·B [ in correspondence with U=-P·E

The lowest energy configuration for µ parallel with B and highest for µ antiparallel with B

The change in energy required to flip a dipole from one alignment to other is

∆U = 2µB
• The torque tries to align μ and B such as to align the dipole parallel to B.(lowest energy
configuration)

• It is this torque that account for Paramagnetism since every electron is

spinning(moving) charge and hence it is a tiny dipole.

And a material of any irregular shape can be

assumed to be made up of large number of such
small current loops .

The addition of all the dipole moments of all

the current loops constituting the arbitrary
shaped material will determine the magnetic
behaviour of the material.
Force in a non uniform magnetic field

y
Fringing field
x

• Consider a small circular current loop of radius r, placed in the

magnetic field of a solenoid.
• The magnetic field B is in the z direction. It is not a uniform field.
• The field B does not include the magnetic field of the current ring
itself.
• We want to find the force on the current ring caused by the other field
In a uniform field the net force is zero but in a
nonuniform field it is not so.

The net force on the current ring arises because the

external field B has an outward component Br
everywhere around the ring. (The vertical component Bz
produces a force in the horizontal plane that simply
stretches or compresses the ring – negligibly, assuming
the ring is fairly rigid.)

Each element of the loop, dl, must be experiencing a

downward force of magnitude IBr dl .

Total downward force will have the magnitude

F = 2πrI Br = 2πrI Bcosθ

For a cylinder of finite thickness, with dipole moment µ in a field B, the force can
be calculated as follows

Br can be directly related to the gradient of Bz.

Since div B = 0 at all points, the net flux of magnetic field out of
any volume is zero.

Consider a cylinder of radius r and height dz.

The outward flux from the side is 2πr(dz)Br
The inward flux = π r2Bz
Outward flux from top end surface πr2(Bz +(∂Bz/∂z)dz).

Setting the total outward flux equal to zero gives :

0 = πr2(Bz +(∂Bz / ∂z)dz) +2πrBrdz - πr2Bz

Br = −(r/2)(∂Bz/∂z) Br is positive when Bz is decreasing upward

The force on the dipole (with upward taken to be positive) can now be expressed in terms
of the gradient of the component Bz of the external field:

F = 2πrI (r/2) (∂Bz/∂z)

= πr2I(∂Bz/∂z)
= AI(∂Bz/∂z)

So the force on the ring can be expressed very simply in terms of the dipole moment:

F = µ (∂Bz/∂z)

• Dipole moment parallel to external field: force acts in direction of increasing field strength.
• Dipole moment antiparallel to external field: force acts in direction of decreasing field strength.
• Uniform external field: zero force.
Quite obviously, this is not the most general situation. The moment µ could be pointing at
some odd angle with respect to the field B, and the different components of B could be
varying, spatially, in different ways.

In general case

Fx = µ . Grad Bx
Fy = µ . Grad By
Fz = µ. Grad Bz

Or more generally F = 𝜵 (µ.B)

In general for an infinitesimal loop with a dipole moment µ in a field B,

F = 𝜵 (µ.B) similar to F= 𝜵(𝑷.E)

[∇(µ · B) = (µ · ∇)B + µ × (∇ ×B) where ∇ ×B=0]

Assignment:
1. A 3-turn circular loop of radius 3 cm carries 5A current ina B field of 2.5 T.
Loop is tilted 30° to B field.
2. What is the energy required to flip the direction of the magnetic dipole.
3. Why is paramagnetism a universal phenomena and why is it observed in
materials with unpaired electrons.
Magnetic fields in matter
PH 5503 Unit II
Lecture 3
Dr. Urvi Chhaya
St. Xavier’s College
Ahmedabad
Griffith’s words………

If you’re starting to get a sense of déjà vu, perhaps you will have more respect for those early physicists who
thought magnetic dipoles consisted of positive and negative magnetic “charges” (north and south “poles,”
they called them), separated by a small distance, just like electric dipoles (Fig. (a)). They wrote down a
“Coulomb’s law” for the attraction and repulsion of these poles, and developed the whole of magnetostatics in
exact analogy to electrostatics. It’s not a bad model, for many purposes—it gives the correct field of a dipole
(at least, away from the origin), the right torque on a dipole (at least, on a stationary dipole), and the proper
force on a dipole (at least, in the absence of external currents). But it’s bad physics, because there’s no such
thing as a single magnetic north pole or south pole. If you break a bar magnet in half, you don’t get a north
pole in one hand and a south pole in the other; you get two complete magnets. Magnetism is not due to
magnetic monopoles, but rather due to moving electric charges; magnetic dipoles are tiny current loops
(Fig. (c)), and it’s an extraordinary thing, really, that the formulas involving m bear any resemblance to the
corresponding formulas for p. Sometimes it is easier to think in terms of the “Gilbert” model of a magnetic
dipole (separated monopoles), instead of the physically correct “Ampère” model (current loop). Indeed, this
picture occasionally offers a quick and clever solution to an otherwise cumbersome problem (you just copy the
corresponding result from electrostatics, changing p to m,ε0 to μ0, and E to B). But whenever the close-up
features of the dipole come into play, the two models can yield strikingly different answers.
 N

 
Magnetic dipole m m I

Gilbert model Ampere model

6.1.3 Effect of a Magnetic Field on Atomic Orbits

We know that an atom consists of a positive nucleus surrounded by

negative electrons. Let us consider a simple and easily visualized
model of an atom with the electrons in orbits around the nucleus

We begin with one electron moving (revolving) at constant speed

on a circular path of Radius R.
 The current is the amount of charge that passes a given
point on the ring, per second. Since the electron makes
v/2πR revolutions per second( T= 2πR/v), the current I
will be

−𝑒 𝑒𝑣
𝐼= =−
𝑇 2𝜋𝑅

The orbiting electron is equivalent to a ring current of

this magnitude as shown in Fig. Its far field is therefore
that of a magnetic dipole, of strength

𝑒𝑣𝑅
𝑚= 𝜋𝑅2 𝐼 =−
2
−𝑒
(Let us note a simple relation between the magnetic moment m associated with the electron orbit and the orbital angular momentum L, 𝑚 =
2𝑚𝑒
𝐿 )
Like any other magnetic dipole, this one is subject to a torque (m × B) when you turn on a
magnetic field. But it’s a lot harder to tilt the entire orbit , There is, however, a more significant
effect on the orbital motion: The electron speeds up or slows down, depending on the
orientation of B.

Now, in absence of magnetic field, the electric force exerted on the electron by the nucleus (of
charge e ) is balanced by the centripetal force,

1 𝑒2 𝑣2
𝐹റ𝐸 = 𝐹റ𝑐 ⇒ 2
= 𝑚𝑒
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 𝑅
Now, if we introduce a magnetic field in the z direction, of strength B, The magnetic force
exerted on the electron points toward the center and of magnitude −e(v × B). , so the centripetal
force must be modified to accommodate for magnetic force. Thus

𝐹റ𝐸 + 𝐹റ𝐵 = 𝐹റ𝑐

1 𝑒2 𝑣lj 2
⇒ 2
+ 𝑒𝑣𝐵 lj = 𝑚𝑒
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 𝑅
𝑣lj 2 − 𝑣 2
⇒ 𝑒𝑣𝐵 lj = 𝑚𝑒
𝑅
𝑚𝑒
= (𝑣lj + 𝑣)(𝑣lj − 𝑣)
𝑅
𝑒𝑅𝐵 2𝑣lj
⇒ = Δ𝑣 (Δ𝑣 = 𝑣lj − 𝑣 ≈ 0 ⇒ 𝑣lj ≅ 𝑣)
𝑚𝑒 𝑣lj
𝑒𝑅𝐵
⇒ Δ𝑣 = When B is turned on, then, the electron speeds up
2𝑚𝑒
 A change in orbital speed means a change in the dipole moment
𝑒𝑅𝐵
Δ𝑣 =
2𝑚𝑒
1
𝑚 = − 𝑒𝑣𝑅 𝑧Ƹ
2

1 𝑒 2 𝑅2 𝑒 2 𝑅2
Δ𝑚 = − 𝑒(Δ𝑣)𝑅 𝑧Ƹ = − 𝐵𝑧Ƹ = − 𝐵
2 4𝑚𝑒 4𝑚𝑒

Notice that the change in m is opposite to the direction of B.

This is the critical property of diamagnetism, namely that the change in the
magnetic moment is directed opposite to the applied magnetic field.
This equation shows that the presence of the magnetic field will increase the
speed of the electron. An increase in the velocity of the electron will
increase the magnitude of the dipole moment of the revolving electron. The
change in m is opposite to the direction of B.

If the electron would have been orbiting the other way, it would have been
slowed down by the magnetic field. Again the change in the dipole moment
would be opposite to the direction of B.

In the presence of an external magnetic field the dipole moment of each

orbit will be slightly modified, and all these changes are anti-parallel to the
external magnetic field. This is the magnetism that is responsible for
diamagnetism. Diamagnetism is present in all materials, but is typically
much weaker than paramagnetism, and is therefore observed mainly in
atoms with even numbers of electrons, where paramagnetism is usually
absent.
Assignment :

1. Of the following materials, which would you expect to be paramagnetic and which diamagnetic:
aluminum, copper, copper chloride (CuCl2), carbon, lead, nitrogen , salt (NaCl), sodium, sulfur,
water? Justify your answer.
2. Diamagnetism is attributed to which of these : orbital motion or spin motion ?
3. Which forces on the electron moving in orbital motion are getting balanced ?
4. Calculate the torque exerted on the square loop shown in Fig. 6.6, due to the circular loop
(assume r is much larger than a or b). If the square loop is free to rotate, what will its
equilibrium orientation be?
Magnetic fields in matter
PH 5503 Unit III
Lecture 4
Dr. Urvi Chhaya
St. Xavier’s College
Ahmedabad
Magnetisation

In the presence of a magnetic field, matter becomes magnetized; that is the dipoles acquire a net alignment along some
direction. There are two mechanisms that account for this magnetic polarization:

(1) paramagnetism: the dipoles associated with the spins of unpaired electrons experience a torque tending to line
them up parallel to the field;
(2) diamagnetism: the orbital speed of the electrons is altered in such a way as to change the orbital dipole moment in a
direction opposite to the field.

Whatever the cause, we describe the state of magnetic polarization by the vector quantity
M = magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.

M is called the magnetization; it plays a role analogous to the polarization P in electrostatics. Note that ferromagnetic
materials are magnetized even in the absence of applied field.

Here we will not worry about how the magnetization got there – it could be paramagnetism, diamagnetism, or even
ferromagnetism – we shall take M as given, and calculate the field this magnetization itself produces.
 Before we derive the field due to magnetised object, let us remind ourselves of the
position vector and its relation with separation vector that you have studied in vector
analysis. We will be using that in the derivation.
However we have denoted
𝑟 − 𝑟ƴ = 𝑟𝑒
We will be using this and also
a vector identity that you
might have studied in vector
analysis.
Field of a magnetised object
 1
Using vector identity ∇×( fA) = ∇f ×A + f (∇×A) where 𝑓 = 𝑟 and 𝐴 = 𝑀(𝑟 ′ ) and
𝑒

The second term can be converted to a surface integral in a manner very similar to the way we convert volume integral of a
divergence to a surface integral using the fundamental divergence theorem (example shown below)
So, instead of integrating over the magnetization, we can instead calculate the bound surface and
volume currents and calculate the field directly from them. Thus, Potential of a magnetized
object is the same as that would be produced by a volume current 𝐽𝑏 = ∇ × 𝑀 throughout the
material and surface current 𝐾𝑏 = 𝑀 × 𝑛ො , on the boundary where 𝑛ො is a unit vector normal to
the surface.

This is a direct parallel to the bound surface and volume charges we used in the electrostatic case
for the electric field of a polarized object.
Thus now we all that the total current inside a material consists of two parts, the first is the conduction
current, which is due to motion of the free charges in a conductor and the second is due to atomic
currents. The latter are too tiny to be taken care of individually . Hence we consider such effects in an
average sense in terms of bound currents.

In our next lecture we shall study the physical interpretation of bound

currents in little more detail.
Magnetic fields in matter
PH 5503 Unit III
Lecture 5
Dr. Urvi Chhaya
St. Xavier’s College
Ahmedabad
Origin of bound currents
Surface bound current :
Physically, the bound currents on the surface of a magnetized material (and also in its volume for a non-uniform
M) originate from the mis-cancellation of the microscopic currents inside the atoms which give rise to their
magnetic moments.
Surface bound currents are a result of the little current loops in a magnetized object failing to cancel at the
boundary: the net effect is like a current flowing around the boundary of the object.

we found that the field of a magnetized object is identical to the field that would be produced by a certain
distribution of “bound” currents, Jb and Kb. Let us see how these bound currents arise physically.

Figure depicts a thin slab of uniformly magnetized material, with the dipoles represented by tiny current loops.
Notice that all the “internal” currents cancel: every time there is one going to the right, one is going to the left
in the adjacent loop. However, at the edges there is no adjacent loop to do the canceling. The whole thing, then,
is equivalent to a single ribbon of current I flowing around the boundary
Physically, the bound currents on the surface of a magnetized material (and also in
its volume for a non-uniform M) originate from the mis-cancellation of the microscopic currents inside
the atoms which give rise to their magnetic moments. As a model of how this works, consider a large
L×L×L a uniformly magnetized material with M pointing in the z direction of the cube. For simplicity,
let’s assume the material in question is a crystal with a simple cubic lattice — each tiny a × a × a cube
occupied by a single atom, — and further more, assume each atom has the same magnetic moment m =
a3M. The picture below shows a single slice of this cubic lattice along the (x, y) plane, or rather a small
part of that slice:

The red loops here stand for the current loops creating the atomic
magnetic moments ‘m’. We do not know the radii or even the shapes of
these loops or the currents which flow through them; we do not even
know if the currents are line currents or volume currents. But for our
purposes all such details do not matter, all we care is the net magnetic
moment ‘ m’ of each atom.
As far as the macroscopic magnetic field B(r) is concerned, we may replace each atom with an a × a × a
cube with the surface current

flowing around the 4 vertical sides of the cube. Here is the picture of such a cubic model, or rather, of a
small part of a single slice of the cubic lattice. What is this current, in terms of M?

Inside each atom, the current flows

counterclockwise. But when we look at the
boundary between two neighboring atoms,
we immediately see that over that
boundary, the currents of the two atoms
flow in opposite directions. And since they
have the same magnitude I = m/a2, they
cancel each other! Thus, in the middle of
the crystal all the atomic currents cancel
each other and there is no net current.

However, at the outer boundary of the crystal,there is no cancellation

Instead, there is un-canceled current I = m/a2 flowing counterclockwise around the
entire outer boundary of the crystal, or rather of single atomic layer of the crystal.
If each current loop has an area a2 then the dipole moment due to a surface current
I is equal to
m = Ia 2
The volume of the current loop is a3 and therefore its dipole moment must be
equal to
m = Ma 3
This requires that the surface current of the current loop is equal to

I = Ma (equating the rhs of above two equations)

Since the magnetization is uniform, the current in each of the current loops will be
constant and flowing in the same direction. Therefore, all volume currents cancel,
and the only current remaining will be a surface current, flowing on the surface of
the material.
The current flowing on the surface of the material will be equal to the current in
each of the current loops. Therefore, the current density on the surface is equal to
𝐼
𝐾= =𝑀
𝑎
over the 4 vertical sides of the whole magnetized cube. In vector notations, the
surface current on each side of the cube is

𝐾 = 𝑀 × 𝑛ො

where 𝑛ො is the unit vector normal to the side in question.

This expression also records the fact that there is no current on the top or bottom
surface of the slab; here M is parallel to ˆn, so the cross product vanishes.)
The above model explains the physical origin of the surface bound current. It does not
have a volume bound current since we assumed a uniform magnetization inside the
magnetic material.

This bound surface current is a peculiar kind of current, in the sense that no single
charge makes the whole trip—on the contrary, each charge moves only in a tiny little loop
within a single atom.

Nevertheless, the net effect is a macroscopic current flowing over the surface of the
magnetized object. We call it a “bound” current because every charge is attached to a
particular atom, and it produces a magnetic field in the same way any other current does.

Thus bound currents are real and not just a mathematical construct
Volume bound currents occur when the magnetization is nonuniform. To model a
non-uniform magnetization we should give different atoms of different magnetic moments
m and hence different atomic currents. Consequently, Magnetization will vary from point to
point and thus at the boundary of two neighboring atoms we would no longer have exact
cancellation of their currents, and that would give rise to bound volume currents inside the
bulk of the magnetized material.

Suppose we look at the net current in the x direction, due to a difference in magnetization in
the y and z directions:
When the magnetization is nonuniform, the internal
currents no longer cancel. Fig. shows two adjacent chunks
of magnetized material, with a larger arrow on the one to
the right suggesting greater magnetization at that point. On
the surface where they join there is a net current in the x-
direction,

At the interface between the two current loops, the net

current in the x direction is:

This corresponds to a current density contribution of:

 By the same token, a nonuniform magnetization in the y-
𝜕𝑀𝑦
direction would contribute an amount - so
𝜕𝑧

In general, then in three dimension

𝐽𝑏 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑀 = ∇ × 𝑀
which is consistent with the result obtained earlier.

Incidentally, like any other steady current, J obeys the

conservation law:
∇∙𝐽 =0
because the divergence of a curl is always zero.
Hence the origin of bound currents is understood. Both arise due to collective phenomenon
The response of an object, be it any shape or symmetry, to magnetic fields is parameterized by
Magnetization. Now we have understood that we can replace the volume magnetization by a volume
bound current Jb and a surface bound current Kb and use them to calculate the potential and the field. In
situations where there is some symmetry, we can use Ampère’s law to calculate the field from these bound
currents, as this usually proves a lot easier than trying to do the integrals.
Magnetic fields in matter
PH 5503 Unit III
Lecture 6
Dr. Urvi Chhaya
St. Xavier’s College
Ahmedabad
THE AUXILIARY FIELD H
Ampère’s Law in Magnetized Materials
we found that the effect of magnetization is to establish bound currents Jb = ∇ ×M within the material and
Kb = M× ˆn on the surface. The field due to magnetization of the medium is just the field produced by these bound
currents.

We are now ready to put everything together: the field attributable to bound currents, plus the field due to everything
else which we shall call the free current. The free current might flow through wires embedded in the magnetized
substance or, if the latter is a conductor, through the material itself. In any event, the total current can be written as

J = Jb + J f .

It is simply a convenience to separate the current into these two parts, because they got there by quite different
means:

the free current is there because somebody hooked up a wire to a battery—it involves actual transport of charge;

the bound current is there because of magnetization—it results from the conspiracy of many aligned atomic dipoles.
To calculate the magnetic field produced by a system containing magnetized materials
we have to use the following form of Ampere's law: (differential form)

∇ × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽Ԧ

1
∇ × 𝐵 = 𝐽 = 𝐽𝑓 + 𝐽𝑏 = 𝐽𝑓 + ∇ × 𝑀
𝜇0

Putting the curl terms together

1
∇× 𝐵 − 𝑀 = 𝐽𝑓
𝜇0

The quantity in parenthesis is called the H field.

Thus,

This equation is the Ampere’s law for magnetostatics with magnetized materials. It represents a
convenient way to find magnetic field H using only free currents. In the integral form the Ampere’s law
reads

where I fenc =Ifree is the electric free current passing through the loop. H permits us to write Ampere’s law
in terms of free current.

The H field is a quantity that is used in the laboratory more often that the B field. This is a result of the
dependence of H on only the free currents (which are easy to control). The B field depends, both on the
free and on the bound currents, and thus requires a detailed knowledge of the magnetic properties of the
materials used.
H plays a role in magnetostatics analogous to D in electrostatics:

Just as D allowed us to write Gauss’s law in terms of the free charge alone, H permits us to express Ampère’s
law in terms of the free current alone—and free current is what we control directly.

Bound current, like bound charge, comes along for the ride— the material gets magnetized, and this results in
bound currents; we cannot turn them on or off independently, as we can free currents.

In applying Ampere’s law, all we need to worry about is the free current, which we know about because we
put it there.

In particular, when symmetry permits, we can calculate H immediately by the usual Ampère’s law methods.

Although the divergence of B is zero for any magnetic field (and therefore Ampere's law for B defines B
uniquely) the divergence of H is not necessarily zero:

The divergence of H will be zero only for systems with cylindrical, plane, solenoidal, or toroidal symmetry.
LINEAR AND NONLINEAR MEDIA

Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability

To complete the description of macroscopic magnetostatics, there must be a constitutive relation between H and B.

Most paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials are linear; that is their magnetization is proportional to the H field:

M = cmH

The constant of proportionality cm is called the magnetic susceptibility of the material.

It is a dimensionless quantity that varies from one substance to another—positive for paramagnets and negative for
diamagnets. Typical values are around 10 -5
Materials that obey M = cmH are called linear media. Thus

B = μ0(H +M) = μ0(1 + χm)H for linear media.

Thus B is also proportional to H:

B = μH

Where μ ≡ μ0(1 + χm) → Jb = ∇ ×M = ∇ × (χmH) = χmJ f .

μ is called the permeability of the material.

In a vacuum, where there is no matter to magnetize, the susceptibility χm vanishes, and the permeability is μ0.

That’s why μ0 is called the permeability of free space.

The linear relation between H and B does not automatically imply that the divergence of H is zero. The
divergence of H will only be equal to zero inside a linear material, but will be nonzero at the interface between
two materials of different permeability.
Boundary Conditions for H:(Refer to article 5.4.2 of chap5 ,Introduction to Electrodynamics: David Griffiths
Which can be in general written as
Magnetic fields in matter
PH 5503 Unit III
Lecture 7
Dr. Urvi Chhaya
St. Xavier’s College
Ahmedabad
Please Note, we derived the boundary conditions in the previous lecture , here are some inferences:
In particular, when there is no free current flowing along the surface, the normal
component of the B field and the tangential components of the H field must be
continuous across the surface; on the other hand, the tangential components of
the B field and the normal component of the H field are discontinuous.

In the bulk of a uniform magnetic material,

μ0Jnet = ∇ × B = μrelμ0∇ ×H = μrelμ0Jfree

hence the bound currents shadows the free currents

Jnet = μrelJfree =⇒ Jbound = χmJfree . …………………(*)

S lecture
Thus, in the middle of a ferromagnetic conductor like iron or nickel, there is a bound
current flowing in the same direction as the free current, but much stronger in magnitude.

In the middle of a paramagnetic conductor like aluminum, the bound current also flows in
the same direction as the free current, but its magnitude is much weaker.

On the other hand, in the middle of a diamagnetic conductor like copper, the bound current
flows in the opposite direction from the free current.

But eq. (*) apply only to the volume currents in the bulk of a uniform material. At the outer
surface of the magnetic material — or at the interface between two different magnetic
materials — there are surface bound currents not related to any free currents. Instead, we
have to calculate them from the boundary conditions for the H and B fields. Specifically, at
the interface of two uniform magnetic materials.
Ferromagnetism
The best known nonlinear media are the ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials
do not require external fields to sustain their magnetization (therefore, the magnetization
definitely depends in a nonlinear way on the field). The magnetization in ferromagnetic
materials involves the alignment of the dipole moments associated with the spin of
unpaired electrons.
The difference between ferromagnetic materials
and paramagnetic materials is that in
ferromagnetic materials the interaction between
nearby dipoles makes them want to point in the
same direction, even when the magnetic field is
removed. However, the alignment occurs in
relative small patches, called domains.

Each domain contains billions of dipoles, all lined up , but the domains themselves are
randomly oriented. But there will be just as many domains pointing one way as the
other, so there is still no large-scale magnetization.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, at the boundary between two domains,
there are competing neighbors, and the torque will throw its weight on the side of the domain most
nearly parallel to the field; this domain will win some converts, at the expense of the less favorably
oriented one.
The net effect of the magnetic field, then, is to move the domain boundaries. Domains parallel to the
field grow, and the others shrink. If the field is strong enough, one domain takes over entirely, and the
iron is said to be saturated.

It turns out that this process (the shifting of domain boundaries in response to an external field) is not
entirely reversible: When the field is switched off, there will be some return to randomly oriented
domains, but some domains remain in the original direction.

Thus , when the magnetic field is removed some magnetization remains (and we have created a
permanent magnet).
 If we wrap a coil of wire around the object to
be magnetized and pass a current I through
the coil; this provides the external magnetic
field. As you increase the current, the field
increases, the domain boundaries move, and
the magnetization grows. Eventually, you
reach the saturation point, with all the dipoles
aligned, and a further increase in current has
no effect on M

Now suppose you reduce the current. Instead of retracing the path back to M = 0, there is only a partial
return to randomly oriented domains; M decreases, but even with the current off there is some residual
magnetization (point c). The wrench is now a permanent magnet. If you want to eliminate the remaining
magnetization, you’ll have to run a current backwards through the coil (a negative I ).
 M drops down to zero (point d). If you turn I still
higher, you soon reach saturation in the other
direction—all the dipoles now pointing to the right
(e). At this stage, switching off the current will
leave the wrench with a permanent magnetization
to the right (point f ). To complete the story, turn I
on again in the positive sense: M returns to zero
(point g), and eventually to the forward saturation
point (b).

The path we have traced out is called a hysteresis loop. For any ferromagnetic material, the
magnetization depends not only on the applied magnetic field but also on the magnetization history.
However, Random thermal motions compete with this ordering, the alignment is
gradually destroyed. The destruction of the alignment occurs at a precise temperature
(called the Curie point). When a ferromagnetic material is heated above its Curie
temperature it becomes paramagnetic

The Curie point is rather like the boiling point or the freezing point in that there is no
gradual transition from ferro- to para-magnetic behavior. It is abrupt.

These abrupt changes in the properties of a substance, occurring at sharply defined

temperatures, are known in statistical mechanics as phase transitions.