MATH

Module 1: Nature of Mathematics The Rabbit Puzzle Problem

Mikee Patricia D. Trinidad ꟾ BSMLS1-G
Fibonacci’s famous rabbit puzzle was published
in 1202.

Patterns in Nature At the beginning of a month, you are given a

male-female pair of newborn rabbits. Rabbits
Patterns exist when a number, shape, or color take a month to mature before mating. This
occurs repeatedly. They are found everywhere means that after a month the rabbits have
in plants, animals, human beings, and the produced no offspring. However, every month
universe. thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another
pair of rabbits which are male and female.
An example would be the experience of the
sunrise every morning and sunsets every The offspring reproduce in the same manner.
afternoon and why the spring season begins at
different months for the Northern and Southern If none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of
hemispheres? rabbits will there be after one full calendar year?

Fibonacci Numbers/Sequence

The sequence goes like this, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,

34, 55…This is a number sequence called the
These regularities are clear patterns in nature. Fibonacci Sequence. The Fibonacci Sequence has
Patterns help us organize ideas or information a unique pattern.
that can help us understand ourselves, our life,
and the world. Most of the time, number patterns Fibonacci numbers Fn are numbers in a
are more likely associated with mathematics. sequence called Fibonacci Sequence. The
Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers that
Leonardo of Pisa follow a pattern as shown:
Fibonacci is an Italian mathematician whose real 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …
name is Leonardo Pisano. Literally, Leonardo of
Pisa. This is because he was born in Pisa Italy at The nth term is obtained by adding two previous
almost the same time when Italians started terms
building the famous leaning tower of Pisa.
The recursion relation Fn+1= Fn-1 + Fn gives the next
He existed around 1170 to 1250 and is said to be Fibonacci number is the sum of the preceding
the greatest European mathematician of the two numbers. To start the recursion, we need to
Middle Ages. He traveled in Africa and some specify F1 and F2 to be both 1. In the Book of
parts of Asia where he met different Calculation, zero is not the first Fibonacci
mathematicians. His famous book Liber Abaci, number. But if zero is included in the sequence,
or the Book of Calculation, introduced the we can let F0 = 0. And amazingly it doesn’t violate
concept of Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe in the recursion formula. It can even extend to
1202. In mathematics history, it is believed that negative indices with negative values.
the concept of zero originated in India and the
sequence named after him had been described Fibonacci discovered that the number of pairs of
earlier in Indian Mathematics. rabbits for any month after the first two months
can be determined by adding the number of
pairs of rabbits in each of the two previous
months. For instance, the number of pairs of
rabbits at the start of the seventh month is 5 + 8
= 13.
 Pineapples have spirals formed by their
hexagonal nubs. The nubs on many pineapples
form 8 spirals that rotate diagonally upward to
the left and 13 spirals that rotate diagonally
upward to the right. We can also observe 21
parallel rows of nubs spiraling steeply. And
again, the numbers 8, 13, and 21 are consecutive
Fibonacci numbers.

The sequence is also observed in the growth of

plant and vegetable branches, or even in some
vines spinning around the stalk. Inside the fruit of
many plants, we can also observe the presence
Different Patterns of Fibonacci order. Cut an apple crosswise and
you will see 5 sections. A common citrus could
The Fibonacci numbers are so amazing that we have 8 and most bananas have 3 sections.
can see them almost everywhere around us.
Have you tried counting the petals of flowers? In We also have a pattern arrangement of seeds in
most flowers, we can see these numbers. fruits. For example, pine nuts. Pine nuts grow
always from the base of the pine cone as spirals
A calla lily has only 1 petal. A trillium has 3. toward the right and towards the left. Counting
Buttercup, wild rose, and hibiscus have 5. these spirals towards both sides gives us
Cosmos has 8. Corn marigold, cineraria and Fibonacci numbers. 8 spirals spinning
ragwort have 13. Some asters have 21 and a counterclockwise and 13 spirals spinning
daisy can have 13, 21, 34, 55, or 89 petals. clockwise.

And what is special about these numbers?

Exactly! These are the first few numbers in the
Fibonacci sequence. But remember, not all
flower petals follow the Fibonacci sequence.

The same pattern is also observed in the spirals

of some succulents and cacti. It seems like it is
happening by coincidence, but these patterns
are also present in broccoli, snails shell, human
bone, dolphins, hurricane shapes, or even the
complex structures of a galaxy. There are still a
Notice the apparent spirals in the florets lot more examples of Fibonacci numbers
radiating out from the center to the edge. These appearing in nature.
spirals appear to rotate both clockwise and
counterclockwise. By counting them, one finds 21
counterclockwise spirals and 34 clockwise
spirals. Surprisingly, the numbers 21 and 34 are
consecutive Fibonacci numbers. Other
sunflowers have 34 counterclockwise spirals and
55 clockwise spirals. Do you think this is just a
coincidence? All the sunflowers in the world show
a number of spirals that are within the Fibonacci
sequence.
The Golden Ratio The Golden Spiral

Another name for the golden ratio is the Divine The golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose
Proportion. The golden ratio (symbol ∅ is the radius either increases or decreases by a factor
Greek letter "phi") is a special number of the golden ratio
approximately equal to 1.618. The golden ratio is
obtained by dividing a line segment say AB at
point C such that the ratio of the longer piece and
the shorter piece is equal to the ratio of the
original line segment to the longer piece.
It has a special property such that for every 1/4
Many buildings and artworks have the Golden turn (90° or π/2 in radians), the distance from
Ratio in them, such as the Parthenon in Greece, the center (the central point of the spiral)
but it is not known if it was designed that way. increases by the golden ratio. Below is a beautiful
Some artists believe that a rectangle constructed picture of a golden spiral. The central point is
following a golden ratio is the most pleasing where the spiraling squares accumulate.
shape. Hence, the golden ratio is math beauty.
Spiral Center- The intersection of the red and
Two positive numbers a and b, with a > b is said blue diagonal lines marks the accumulation
to be in the golden ratio if the ratio between the point of all the golden rectangles and locates the
larger number and the smaller number is the
same as the ratio between their sum and the
larger number, that is,

The number 1.618… is obtained from a

straightforward application of the quadratic
formula solving this equation center of the golden spiral.

Where is the golden

ratio.

The Golden Rectangle

A golden rectangle is a rectangle whose side

lengths are in the golden ratio.

Steps to make a golden rectangle The Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Ratio
1. Construct a unit square
2. Draw a line from the midpoint M of one There is a mathematical relationship between
side to a corner of the opposite side O. the Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio. The
Label this as segment P where P=MO. ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers as n
3. With center at M and radius P, draw an becomes large, approaches the golden ratio.
arc from O to an extension of the side with
the midpoint M. The point of intersection
(Q) of this extension and arc will be the
corner point of the golden rectangle. The limit of as n approaches infinity is the
4. Complete the golden rectangle. Verify golden ratio, that is, approximately 1.618.
that the ratio of the length to the width is
approximately 1.618. As we increase the value of n indefinitely, this
ratio will give us the true value of the golden
ratio.
Golden Ratio in Human Beings

We call the golden ratio the divine proportion

because human beauty is based on divine
proportion.

[a] center of pupil: bottom of teeth bottom of the

chin
[b] the outer and inner edge of the eye: center of
the nose
[c] outer edges of lips: upper ridges of lips
[d] the width of center tooth: width of the second
tooth
[e] the width of the eye: width of the iris

The ratio between the forearm and the hand also

yields a value close to the golden ratio. Our body
has a lot of proportions that are close to the
golden ratio.

The golden spiral can also be seen in snail shells,

in the human body, in hurricane shapes, or even
in the complex structures of a galaxy.
 MATH Isometry
Module 2: Geometry of Design
Mikee Patricia D. Trinidad ꟾ BSMLS1-G Primarily, a concept starts with a motif. We
define a motif to be a non-empty plane set
(Grunbaum and Shephard, 1987). A drawing of a
leaf is an example of a motif. When you repeat
Patterns are classified as numerical, logical, or this drawing on a plane (paper/board) several
geometric. times, you will generate a pattern.

An isometry is the rotation of a motif at a fixed

Transformation angle about a fixed point. Each rotation of the
figure is an isometry.
A transformation is a general term for four
specific ways to manipulate the shape of a point,
a line, or shape. The original shape of the object
is called the pre-image and the final shape and
position of the object is the image under the
transformation.

The four types of transformations are rotation,

translation, reflection, and dilation.

• Translation is when we slide a figure in

any direction.
There are four transformations but only three of
• Rotation is when we rotate a figure to a
them are isometries. These isometric
certain degree around a point.
transformations are reflection, rotation, and
• Reflection is when we flip a figure over a
translation. The characteristic of an isometry is
line.
that the original figure and the resulting figure
• Dilation is when we enlarge or reduce a
after a transformation must be congruent.
figure.
Dilation is a result of stretching and shrinking of
an object making the resulting figure not
congruent to the original one. This makes
dilation, not an isometry.

• Isometries are formed from

transformations consisting of any
combinations of the three operations.
• A combined translation and reflection is
called a glide reflection.

• The shapes are CONGRUENT when one

shape can become another using only
turns, flips, and/or slides. We then say
that these shapes are isometric.
• Two shapes are SIMILAR when we need to
resize for one shape to become another.
When a pattern involves geometrical figures, it is
We then say that figures are being
called a geometric pattern.
dilated.
Symmetry Mathematically, we have 17 possible plane
symmetry groups. They are commonly
Many objects around us are symmetrical in represented using Hermann-Mauguin-like
nature. For instance, some variety of leaves is symbols or in orbifold notation (Zwillinger 1995)
symmetrical with respect to their midrib (the
lining that divides the leaf into two halves). The
façade of a church, the left and right wings of a
butterfly, and most fruits cut into half show
symmetrical patterns. Even the human body is
symmetrical too.

A symmetry is a composition of isometries in the

plane generated from translation, rotation, or
reflection. Generally, this is a mapping of figures
on the plane back onto itself. This means that the
image on the right is the same as the left with
respect to a line of symmetry. A line of symmetry
can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal.

3 types of symmetries:

1. Rosette Pattern – has only reflections and Tessellation

rotations; no translations
A tessellation is a pattern covering a plane by
fitting together replicas of the same basic shape.
The word tessellation comes from the Latin word
tessera, which means a square tablet or a die
used in gambling. Tessellations have been
created by nature and man either by accident or
design. Examples in nature are the honeycomb
hexagonal pattern and snakeskin.
2. Frieze Pattern – has reflections and
rotations; translations are only along one
line.

In geometrical terminology, a tessellation is a

pattern resulting from the arrangement of
regular polygons to cover a plane without any
gap or overlap. The patterns are continuously
repeated (Scott, 2008).

3. Wallpaper Pattern – has rotations, Maurits Escher- Father of Tessellations.

reflections, and glide reflections; also has
translations in two linearly independent Works:
directions. Horsemen

Lizard

Snakes
3 types of Tessellations
Fractals
1) Regular Tessellation- Tessellation is
made up of congruent polygons. This We define fractals to be mathematical
must tile a floor with no overlaps or gaps. constructs characterized by self-similarity. This
The tiles must be the same regular means as one examines finer and finer details of
polygons. the object, the magnified area is seen to be
similar to the original but is not identical to it. In
other words, figures are getting bigger or smaller
using a scaling factor.

Remember that two objects are self-similar if

they can be turned into the same shape by either
stretching or shrinking and sometimes rotating.
In simple terms, we can define a fractal to be a
geometric pattern that is repeated on smaller
scales or in bigger scales.

Fractal geometry is a discipline named and

2) Semi-Regular Tessellation- This is also popularized by the mathematician Benoit
known as the Archimedean tessellation. Mandelbrot (1924-2010). Some popular math
These are tessellations of two or more artworks by Mandelbrot are the Sierpinski
different polygons around a vertex and triangle and Pascal’s triangle.
each vertex has the same arrangement of
polygons.

3) Demi-Regular Tessellation- This is an

edge-to-edge tessellation, but the order
or arrangement of polygons at each
vertex is not the same.
Koch Snowflake

A popular classic fractal is the Koch snowflake.

The Koch snowflake is a fractal curve, also known
as the Koch island, which was first described by
Helge von Koch in 1904. It is built by starting with
an equilateral triangle, removing the inner third
of each side, building another equilateral triangle
at the location where the side was removed, and
then repeating the process indefinitely.

If we try to magnify a region along with the

snowflake, we can similar figures and it goes
indefinitely.

Another work by Mandelbrot is the Barnsley

ferns.

Sierpinski Triangle

Another classic example of self-similarity is the

Sierpinski triangle. Let an equilateral triangle be
decomposed into 3 congruent figures. Each of
which is exactly half the size of the original
triangle. If any three smaller pieces are
magnified by a factor of 2, an exact replica of the
original is obtained.

Step 1: Begin with an equilateral triangle (Actual

shape doesn’t matter. Just use any method)
Step 2: Find the midpoint of each side.
Step 3: Connect midpoints in a straight line
Step 4: Observe that you created three or more
triangles one on top and two at the bottom. (this
is the first iteration)
Step 5: Repeat the process with all 3 congruent
triangles. (this is the second iteration)
Step 6: Continue making the third iteration.
 MATH 2. Roster Method- This is a fairly simple
Module 3: Set Theory notation for sets. We simply list each
Mikee Patricia D. Trinidad ꟾ BSMLS1-G element (or "member") separated by a
comma and then put some curly brackets
around the whole thing. The elements of
the set are listed between braces, with
In mathematics, sets are an organized collection commas between the elements. The
of objects and can be represented in set-builder order in which we list elements isn’t
form or roster form. Usually, sets are important.
represented in curly braces { }, for example, A =
{1,2,3,4} is a set.
Example 1: Write in roster method “ Set A is the
set of vowels of the English alphabet”
Defining a Set
A = { a, e, i, o, u }
A set is a collection of well-defined distinct
objects (elements) which have common
properties. 3. Set Builder Notation or The Rule
Method- This is a way of specifying sets
wherein those properties which
For example, cats, elephants, tigers, and rabbits characterized the elements in the set are
are animals. When these animals are considered stated, or a rule describing a property
collectively, it is called set. common to all elements is given. Set-
builder notation is especially useful when
For convenience, sets are denoted by a capital describing sets with several or
letter. For example, immeasurable elements.

A = {cat, elephant, tiger, rabbit} Note:

Here, A is a set containing 4 elements. (a) This method makes use of variables. A
variable is a symbol (usually a letter) that can
represent the elements of a particular set.
[1] Each object in a set is called an element or a
member of the set. (b) Useful when roster method is impossible (to
enumerate all elements).
[2] A set is well defined if it is possible to
determine whether any given item is an element Example 2: In set-builder notation, “ set C is the
of the set. For instance, the set of letters of the set of integers greater than -3” is written as
English alphabet is well defined. The set of great follows:
songs is not a well-defined set. It is not possible
to determine whether any given song is an C = {x | x is an integer, x > – 3 }
element of the set or is not an element of the set
because there is no standard method for making
such a judgment. The statement “ 4 is an element of the set of
natural numbers or counting numbers” can be
written using mathematical notation as 4 ∈ N.
Methods of Describing Sets
The symbol ∈ reads as “ is an element of” . To
1. Descriptive method- Descriptive method state that “ -3 is not an element of the set of
uses words or texts to describe the set. natural numbers,” we use the “ is not an element
of” symbol, ∉, and write -3 ∉N.
Example 1: Set A is the set of vowels of the English
alphabet Practice:
1) Using the methods below, designate the
set P with elements 17, 19, 23, 29, and 31

(a) Roster Method

P= {17, 19, 23, 29, 31}

(b) Descriptive Method

Set P is a set of prime numbers between
13 and 37

(c) Set-builder Notation

P= { x | x is a prime number between 13
and 37}
Types of Sets 6. Equivalent Sets
Set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by A ~ B, if
1. Empty Set and only if A and B have the same number of
A set that does not have any element is known elements or if there is a one-to-one
as an empty set. It is also called Null Set. Empty correspondence between their elements. Note
set is denoted by ϕ or { }. that if two sets are equivalent, then n(A)= n(B).

Example: Set B is a set of months of the year that For instance {1, b, 6, c } = {29, e, f, d}.
begins with the letter “ K” .

2. Singleton Set A one-to-one correspondence exists between

If a set has only one element, it's known as a two sets A and B if it is possible to associate the
singleton set. For instance, C = { moon }. elements of A with the elements of B in such a
way that each element of each set is associated
with exactly one element of the other.
3. Finite Set
If a set contains no element or a definite number
of elements, it is called a finite set. In this set, the Subsets and Power Sets
number of elements is countable.
All the empty sets also fall into the category of 1. Subset
finite sets. Set A is said to be a subset of set B if every
element of set A is also a member of set B.
If the set is non-empty, it is called a non-empty Simply, if set A is contained in set B, A is called a
finite set. Some examples of finite sets are: subset of B. It is denoted by A ⊆ B.

A = {x | x is a month in a year}; A will have 12 A = {1, 2, 3}

elements B = {2, 1, 4, 3, 5}

B = Set of rivers in Iloilo City; B has countable Here, all three elements 1, 2, and 3 of set A is also
number of elements a member of set B. Hence, A is s a subset of B.

A set is finite if the number of elements in the set Remarks:

is a whole number. The cardinal number
(cardinality) of a finite set is the number of A ⊆ B reads as “ A is a subset of B” .
elements in the set. The cardinal number of a A ⊇ B reads as “ A is a superset of B” .
finite set A is denoted by the notation n(A). For
instance, if A={1, 4, 6, 9} , then n(A)= 4. In this
case, A has a cardinal number of 4, which is 2. Proper Subsets of a Set
sometimes stated as “ A has a cardinality of 4.” Set B is a proper subset of set A, denoted by B ⊂
A, if every element of B is an element of A, and B
≠ A.
4. Infinite Set
Just contrary to the finite set, it will have infinite The proper subsets of A={1, 2, 3} are
elements. If a given set is not finite, then it will be
an infinite set. { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}

For example If B=A then B is an improper subset of A

D = {x | x is a natural number}; There are infinite Set B= {1,2,3} is an improper subset of A={1,2,3}
natural numbers. Hence, A is an infinite set.
• Any set is considered to be a subset of
F = {1,1,2,3,5,8,13,...}; The set of Fibonacci numbers itself.
has an infinite number of elements. Example: A={1,2,3} is a subset of A={1,2,3}
• No set is a proper subset of itself.
Example: A={1,2,3} is not a proper subset of
5. Equal Sets A={1,2,3}
Set A is equal to set B, denoted by A = B, if and • The empty set is a subset of every set.
only if A and B have exactly the same elements. Example { } is a subset of A={1,2,3}
Otherwise, we write A ≠ B. • The empty set is a proper subset of every
set except for the empty set.
For instance, P = {d, e, f } and Q = {e, f, d}. Then
we say P = Q.
However, if R = {d, e, f } and S = {e, f, g}. Then R ≠
S.
 3. Power Set Venn Diagram is a pictorial representation of
The power set of a set A is the set which consists sets using shapes. The universal set is
of all the subsets of set A. It is denoted by P(A). represented by an interior of a rectangle and the
other sets, by any closed plane figures like a
For a set A which consists of n elements, the total circle (mostly), triangle, square, etc.
number of subsets that can be formed is 2n.
From this, we can say that P(A) will have 2n
elements. For e.g. A={1, 2, 3} ; 23 = 8 subsets

P(A) = { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}.

4. Universal Set
This is the set that is the base for every other set
formed. Depending upon the context, the
universal set is decided. It may be a finite or Operations on Sets
infinite set. All the other sets are the subsets of
the Universal set. It is represented by U and is 1. Complement of a Set
sometimes referred to as the universe of The complement of a set A, denoted by A’, is the
discourse. set of all elements of the universal set U that are
not elements of A.
For instance:
Using set-builder notation, the complement of A
The set of real numbers is a universal set of is A' = {x|x ∈ U and x ∉ A}
integers. Similarly, the set of a complex number
is the universal set for real numbers. NOTE: The symbol A' can be read as "A prime" or
"A complement".

5. Joint Set (Overlapping Sets) To illustrate, let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and

Two sets are said to be overlapping sets if they S= {2, 4, 6, 7}. Let us find S'.
have at least one element in common.
The elements of the universal set are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
A = {10, 12, 14, 15} and B = {13, 14, 15, 16, 17} are said 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
to be joint sets or overlapping sets. From these elements, we wish to exclude the
elements of S, which are 2, 4, 6, and 7. Therefore
Notice that 14 and 15 are common in both sets. S’ = {1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10}.

Using the Venn diagram, the complement of a

6. Disjoint Set set A is all the things inside the rectangle that are
Two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they don't not seen inside the circle
have common element/s.

Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 6}.

Here A and B are disjoint sets because these two

sets don't have a common element.

Venn Diagrams 2. Union of a Set

The UNION of two sets A and B is defined to be
In the 1800s, John Venn developed a diagram to the set that contains all the elements that belong
represent sets which he later call the Venn to either A or B or to both A and B.
Diagram. It is denoted as A ∪ B.

NOTE: The keyword for set union is "or".

Example: Let set A = {5, 10, 15, 20} and B = {5,

20, 30, 45}. Then, A union B is: A ∪ B = {5, 10, 15,
20, 30, 45}.
 3. Intersection of a Set (ii) The difference between set B and set A is the
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set that set of elements in set B that are not in set A.
contains only the common elements between set
A and set B. In set-builder notation,
It is denoted as A ∩ B.
B - A = {x | x ∈ B and x ∉ A }
NOTE: The keyword for set intersection is "and".

Example: Let A={10, 12, 14, 15}, B= { 13, 14, 15, 16,
17 }, and C = {3, 6, 9 }.

Find a. A Ո B
Note that the elements common to A and B are
14 and 15. Thus, A ∩ B = {14, 15}.

Illustrating Set Expressions

Set statements or expressions can be illustrated

with Venn diagrams.

b. A ∩ C Venn Diagrams involving two Sets

Because A and C do not have any elements in Suppose we have two sets A and B under the
common, their intersection will give a null set. universal set U. We label the regions in the Venn
diagram by regions I, II, III, and IV.
Thus, A ∩ C = { } or Ø.
Region I represents the elements of A alone. (A
not in B)
Region II represents the elements in both A and
B (intersection)
Region III represents the elements in B alone. (B
not in A)
Region IV represents the elements in the
universal set which are not in the union of A and
B.

Suggested Steps in Illustrating Set Expressions

4. Set Subtraction
(i) The difference between set A and set B is the
Step 1 Draw a diagram for the sets, with Roman
set of elements in set A that are not in set B.
numerals in each region.
In set-builder notation,

A - B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B }

Step 2 Using those Roman numerals, list the

regions described by each set.

U = {I, II, II, IV} A = {I, II} B = {II, III}

Step 3 Find the set of numerals that correspond

to the set given in the set statement.

The goal is to find (A ∪ B)'. But, A ∪ B= {I, II, II}.

Region IV is the only region not in A ∪ B.
Thus, the complement of (A ∪ B)'={IV}.
Step 4 Shade the area corresponding to the set How many students:
of numerals found in step 3
(a) like mango and apple only?
6

(b) like exactly two of the three flavors of

shake
24

(c) like mango only

12

(d) like only one of the three flavors of shake

Problems Involving Venn Diagrams
28
[1] A survey of 275 people was done to find out
the preferred fruit to be made into a fruit shake.
The results of the survey are shown below.

84 people like avocado.

72 people like mango.
26 people like both avocado and mango.

Of the people surveyed, how many people

(a) like avocados but not mangoes? This

refers to people who like avocado only (I).
84 – 26 =58

(b) like mangoes but not avocados? This

refers to people who like mangoes only
(III).
72 – 26 = 46

(c) do not like either of these two fruits? This

refers to people who do not like avocado
or mango.
275 – 58 – 46- 26 = 145

[2] A fruitshake stand surveyed 60 students. The

results of the survey are listed below.

26 students like apple.

33 students like mango.
32 students like buko.
11 students like both apple and mango.
13 students like both apple and buko.
15 students like both mango and buko.
5 students like all three.
 MATH
Module 4: Problem Solving Inductive Reasoning
Mikee Patricia D. Trinidad ꟾ BSMLS1-G
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion
based on the examination of specific examples.

It is the process of reaching a general conclusion

Introduction to Problem Solving by examining specific examples.

A problem is a situation that confronts the

learner, that requires resolution, and for which Using Inductive reasoning to Predict a
the path to the answer is not immediately Number:
known.
Use the Inductive reasoning to predict the next
Problem Solving has been defined as a higher- number in the list:
order cognitive process that requires the
modulation and control of more routine or a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
fundamental skills" (Goldstein & Levin, 1987). b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?

Solution:
Problem Solving Vs. Drills a. Each successive number is 3 larger than
the preceding number, thus we predict
Problem: a situation that confronts the learner, the number next to 15 is 18.
that requires resolution, and for which the path
to the answer is not immediately known. b. Each of the numbers is a perfect square,
the next perfect square number following
• The process of constructing and applying 25 is 36.
mental representations of problems to
finding solutions to those problems that
are encountered in nearly every context, Using Inductive reasoning to Make a
• The context of the problem is brand new Conjecture:
(i,e., the student has never encountered
this situation before) The conclusion formed by using inductive
• Involves a process used to obtain the best reasoning is called a conjecture.
answer to an unknown subject to some
constraints 11 X (1) (101) = 1111
• There may be more than one valid 11 X (2) (101) = 2222
approach 11 X (3) (101) = 3333
• Assumptions must be made regarding 11 X (4) (101) = 4444
what is known and what needs to be 11 X (5) (101) = 5555
found 11 X (6) (101) =? 6666

Drill/Exercise: a situation that requires Example: Use inductive reasoning to make a

resolution, but the method is clear and the way conjecture out of the process above.
to the answer is easily seen
Solution:
• A method of instruction characterized by The product of a one-digit number, 11 and 101 is
systematic repetition of concepts, a four-digit number formed by repeating the
examples, and practice problems one-digit number 4 times.
• It involves memorization to gain
proficiency in a skill
• This often prescribes assumptions to be
made, principles to be used, and
sometimes they even give hints
• It involves one subject and in many cases
only one topic from this subject
• Communication skills are not essential, as
most of the solution involves math and
sketches
• The situation is well-defined. There is an
explicit problem statement with all the
necessary information (known and
unknown)
Deductive Reasoning 3. Carry out the Plan
Implement the strategy or strategies until the
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a problem is solved or until a new course of action
general conclusion by applying general is suggested. Give yourself time, get ideas from
assumptions, procedures, or principles. others.

Consider the following procedure: Do not be afraid of starting over.

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 10, add 8
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4. Review the Solution
4. Look Back
• Check your work. Interpret results. Is your
Solution: answer reasonable?
Let n represent the original number. • Is there an easier or more effective way of
getting the answer?
Multiply n by 10: 10n • Can you solve other related of more
Add 8 to the product: 8+10n general problem?
Divide the sum by 2: (8 + 10n)/2
Subtract the quotient by 4: 4 + 5n – 4 = 5n
Example of how to use Polya's Steps in
After we started with n, we ended with 5n after Problem Solving
following the given procedure. This means that
the given procedure produces a number that is The Use of Diagram
five times the original number.
A gardener is asked to plant eight tomato plants
that are 18 inches tall in a straight line with 2 feet
between each plant.
Polya's Steps in Problem Solving
a) How much space is needed between the first
One of the recent mathematicians who outlined plant and the last one?
a strategy for solving problems from virtually any b) Can you devise a formula to find the length
discipline is Goerge Polya( 1887-1985). In his book needed for ANY number of plants?
, How to solve It, he writes, “ A great discovery
solves a great problem but there is a great Solution:
discovery in the solution of any problem. Your Step 1 Understand the problem.
problem may be modest; but if it challenges your In this case, the key information given is that
curiosity and brings into play your inventive there will be eight plants in a line, with 2 feet
faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, between each. We’re asked to find the total
you may experience the tension and enjoy the distance from the first to the last.
triumph of discovery.
Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.
From a situation ,drawing a diagram would help,
Polya's Steps in Problem Solving so we’ll start there.

1. Understand the Problem Step 3 Carry out the plan to solve the problem.
• What is being asked? The diagram would look like this
• What are the given information or data?
• Can you state the problem in your own
words?

2. Devise a Plan It shows us that for 8 plants, there were 7 two-

• Organize the information given (list, foot gaps in between.
table, chart)
• Draw a diagram We can deduce that for n plants, there would be
• Work backwards n - 1 gaps, so the total length would be 2(n - 1)
• Look for a pattern feet.
• Try to solve a similar bur simpler problem
• Write an equation, defining the variable
used
• Guess at a solution and then check the
result
• What strategies can be used to solve the
problem?
Routine and Non-routine Problems Which means exactly 1 gallon fills the 3-gallon
jug, Thus remains exactly 4 gallons of water
Problem Solving may be categorized into routine inside the 5-gallon jug.
and non- routine. We need to know how to
identify these types as purposes and strategies
used are different for these problems. Problem Solving Strategies: Using Trial and
Error

Routine Problems Example:

As part of your duties as the new hire at a job,
This involves using at least one of the four you’re put in charge of buying 12 door prizes for
arithmetic operations to solve problems that are an end-of-year staff meeting. You’ve got
practical in nature. This stresses algorithms to Php1,100 to spend, and the boss is thinking that
solve the problem. The strength of this type can insulated drink cups and smartphone stands
be assessed easily with paper-and-pencil test would make nice gifts. If a mug costs Php 110 and
typically focusing on the algorithms being used. a stand costs Php 80, how many of each should
However, these problems do not promote you buy?
divergent thinking, for each problem usually
leads to one correct solution. Step 1 Understand the problem.
The key information: total of 12 items purchased,
Php1,100 to spend, Php 110 for each cup, and Php
Example: 80 for each stand. We’re asked to find how many
Cyril jogs four times around a rectangular plaza. cups and how many stands will result in a cost of
If the length of the plaza is 60m and its width is Php 1,100
45m, how far does Cyril jog every morning?
Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.
Solution: I can easily figure out the total cost if I have a
Distance jogs = 4(perimeter of the plaza) specific number of each item, so let’s try a
= 4(2l + 2w) combination at random and see if that helps. If
=4(2 x 60 + 2 x 45)= 840 m you buy one cup and 11 stands, the cost is 1 × 110
+ 11 × 80= 990

Step 3 Carry out the plan.

Non-Routine problems Let’s just keep trying combinations until we find
the right one.
A non-traditional problem where one does not
readily have an idea how to go about in solving
the given problem. The problem may be solved
in many different ways or strategies, others may
have more than one answer or solution. Students
have the tendency to exercise divergent thinking
to come up with the solution, for a particular At this point we can stop. Since the cups cost
problem may have multiple solutions. According more, as we keep adding more of them the cost
to Gilfeather and del Regalo (1999), non-routine will keep going up, and we’re already past our
stresses the use of heuristics and often requires 1,100 target. The last row is out because that
little to no use of algorithms. costs more than what we budgeted, so the best
we can do is to buy 4 insulated cups and 8
Example: smartphone stands at a cost of Php1,080.
How are you going to put exactly 4 gallons of
water on a scale? How would you do it if you only Step 4 Check your answer.
have a 5-gallon and a 3-gallon jug? (The water One of the nice things about using trial and error
source is unlimited) is that the strategy basically IS checking your
answer. We already know we found the best
Solution: choice.
• Fill the 5-gallon jug with water
• Pour water into the 3-gallon jug
• Empty the 3-gallon jug
• Pour the 2-gallon water into the 3-gallon
jug
• Fill the 5-gallon jug with water
• Pour water into the 3-gallon jug with 2
gallons of water in it
Problem Solving Strategies: Using Working • From clue 3, Feona is not the dentist
Backwards • As a result, Feona is the Chef.
• Mary is the Editor.
Example • From clue 4, Rico is not the banker.
What number is multiplied by 15, then the result • Rico is the Dentist.
is added by 15, the answer is 240. What is the • Kevin is the Banker
number?

Step 1 Understand the problem. Key Points:

The key information: the answer after multiplying
a number by 15 and adding 15 to the result gives • Problem Solving has been defined as
240 higher-order cognitive process that
requires the modulation and control of
We’re asked to find what is the starting number more routine or fundamental skills"
(Goldstein & Levin, 1987).
Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem. • Problem solving is different from
Since we know the resulting number, we can classroom drills and exercises.
work it out backwards • Problem is a situation that confronts the
learner, that requires resolution, and for
Step 3 Carry out the plan. which the path to the answer is not
immediately known, while exercise or drill
? x 15 + 15 = 240 is a situation that requires resolution but
(240 – 15 ) ÷ 15 = ? the method is clear and the way to the
225 ÷ 15 = 15 answer is easily seen
• Inductive reasoning is the process of
Step 4 Check your answer. reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples.
? x 15 + 15 = 240 • The conclusion formed by using inductive
15 x 15 + 15 = 240 reasoning is called a conjecture.
225 + 15 = 240 • Deductive reasoning is the process of
reaching a general conclusion by applying
general assumptions, procedures, or
principles.
Problem Solving Strategies: Using Table or • Polya’s Steps in Problem Solving includes:
Organized List. Understand the Problem; Devise a Plan;
Carry out the Plan; and Review the
Example Solution
Each of four neighbors, Kevin, Mary, Feona, and • Here are some of the strategies used to
Rico, has a different occupation (editor, banker, solve a problem: Organize the
chef, or dentist). information given (list, table, chart); Draw
a diagram
From the following clues, determine the • Work backwards; Look for a pattern; Try
occupation of each neighbor. to solve a similar bur simpler problem;
Write an equation, defining the variable
1. Mary gets home from work after the used; and Guess at a solution and then
banker but before the dentist. check the result
2. Feona, who is the last to get home from • Problem Solving may be categorized into
work, is not the editor. routine and non- routine. We need to
3. The dentist and Feona leave for work at know how to identify these types as
the same time. purposes and strategies used are
4. The banker lives next door to Rico. different for these problems.
• Routine Problems involves using at least
one of the four arithmetic operations to
solve problems that are practical in
nature, these problems do not promote
divergent thinking, for each problem
usually leads to one correct solution.
• From clue 1: Mary is not the banker or the • Non-Routine Problems is a non-
dentist. traditional problem where one does not
• From clue 2, Feona is not the editor readily have an idea how to go about in
• We know from clue 1 that the banker is solving the given problem. The problem
not the last to get home, and we know may be solved in many different ways or
from clue 2 that Feona is the last to get strategies, others may have more than
home; therefore, Feona is not the banker. one answer or solution.
 MATH 1. Mathematical Statements
Module 5: Logic Statement: gives us information
Mikee Patricia D. Trinidad ꟾ BSMLS1-G Ambiguous: neither true nor false (not a
mathematical statement)
Mathematical statement: either true or false
(not both)
People have different views and outlooks about Exclamations, orders, questions, and pronouns,
certain things. Sometimes, we tend to agree to cannot be mathematical statements
conjectures of other people that we can see and
disagree to what we don’t see. In many cases, 2. Writing Negations
disagreements follow after an insufficient Negation: negative of something
presentation of evidences based on facts or • Denial of the statement, not the opposite
being unable to exemplify your arguments in a • Do not correct the statement
logical manner. This is now where mathematical • ~ (tilde)
language comes in. Uncertainties of statements • Actual statement is p = negation of
are being minimized or avoided through a series statement is ~p
of logical analysis.
Example: p: The Earth is round in shape
Generally, statements are objectively ~p: The Earth is NOT round in shape
determined to be either true (T) or false (F). For
instance, some parents would agree that When talking about a group (all the):
modular learning is good but some would not. Example 1:
Note that this statement is a proposition that is q: all the vehicles have 4 wheels
either T or F but not both. ~q Step 1: it’s not the case/it’s false that all
the vehicles have 4 wheels
~q Step 2: find the negation of the
Statements and Logical Operators statement
~q: there exists at least one vehicle
Logical Connectives which does not have 4 wheels

The basic logical connectives are conjunction Example 2:

and disjunction, which are denoted by ∧ (and) p: squares of all the numbers are not
and ∨ (or), respectively. The key word for positive
conjunction is “ and” and “ or” is associated to ~p: there exists a number whose square is
disjunction. Statements joined by these positive
connectives are called compound statements.

Propositions and Logical Operators

A. Proposition
a statement which either true or false but not
both. This is considered to be the core
component of logic. A proposition is simple if it
contains a single idea.

Logical Consequences Example:

1) Lizards don’t lay eggs
An implication or a conditional is a compound 2) The difference of twenty and five is fifteen
statement following the form “ if p, then q” and is 3) 1 + (-2) = 0
denoted by (Kwong, 2020), provided 4) The University of San Agustin Iloilo is not a
that p and q are propositions. A complicated catholic university.
form of implication is called biconditional written
as (Baltazar et al., 2018). This is
logically the conjuction of two implications.
 B. Negation
a statement corresponding to a statement with
opposite truth value. Suppose p is a proposition, E. Biconditional Statements
then the negation of p is “ not p” or ~p. The best Suppose p and q are propositions. The
way to describe the negation of a statement is to biconditional of p and q written (read as “ p if and
affix the word not. only if q” ) is the conjunction of two conditional
statements. In symbols, is equivalent to the
Example:
statement
Statement: p: The guy in a black shirt is tall. Example:
Negation: ~p: The guy in a black shirt is not tall.
Premise (p): I will pass this course.
Statement: q: Six divided by two is three. Conclusion (q): My mom will buy me a new
Negation: ~q: Six divided by two is not three. phone

Note: The negation of the statement is not If I will pass this course, then my mom
necessarily the opposite of the statement. We will buy me a new phone.
just deny the statement but not really getting its
opposite. In the case of q above, “ Six divided by If my mom will buy me a new phone,
two is four” is not the negation of q. then will pass this course.

I will pass this course if and only if my

C. Compound Proposition mom will buy me a new phone.
two or more simple propositions combined by a
logical operator commonly known as connective.
The basic logical connectives are conjunction (∧)
and disjunction (∨). Variations of Implications

Example: 1. Implication
If p, then q
Proposition 1 (p): I love Mathematics.
Proposition 2 (q): Learning online is fun. 2. Converse
If q, then p
Conjunction ∧: p ∧ q
I love Mathematics and learning online is fun. 3. Contrapositive
Disjunction ∨: p ∨ q If not q, then not p
I love Mathematics or learning online is fun.
4. Inverse
If not p, then not q
D. Implication
Example:
Suppose p and q are propositions. The
proposition (read as “ If p, then q” ) Implication: If it rains today, then I will stay at
(“ p implies q” ) is called an implication or a home
conditional statement. In this argument, p is Converse: If I will stay at home, then it rains
called the premise and q is called the conclusion. today
Contrapositive: If I will not stay at home then, it
Example: does not rain today
Inverse: If it does not rain today, then I will not
Premise (p): She did not turn-in in our virtual stay at home
classroom.
Conclusion (q): She is absent. • Implication and contrapositive both are
Implication : If she did not turn-in in equivalent.
our virtual classroom, then she is absent. • Converse and inverse both are
equivalent.
• Neither converse nor inverse is equivalent
to Implication.
Truth Tables

A truth table shows the truth values for all

possible truth value combinations of its claim
variables

For convenience, we can simply replace true by

T and false by F.

Consider two propositions p and q. Then, four

possible combinations of truth values can be
made from these statements.

Recall that an implication follows the form

. In the statement, “ If I use a
calculator, then the square of three is nine” .
Notice that when the premise is false, i.e., you
don’t use a calculator, still, the square of three is
Let us say you buy hamburger and fries. This is a indeed nine. So anything from a false premise
conjunction and we write p ∧ q. Suppose you only can be implied. This means that p may not have
manage to buy one out of two (at least one is a direct connection with q. See the table below
true) or maybe none at all (both are false). Then for the truth values of an implication given p and
we can organize this using this table below. q.

Notice in the table that you, buying hamburger

and fries, will only be true if you buy both
hamburger and fries. This means that the
conjunction p ∧ q is true only when both p and q
are true. However, if either p or q or both are
true, then we call that disjunction. Below is a
truth table for disjunction.
 Euler Circles and Syllogism

A. Euler Circles –
are figures similar to Venn diagrams.

Quantifiers – used to describe the variables in a

statement.

1) Universal quantifier –
usually written in the English language as “ for all”
or “ for every” . The symbol is ∀. Other keywords
for universal quantifiers are as follows:
all, each, every, no, none

2) Existential quantifier –
is expressed in words as “ there exists” or “ for
some” . This quantifier is denoted by ∃.

Tautology vs Self-Contradiction

A tautology is a compound proposition that is

always true.

On the other hand, a self-contradiction or a

fallacy is a proposition that is always false.

Logical Equivalence
Two compound statements are logically
equivalent if they have the same truth values.
 B. Syllogism –
These are arguments that consist of two
premises and a conclusion.

Example:

Premise 1 : All USA students are required for an

exit interview after graduation.
Premise 2 : Some USA teachers are enrolled in
graduate school.
Conclusion: Some USA teachers will take an exit
interview after graduation.