Vita 2019
Vita 2019
Abstract— Electric vehicles (EVs) provide the leap towards possibility to reach charging speeds comparable to traditional
a clean and sustainable energy system. They have lower cost of gas refueling, the so called ultra-fast charging (UFC). Despite
ownership than their fossil fuel powered counterparts, emit less the attractiveness, the technological readiness and the
pollution, and enable emerging mobility technologies. When prediction to become the charging method of the future, it was
integrated with renewable energy sources, they have the generally accepted that UFC is the most challenging
potential of significantly decreasing carbon emissions from both parameter in the EV evolution [4]. Planning UFC stations in
the transportation and power generation sectors. The ever- urban areas presents a complex problem, requiring the
increasing adoption of EVs on a global scale is challenging for integration of energy supply, traffic flow, and user utility
the power generation industry, the transmission and
considerations. The power grid, in particular, will experience
distribution system operators, and the consumers as well. If not
unprecedented challenges. Loading stress from AC and DC
properly attended, the increasing adoption of EVs can have a
negative impact on heavily loaded grids, by increasing demand charging, has been shown to lead to significant increments of
and jeopardizing voltage stability. By integrating EVs on a power losses and voltage deviations [5]. UFC power density,
smart grid augmented with supportive technologies, such as the which is 200 times greater than AC charging, could cause
vehicle to grid (V2G) architecture, and with renewable energy detrimental impacts to the power grid, such as, frequent
sources, the results could be exceptional. These techniques have blackouts, causing great concerns for grid operators and
the ability to offer distributed generation (DG), energy storage, utilities, thus prohibiting UFC deployment.
and level out the much fluctuating load demand. This paper
The use of distributed generation (DG), where the
analyses the impact of EVs and renewable energy sources on the
grid. Through a MATLAB/Simulink model the integration of
production of electricity is located near the load and frequently
EVs and renewable energy sources with a standard IEEE 13-bus installed in the same building, is able to resolve many issues
test feeder is analysed in detail, under a number of scenarios arising from the rapid expansion of EVs and corresponding
which are critical for the grid stability. charging stations. DG performs well when a variety of
technologies is used, either based on fossil fuels or RES [6].
Keywords— Electric vehicle, vehicle to grid, energy storage, For environmental reasons, it is always preferable to gradually
distribution network, distributed generation, smart grid. displace fossil fuel-based DG, using a mix of various RES
technologies. The increasing integration of DGs into power
grids has resulted into the degradation of the quality of
I. INTRODUCTION supplied power, in the form of reliability, harmonics, and
From an environmental perspective, the process of deviations in current, voltage, and frequency, leading to
replacing conventional vehicles with electric vehicles (EVs) is equipment failures. Studies have shown that different types of
reasonable under the assumption that those vehicles will be DG influence differently the distribution network and that
entirely powered by renewable energy sources (RES). The their precise location and size are vital in reducing power
main characteristic of RES, such as solar photovoltaic power losses and improving the voltage stability [7].
(PV), or wind power, is their significantly fluctuating supply, Energy storage systems (ESS) have being considered as a
which is based on their resource, with no correlation to potential solution for this problem, since they can regulate the
changes in demand. Various studies show that excess power being introduced to the grid, from the DGs, providing
production from RES can be allocated towards EV charging, stability. Studies have analysed the impact of DGs to a power
mainly for “valley filling” purposes [1, 2]. Since “valley grid when ESS of different capacities, in an effort to study the
filling” alone cannot resolve the issues arising from a large improvements in the power quality. Multiple advantages have
fleet of EVs being distributed across residential areas, studies been obtained from the integration of ESS to power grids [8,
have utilized an optimal power flow (OPF) framework to 9].
model the network constraints that arise from charging EVs at
different locations [3]. The OPF framework requires a two- The vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept, where EVs
way communication within the grid, which can only be communicate with the power grid to sell demand response
implemented in a smart grid. services, by either returning electricity to the grid or by
limiting their charging rate, provides another form of energy
Irrespective of the EV charging strategy implemented, the storage system (ESS). V2G offers to help balance loads by
rapid deployment of EVs and fast chargers will inevitably lead "valley filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and
to increasing electricity demand and congestion on the power "peak shaving" (sending power back to the grid when demand
grid. Academia and industry have researched on the is high). V2G can be considered as a RES, only if during the
Fig. 1. IEEE 13-node test feeder [12] C. Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Model
This system was designed to evaluate and benchmark A model was built to represent a Solar Photovoltaic Array
algorithms in solving unbalanced three-phase radial systems. being connected on the grid. This PV Array represents a
The distribution analysis programs to be tested could then be distributed generation (DG) system [13] and was built as a
compared to the expected published results. The IEEE 13-bus separate circuit, in order to test its output and performance in
feeder has the following main features: two distinctive operating regimes:
1. Short and relatively highly loaded 4.16 kV feeder • Island operation, where the PV array is not connected on
2. One substation voltage regulator consisting of three a grid, but supplying a load.
single-phase units connected in wye • Grid connected operation, where the PV array is
3. One transformer ΔY 115/4.16 kV connected and synchronized on a grid.
4. Ten overhead and underground lines with variety of In this manner, it was possible to troubleshoot, verify, and
phasing benchmark its output at all possible operating regimes of a
real system. Having finalized a stable model, the testing Prince differential equation solver. This simulation method
capabilities as a stand-alone or interconnected system, are was necessary in order to provide precise and detailed results
virtually infinite. The PV array model presented in this on the voltage waveforms during an earth fault, under various
section consists of the following main components: operating modes.
• PV array, with variable irradiance and temperature inputs The purpose of the modeling and simulation was to
investigate the interaction of the test feeder with the inclusion
• inverter with maximum power point tracking topology
of EVs able to operate in a V2G architecture, and a solar PV
• three-phase transformer, for connecting the PV array system, under a number of scenarios. One of the numerous
inverter to the distribution grid scenarios that has been extensively investigated and
• three-phase circuit breaker for disconnecting the PV array presented in this paper, is the effect of an earth fault on the
from the grid test feeder, with and without the integration of the EV cluster
• ancillary equipment such as resistors, capacitive and and/or PV array. A number of scenarios are summarized in
reactive loads Table I.
• a three-phase distribution line TABLE I. DIFFERENT SCENARIOS WITH EV CLUSTER AND PV ARRAY
INTEGRATION DURING EARTH FAULT
III. INTEGRATED DISTRIBUTION GRID ANALYSES AND Scenario Earth Fault EV Cluster PV Array
RESULTS Case A phase “B” to earth disconnected disconnected
0.14-0.18 sec
Representing distributed generation (DG) sources, both Case B phase “B” to earth connected disconnected
the EV cluster and the PV array were integrated on the IEEE 0.14-0.18 sec charging mode
13-bus test feeder, connected on the most distant part of the Case C phase “B” to earth connected connected
IEEE 13-bus test feeder. This part of the feeder represents a 0.14-0.18 sec charging mode 500 kW
produced
distant portion of the distribution grid. With the presence of Case D phase “B” to earth connected V2G disconnected
the three-phase circuit breaker this part of the grid could even 0.14-0.18 sec mode
be disconnected and operate in islanding mode. Both the EV Case E phase “B” to earth Connected V2G connected
cluster and the PV array are equipped with three-phase circuit 0.14-0.18 sec mode 500 kW
produced
breakers, not only to create realistic modelling conditions
where a circuit breaker is present in all such feeders, but also
The results from all case scenarios A to E are summarized in
to allow numerous testing possibilities, where these circuit
Table II.
breakers are selectively switched on and off.
To be able to investigate the effect of EV cluster operating TABLE II. SUMMARY OF SIMULATION RESULTS ON VOLTAGE
in V2G mode and PV array within the IEEE 13-bus test WAVEFORMS
feeder, a fault generator was introduced. This device could Scenario EV PV Voltage Waveforms
selectively introduce an earth fault at any phase or a number Cluster Array
of phases, or even a phase to phase fault, at pre-programmed Case A OFF OFF
time intervals. The overall configuration of the IEEE 13-bus
test feeder with the integration of the EV cluster (with
charging and V2G capability, with disconnecting capability),
the PV array (with disconnecting capability), and the fault
Case B ON OFF
generator (with pre-programmed capabilities on phase(s) and charging
time) is presented in Fig. 2.
Case C ON ON
charging 500 kW
Case D ON OFF
V2G
Case F ON ON
V2G 500 kW