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Square root
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Square roots" redirects here. For the music festival, see Square Roots. For the documentary, see Square Roots: The Story of SpongeBob
SquarePants.

In mathematics, a square root of a number a is a number y such thaty2 = a, in other words, a

number ywhose square (the result of multiplying the number by itself, ory × y) is a.[1] For example, 4
and −4 are square roots of 16 because42 = (−4)2 = 16.

Every non-negative real number ahas a unique non-negative square root, called the principal square
root, which is denoted by √a, where √ is called the radical sign or radix. For example, the principal
square root of 9 is 3, denoted √9 = 3, because32 = 3 × 3 = 9 and 3 is non-negative. The term whose
root is being considered is known as the radicand. The radicand is the number or expression
underneath the radical sign, in this example 9.

Every positive number a has two square roots: √a, which is positive, and −√a, which is negative.
Together, these two roots are denoted ± √a (see ± shorthand). Although the principal square root of
a positive number is only one of its two square roots, the designation "the square root" is often used
to refer to the principal square root. For positive a, the principal square root can also be written
The mathematical expression 'The
in exponentnotation, as a1/2.[2] (principal) square root of x"
Square roots of negative numbers can be discussed within the framework ofcomplex numbers. More
generally, square roots can be considered in any context in which a notion of "squaring" of some mathematical objects is defined
(includingalgebras of matrices, endomorphism rings, etc.)

Square roots of positive whole numbers that are not perfect squares are alwaysirrational numbers: numbers not expressible as a ratio of two
integers (that is to say they cannot be written exactly as m/n, where m and n are integers). This is the theorem Euclid X, 9 almost certainly due
to Theaetetus dating back to circa 380 BC.[3] The particular case √2 is assumed to date back earlier to the Pythagoreansand is traditionally
attributed to Hippasus.[citation needed] It is exactly the length of thediagonal of a square with side length 1.

Contents [hide]
1 Properties and uses
2 Computation
3 Square roots of negative and complex numbers
3.1 Square root of an imaginary number
3.2 Principal square root of a complex number
3.3 Algebraic formula
3.4 Notes
4 Square roots of matrices and operators
5 In integral domains, including fields
6 In rings in general
7 Principal square roots of the positive integers
7.1 As decimal expansions
7.2 As expansions in other numeral systems
7.3 As periodic continued fractions
8 Geometric construction of the square root
9 History
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links

Properties and uses [edit]

The principal square root function f(x) =√x (usually just referred to as the "square root function") is a functionthat maps theset of non-negative real
numbers onto itself. Ingeometrical terms, the square root function maps the area of a square to its side length.

The square root of x is rational if and only if x is a rational number that can be represented as a ratio of two perfect squares. (See square root of
2 for proofs that this is an irrational number, and quadratic irrational for a proof for all non-square natural numbers.) The square root function maps
rational numbers into algebraic numbers (a superset of the rational numbers).

For all real numbers x

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(see absolute value)

For all non-negative real numbers x and y,

and

The square root function is continuous for all non-

negative x and differentiable for all positive x. If f denotes the square-root The graph of the function f(x) = √x, made up of half a parabola with a
function, its derivative is given by: vertical directrix.

The Taylor series of √1 + x about x = 0 converges for |x| ≤ 1 and is given by

Square root of a non-negative number is used in the definition of Euclidean norm(and distance), as well as in generalizations such as Hilbert
spaces. It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics. It has a major use in the formula for roots of
a quadratic equation; quadratic fields and rings of quadratic integers, which are based on square roots, are important in algebra and have uses in
geometry. Square roots frequently appear in mathematical formulas elsewhere, as well as in many physical laws.

Computation [edit]

Main article: Methods of computing square roots

Most pocket calculators have a square root key. Computer spreadsheets and othersoftware are also frequently used to calculate square roots.
Pocket calculators typically implement efficient routines, such as the Newton's method (frequently with an initial guess of 1), to compute the square
root of a positive real number.[4][5]When computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide rules, one can exploit the identity

or

where and are the natural and base-10 logarithms.

By trial-and-error, one can square an estimate for √a and raise or lower the estimate until it agrees to sufficient accuracy. For this technique it's
prudent to use the identity

as it allows one to adjust the estimate x by some amount c and measure the square of the adjustment in terms of the original estimate and its
square. Furthermore, when c is close to 0, because the tangent line to the graph of at c=0, as a

function of c alone, is . Thus, small adjustments to x can be planned out by setting to , or .

The most common iterative method of square root calculation by hand is known as the "Babylonian method" or "Heron's method" after the first-
century Greek philosopher Heron of Alexandria, who first described it.[6] The method uses the same iterative scheme as the Newton–Raphson
method yields when applied to the function y = f(x)=x2 − a, using the fact that its slope at any point is , but predates it by many
centuries.[7] The algorithm is to repeat a simple calculation that results in a number closer to the actual square root each time it is repeated with its
result as the new input. The motivation is that if x is an overestimate to the square root of a non-negative real number a then a/x will be an
underestimate and so the average of these two numbers is a better approximation than either of them. However, the inequality of arithmetic and
geometric means shows this average is always an overestimate of the square root (as noted below), and so it can serve as a new overestimate
with which to repeat the process, which converges as a consequence of the successive overestimates and underestimates being closer to each
other after each iteration. To find x :

1. Start with an arbitrary positive start value x. The closer to the square root ofa, the fewer the iterations that will be needed to achieve the
desired precision.
2. Replace x by the average (x + a/x) / 2 between x and a/x.
3. Repeat from step 2, using this average as the new value of x.

That is, if an arbitrary guess for √a is , and xn+1 = (xn + a/xn)/2, then each xn is an approximation of √a which is better for large n than for
small n. If a is positive, the convergence is quadratic, which means that in approaching the limit, the number of correct digits roughly doubles in
each next iteration. If a = 0, the convergence is only linear.

Using the identity

the computation of the square root of a positive number can be reduced to that of a number in the range [1,4). This simplifies finding a start value

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for the iterative method that is close to the square root, for which a polynomial or piecewise-linearapproximation can be used.

The time complexity for computing a square root with n digits of precision is equivalent to that of multiplying two n-digit numbers.

Another useful method for calculating the square root is the Shifting nth root algorithm, applied for n = 2.

Square roots of negative and complex numbers [edit]

First leaf of the complex square root Second leaf of the complex square
Using the Riemann surface of the
root
square root, it is shown how the two
leaves fit together

The square of any positive or negative number is positive, and the square of 0 is 0. Therefore, no negative number can have a real square root.
However, it is possible to work with a more inclusive set of numbers, called the complex numbers, that does contain solutions to the square root of
a negative number. This is done by introducing a new number, denoted by i (sometimes j, especially in the context ofelectricity where "i"
traditionally represents electric current) and called the imaginary unit, which is defined such that i2 = −1. Using this notation, we can think of i as the
square root of −1, but notice that we also have (−i)2 = i2 = −1 and so −i is also a square root of −1. By convention, the principal square root of −1
is i, or more generally, if x is any non-negative number, then the principal square root of −x is

The right side (as well as its negative) is indeed a square root of −x, since

For every non-zero complex number z there exist precisely two numbers w such that w2 = z: the principal square root of z (defined below), and its
negative.

Square root of an imaginary number [edit]

The square root of i is given by

This result can be obtained algebraically by finding a and b such that

or equivalently

This gives the two simultaneous equations

The square roots of i in the complex

plane

with solutions

The choice of the principal root then gives

The result can also be obtained by using de Moivre's formula and setting

which produces

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Principal square root of a complex number [edit]

To find a definition for the square root that allows us to consistently choose a single value, called the principal value, we start by observing that any
complex number x +iy can be viewed as a point in the plane, (x, y), expressed using Cartesian coordinates. The same point may be reinterpreted
using polar coordinates as the pair (r, φ), where r ≥ 0 is the distance of the point from the origin, and φ is the angle that the line from the origin to
the point makes with the positive real (x) axis. In complex analysis, this value is conventionally written r eiφ. If

then we define the principal square root of z as follows:

The principal square root function is thus defined using the nonpositive real axis as a branch cut. The principal square root function
is holomorphic everywhere except on the set of non-positive real numbers (on strictly negative reals it isn't evencontinuous). The above Taylor
series for √1 + x remains valid for complex numbersx with |x| < 1.

The above can also be expressed in terms of trigonometric functions:

Algebraic formula [edit]

When the number is expressed using Cartesian coordinates the following formula can be used for the principal square root:[8][9]

The sign of the imaginary part of the root is taken to be the same as the sign of the imaginary part of the original number. The real part of the
principal value is always non-negative.

As the other square root is simply −1 times the principal square root, both roots can be written as

Notes [edit]

Because of the discontinuous nature of the square root function in the complex plane, the law √zw = √z√w is in general not true. (Equivalently,
the problem occurs because of the freedom in the choice of branch. The chosen branch may or may not yield the equality; in fact, the choice of
branch for the square root need not contain the value of √z√w at all, leading to the equality's failure. A similar problem appears with the complex
logarithm and the relation log z + log w = log(zw).) Wrongly assuming this law underlies several faulty "proofs", for instance the following one
showing that −1 = 1:

The third equality cannot be justified (see invalid proof). It can be made to hold by changing the meaning of √ so that this no longer represents the
principal square root (see above) but selects a branch for the square root that contains (√−1)·(√−1). The left-hand side becomes either

if the branch includes +i or

if the branch includes −i, while the right-hand side becomes

where the last equality, √1 = −1, is a consequence of the choice of branch in the redefinition of √.

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Square roots of matrices and operators [edit]

Main article: square root of a matrix

If A is a positive-definite matrix or operator, then there exists precisely one positive definite matrix or operator B with B2 = A; we then
define A1/2 = √A = B. In general matrices may have multiple square roots or even an infinitude of them. For example the 2 × 2 identity matrix has
an infinity of square roots.[10]

In integral domains, including fields [edit]

Each element of an integral domain has no more than 2 square roots. Thedifference of two squares identity u2 − v2 = (u − v)(u + v) is proved
using thecommutativity of multiplication. If u and v are square roots of the same element, then u2 − v2 = 0. Because there are no zero divisors this
implies u = v or u + v = 0, where the latter means that two roots are additive inverses of each other. In other words, the square root of an element,
if it exists, is unique up to a sign. The only square root of 0 in an integral domain is 0 itself.

In a field of characteristic 2, an element has either one square root, because each element is its own additive inverse, or does not have any at all (if
the field is finite of characteristic 2 then every element has a unique square root). In a field of any other characteristic, any non-zero element either
has two square roots, as explained above, or does not have any.

Given an odd prime number p, let q = pe for some positive integer e. A non-zero element of the field Fq with q elements is a quadratic residue if it
is has a square root in Fq. Otherwise, it is a quadratic non-residue. There are (q − 1)/2 quadratic residues and (q − 1)/2 quadratic non-residues;
zero is not counted in either class. The quadratic residues form a group under multiplication. The properties of quadratic residues are widely used
in number theory.

In rings in general [edit]

In a ring we call an element b a square root of a iff b2 = a. To see that the square root need not be unique up to sign in a general ring, consider the
ring frommodular arithmetic. Here, the element 1 has four distinct square roots, namely ±1 and ±3. On the other hand, the element 2 has
no square root. See also the articlequadratic residue for details.

Another example is provided by the quaternions in which the element −1 has aninfinitude of square roots including ±i, ±j, and ±k.

In fact, the set of square roots of −1 is exactly

Hence this set is exactly the same size and shape as the unit sphere in 3-space.

The square root of 0 is by definition either 0 or a zero divisor, and where zero divisors do not exist (such as in quaternions and, generally,
in division algebras), it is uniquely 0. It is not necessarily true in general rings, where Z/n2Z for any naturaln provides an easy counterexample.

Principal square roots of the positive integers [edit]

As decimal expansions [edit]

The square roots of the perfect squares (1, 4, 9, 16, etc.) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots are irrational numbers, and therefore
their decimal representations are non-repeating decimals.

√0 =0
√1 =1
√2 ≈ 1.4142135623 7309504880 1688724209 6980785696 7187537694 8073176679 7379907324 78462 (article)1 million digits ,2 million ,5 million ,10 million
√3 ≈ 1.7320508075 6887729352 7446341505 8723669428 0525381038 0628055806 9794519330 16909 (article)1 million digits
√4 =2
√5 ≈ 2.2360679774 9978969640 9173668731 2762354406 1835961152 5724270897 2454105209 25638 (article)1 million digits
√6 ≈ 2.4494897427 8317809819 7284074705 8913919659 4748065667 0128432692 5672509603 77457 1 million digits
√7 ≈ 2.6457513110 6459059050 1615753639 2604257102 5918308245 0180368334 4592010688 23230 1 million digits
√8 ≈ 2.8284271247 4619009760 3377448419 3961571393 4375075389 6146353359 4759814649 56924 1 million digits
√9 =3
√10 ≈ 3.1622776601 6837933199 8893544432 7185337195 5513932521 6826857504 8527925944 38639 1 million digits
√11 ≈ 3.3166247903 5539984911 4932736670 6866839270 8854558935 3597058682 1461164846 42609
√12 ≈ 3.4641016151 3775458705 4892683011 7447338856 1050762076 1256111613 9589038660 33818
√13 ≈ 3.6055512754 6398929311 9221267470 4959462512 9657384524 6212710453 0562271669 48293
√14 ≈ 3.7416573867 7394138558 3748732316 5493017560 1980777872 6946303745 4673200351 56307
√15 ≈ 3.8729833462 0741688517 9265399782 3996108329 2170529159 0826587573 7661134830 91937
√16 =4
√17 ≈ 4.1231056256 1766054982 1409855974 0770251471 9922537362 0434398633 5730949543 46338
√18 ≈ 4.2426406871 1928514640 5066172629 0942357090 1562613084 4219530039 2139721974 35386
√19 ≈ 4.3588989435 4067355223 6981983859 6156591370 0392523244 4936890344 1381595573 28203
√20 ≈ 4.4721359549 9957939281 8347337462 5524708812 3671922305 1448541794 4908210418 51276
√21 ≈ 4.5825756949 5584000658 8047193728 0084889844 5657676797 1902607242 1239068684 25547

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Note that if the radicand is not square-free, then one can factorize, for example ; ;
and .

As expansions in other numeral systems [edit]

The square roots of the perfect squares (1, 4, 9, 16, etc.) are integers. In all other cases, the square roots are irrational numbers, and therefore
their representations in any standard positional notation system are non-repeating.

The square roots of small integers are used in both the SHA-1 and SHA-2 hash function designs to provide nothing up my sleeve numbers.

As periodic continued fractions [edit]

One of the most intriguing results from the study of irrational numbers as continued fractions was obtained by Joseph Louis Lagrange c. 1780.
Lagrange found that the representation of the square root of any non-square positive integer as a continued fraction is periodic. That is, a certain
pattern of partial denominators repeats indefinitely in the continued fraction. In a sense these square roots are the very simplest irrational numbers,
because they can be represented with a simple repeating pattern of integers.

√2 = [1; 2, 2, ...]
√3 = [1; 1, 2, 1, 2, ...]
√4 = [2]
√5 = [2; 4, 4, ...]
√6 = [2; 2, 4, 2, 4, ...]
√7 = [2; 1, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 1, 4, ...]
√8 = [2; 1, 4, 1, 4, ...]
√9 = [3]
√10 = [3; 6, 6, ...]
√11 = [3; 3, 6, 3, 6, ...]
√12 = [3; 2, 6, 2, 6, ...]
√13 = [3; 1, 1, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, 1, 1, 6, ...]
√14 = [3; 1, 2, 1, 6, 1, 2, 1, 6, ...]
√15 = [3; 1, 6, 1, 6, ...]
√16 = [4]
√17 = [4; 8, 8, ...]
√18 = [4; 4, 8, 4, 8, ...]
√19 = [4; 2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 8, 2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 8, ...]
√20 = [4; 2, 8, 2, 8, ...]

The square bracket notation used above is a sort of mathematical shorthand to conserve space. Written in more traditional notation the simple
continued fraction for the square root of 11, [3; 3, 6, 3, 6, ...], looks like this:

where the two-digit pattern {3, 6} repeats over and over again in the partial denominators. Since 11 = 32 + 2, the above is also identical to the
followinggeneralized continued fractions:

Geometric construction of the square root [edit]

Square root of a positive number is usually defined as the side length of a squarewith the area equal to the given number. But the square shape is
not necessary for it: if one of two similar planar Euclidean objects has the area a times greater than another, then the ratio of their linear sizes
is √a.

A square root can be constructed with a compass and straightedge. In hisElements, Euclid (fl. 300 BC) gave the construction of the geometric
mean of two quantities in two different places: Proposition II.14 and Proposition VI.13 . Since the geometric mean of a and b is , one can
construct simply by taking b = 1.

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The construction is also given by Descartes in his La Géométrie, see figure 2 onpage 2 . However, Descartes made no claim to originality and his
audience would have been quite familiar with Euclid.

Euclid's second proof in Book VI depends on the theory of similar triangles. Let AHB be a line segment of length a + b with AH = a and HB = b.
Construct the circle with AB as diameter and let C be one of the two intersections of the perpendicular chord at H with the circle and denote the
length CH as h. Then, using Thales' theorem and as in the proof of Pythagoras' theorem by similar triangles, triangle AHC is similar to triangle CHB
(as indeed both are to triangle ACB, though we don't need that but it is the essence of the proof of Pythagoras' theorem) so that AH:CH is as
HC:HB i.e. from which we conclude by cross-multiplication that and finally that . Note further that if you were to mark the
midpoint O of the line segment AB and draw the radius OC of length then clearly OC > CH i.e. (with equality when and only
when a = b), which is the arithmetic–geometric mean inequality for two variables and, as noted above, is the basis of the Ancient
Greekunderstanding of "Heron's method".

Another method of geometric construction uses right triangles and induction: √1can, of course, be constructed, and once √x has been constructed,
the right triangle with 1 and √x for its legs has a hypotenuse of √x + 1. The Spiral of Theodorus is constructed using successive square roots in
this manner.

History [edit]

The Yale Babylonian Collection YBC 7289 clay tablet was created between 1800 BC and 1600 BC, showing √2 and 30√2 as 1;24,51,10 and
42;25,35 base 60 numbers on a square crossed by two diagonals.[11]

The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650 BC of an even earlier work and shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots.[12]

In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was at least as old as the Sulba Sutras, dated around
800–500 BC (possibly much earlier).[citation needed] A method for finding very good approximations to the square roots of 2 and 3 are given in
the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra.[13]Aryabhata in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.4), has given a method for finding the square root of numbers having
many digits.

In the Chinese mathematical work Writings on Reckoning, written between 202 BC and 186 BC during the early Han Dynasty, the square root is
approximated by using an "excess and deficiency" method, which says to "...combine the excess and deficiency as the divisor; (taking) the
deficiency numerator multiplied by the excess denominator and the excess numerator times the deficiency denominator, combine them as the
dividend."[14]

Mahāvīra, a 9th-century Indian mathematician, was the first to state that square roots of negative numbers do not exist.[15]

A symbol for square roots, written as an elaborate R, was invented by Regiomontanus (1436–1476). An R was also used for Radix to indicate
square roots in Giralamo Cardano's Ars Magna.[16]

According to historian of mathematics D.E. Smith, Aryabhata's method for finding the square root was first introduced in Europe by Cataneo in
1546.[17]

The symbol '√' for the square root was first used in print in 1525 in Christoph Rudolff's Coss, which was also the first to use the then-new signs '+'
and '−'.[18]

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