TOPIC 1: MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION

Materials science and engineering (MSE) is an interdisciplinary field of science and

engineering that studies and manipulates the composition and structure of materials across
length scales to control materials properties through synthesis and processing.

Material science is the study of the structure, properties, and behavior of materials.
Material scientists focus on understanding the fundamental principles governing the behavior of
materials, developing new materials, and exploring new applications for existing materials.
Material science focuses more on the theoretical understanding of the properties of materials

Material engineering is the application of that knowledge to design and develop

materials with specific properties for practical use. Material engineers apply that knowledge to
design and develop materials with specific properties to meet the requirements of a particular
application.

Why study material science and engineering?

- Everything is made of materials

- Selecting the best option between materials for specific applications
- Economic consideration, having to choose which materials will perform best while being
economically acceptable.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Terms used:

“stress” refers to load or force per unit area

“Strain” refers to elongation or change in dimension divided by the original dimension
Conductivity- the ability to conduct electricity
Ductility- the ability of material to be stretched or pulled without breaking

1. METALS
a. have good electrical and thermal conductivity.
b. Metals and alloys have relatively high strength, high stiffness, ductility or
formability, and shock resistance.
c. Resistant to fracture
d. They are particularly useful for structural or load-bearing applications
e. Atoms in metals are arranged in an orderly manner.
f. Relatively denser than ceramics and polymers

2. CERAMICS
a. Ceramics can be defined as inorganic crystalline materials.
b. Due to the presence of porosity (small holes), ceramics do not conduct heat well;
they must be heated to very high temperatures before melting.
c. Ceramics are strong and hard, but also very brittle.
d. Ceramics have exceptional strength under compression.
e. Newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved resistance to fracture

3. POLYMERS
a. Polymers are typically organic materials.
b. They are produced using a process known as polymerization.
c. Polymers typically are good electrical and thermal insulators although there are
exceptions such as the semiconducting polymers discussed earlier in this
chapter.
d. Although they have lower strength, polymers have a very good strength-to-weight
ratio.
e. They are typically not suitable for use at high temperatures.
 4. SEMICONDUCTOR
a. The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials is between that of ceramic
insulators and metallic conductors.
b. In some semiconductors, the level of conductivity can be controlled to enable
electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, etc., that are used to build
integrated circuits.
c. In many applications, we need large single crystals of semiconductors. These are
grown from molten materials.
5. COMPOSITE MATERIALS
a. The main idea in developing composites is to blend the properties of different
materials. These are formed from two or more materials, producing properties not
found in any single material.

● Fiberglass
○ small glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an
epoxy or polyester)
○ The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas
the polymer is more flexible. Thus, fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, and
flexible.
○ It has a low density.
● Carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP)
○ Carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer.
○ These materials are stiffer and stronger than glass fiber–reinforced
materials but more expensive.
○ CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace applications,
as well as in high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs,
tennis rackets, skis/ snowboards) and recently in automobile bumpers.

ADVANCED MATERIALS

1. SMART MATERIALS
a. materials are able to sense changes in their environment and then respond to
these changes in predetermined manners—traits that are also found in living
organisms.
b. Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (which
detects an input signal) and an actuator (which performs a responsive and
adaptive function). Actuators may be called upon to change shape, position,
natural frequency, or mechanical characteristics in response to changes in
temperature, electric fields, and/or magnetic fields.

Four types of materials are commonly used for actuators:

● Shape-memory alloys
○ Metals that, after having been deformed, revert to their original shape when
temperature is changed.
● Piezoelectric ceramics
○ Expand and contract in response to an applied electric field (or voltage);
conversely, they also generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered
● Magnetostrictive materials
○ Analogous to that of the piezoelectrics, except that they are responsive to
magnetic fields.
● Electrorheological and Magnetorheological fluids
○ Liquids that experience dramatic changes in viscosity upon the application of
electric and magnetic fields, respectively.

2. SEMICONDUCTOR
a. have electrical properties that are intermediate between those of electrical
conductors (i.e., metals and metal alloys) and insulators (i.e., ceramics and
polymers).
b. Main application is to make devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated
circuits.

3. NANOMATERIALS
a. Materials that are in the nanoscale.
b. As a rule, <100 nm
c. Small nanoparticles have exceedingly large surface area–to–volume ratios,
which can lead to high chemical reactivities.

4. BIOMATERIALS
a. Biocompatible- Materials that are compatible with body tissues and fluids with
which they are in contact over acceptable time periods.
b. Commonly used in drug manufacturing
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

1. Aerospace Light
a. Aluminum alloys, plastics, silica for space shuttle tiles, and many other materials
belong to this category.
2. Biomedical
a. Ultrasonic imaging systems make use of ceramics known as PZT (lead zirconium
titanate).
b. Magnets used for magnetic resonance imaging make use of metallic niobium
tin-based superconductors.
3. Electronic Materials
a. Semiconductors, such as those made from silicon, are used to make integrated
circuits for computer chips.
b. Superconductors are used in making powerful magnets. Copper, aluminum, and
other metals are used as conductors in power transmission and in
microelectronics.
4. Energy Technology and Environmental Technology
a. The nuclear industry uses materials such as uranium dioxide and plutonium as
fuel.
5. Magnetic Materials
a. Many magnetic ferrites are used to make inductors and components for wireless
communications.
b. Computer hard disks are made using alloys based on
cobalt-platinum-tantalum-chromium (Co-Pt-Ta-Cr) alloys.
c. Many magnetic ferrites are used to make inductors and components for wireless
communications.
d. Steels based on iron and silicon are used to make transformer cores.
6. Photonic or Optical Materials
a. Silica is used widely for making optical fibers.
b. Optical materials are used for making semiconductor detectors and lasers used
in fiber optic communications systems and other applications.
7. Smart Materials
a. A smart material can sense and respond to an external stimulus such as a
change in temperature, the application of a stress, or a change in humidity or
chemical environment.
b. Smart material-based systems consist of sensors and actuators that read
changes and initiate an action.
8. Structural Materials
a. These materials are designed for carrying some type of stress. Steels, concrete,
and composites are used to make buildings and bridges.
b. Steels, glasses, plastics, and composites also are used widely to make
automotives. Often in these applications, combinations of strength, stiffness, and
toughness are needed under different conditions of temperature and loading.
CRYSTALLINE vs. AMORPHOUS

CRYSTALLINE structures are highly ordered and have a repeating pattern in their
arrangement of atoms. This repeating pattern is known as a crystal lattice. Examples of
crystalline materials include diamonds, salt, and snowflakes.
AMORPHOUS structures have a more random and disordered arrangement of
atoms, with no long-range order or crystal lattice. Examples of amorphous materials
include glass, rubber, and some plastics.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER EFFECTS ON MATERIALS

1. Temperature
a. Changes in temperature dramatically alter the properties of materials.
b. Metals and alloys that have been strengthened by certain heat treatments or
forming techniques may suddenly lose their strength when heated.
c. High temperatures change the structure of ceramics and cause polymers to melt
or char. Very low temperatures, at the other extreme, may cause a metal or
polymer to fail in a brittle manner, even though the applied loads are low.
2. Corrosion
a. Most metals and polymers react with oxygen or other gasses, particularly at
elevated temperatures.
3. Fatigue
a. When we load and unload the material thousands of times, even at low loads,
small cracks may begin to develop, and materials fail as these cracks grow. This
is known as fatigue failure.
4. Strain Rate
a. If we pull slowly (small rate of strain), if you pull it fast (higher rate of strain), it
snaps. A similar behavior can occur with many metallic materials. Thus, in many
applications, the level and rate of strain have to be considered.

MATERIAL DESIGN AND SELECTION

- A process in MSE that involves choosing and evaluating the appropriate material for a
given application or products based on its properties and performance requirements.
- Allows engineers to analyze the properties and behavior of different materials.
TOPIC 2: ATOMIC STRUCTURE & ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS

★ Atomic structure (the nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons and the electrons
surrounding the nucleus)
★ AMORPHOUS (those that lack a long-range ordering of atoms or ions)
○ Amorphous materials have only short-range atomic arrangements.
○ short-range atomic arrangements, the atoms or ions show a particular order only
over relatively short distances (1 to 10 Å) Note: Angstrom= 10^-10
★ CRYSTALLINE (those that exhibit periodic geometrical arrangements of atoms or ions)
○ crystalline materials, the long-range atomic order is in the form of atoms or ions
arranged in a three-dimensional pattern that repeats over much larger distances
(from 10 nm to cm.)
★ Nanoscience is the study of materials at the nanometer length scale, and
nanotechnology is the manipulation and development of devices at the nanometer length
scale.
○ length scale of 1 to 100 nm
★ Microstructure is the structure of materials at a length scale of 100 to 100,000 nm or
0.1 to 100 micrometers
★ Macrostructure is the structure of a material at a macroscopic level where the length
scale is 100 m

Notes:

➔ Materials with C-C bonding are expected to be relatively hard.

➔ When ions in this material are arranged Long-Range Order such that they exhibit
tetragonal and/or rhombohedral crystal structures, the material is piezoelectric (i.e., it
develops a voltage when subjected to pressure or stress).
➔ The mechanical strength of many metals and alloys depends very strongly on the grain.
◆ at room temperature, a finer grain size leads to higher strength.
➔ Thick coatings provide corrosion resistance.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

★ Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons and is
encircled by moving electrons.

★ Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the charge magnitude being 1.602 ×
10−19 C, which is negative in sign for electrons and positive for protons; neutrons are
electrically neutral.
★ Calculation
○ Atomic number = Protons and Electrons (in neutral atoms)
○ Atomic Weight - Atomic Number = Neutron
■ Calculating the number of atoms= (mass*avogadro’s number)/molar mass
ELECTRONS IN ATOMS

★ Negatively charged subatomic particle.

★ Quantum Numbers
○ n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5… (Principle Quantum Number - describes the energy level of an
electron inside an atom.)
○ l= s (l = 0), p (l = 1), d (l = 2), f (l = 3) (Angular Momentum Quantum Number -
describes the shape of the sublevel within an energy level.)
■ L ≤ n-1

■
■ The s subshell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
■ The p subshell can hold a maximum of 6 electrons.
■ The d subshell can hold a maximum of 10 electrons.
■ The f subshell can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.
★ magnetic quantum number (ml) - describes the orbital within the sublevel.

○
★ Electron Spin (ms) = +½ / -½
○ If the electron within the orbital is going up, the electron spin is +½.
○ If the electron within the orbital is going down, the electron spin is -½.
★ The valence of an atom is the number of electrons in an atom that participate in bonding
or chemical reactions.
○ Usually, the valence is the number of electrons in the outer s and p energy levels.
○ Helium, Neon, Radon and Argon have zero valency because they have their
outer shell completely filled and are chemically inert gas.
★ Electronegativity describes the tendency of an atom to gain an electron.
★ Elements with low electronegativity are sometimes described as electropositive.
PRIMARY BONDING

- Sharing or donating valence electrons

METALLIC BONDING

★ The metallic elements have electropositive atoms that donate their valence
electrons to form a “sea” of electrons surrounding the atoms.
★ Because their valence electrons are not fixed in any one position, most pure
metals are good electrical conductors of electricity at relatively low temperatures.
★ Metals show good ductility since the metallic bonds are non-directional.

COVALENT BONDING

★ sharing of valence electrons among two or more atoms.

★ In order for the covalent bonds to be formed, the silicon atoms must be arranged
so the bonds have a fixed directional relationship with one another.
○ A directional relationship is formed when the bonds between atoms in a
covalently bonded material form specific angles, depending on the
material.
★ Covalent bonds are very strong.
★ These materials also exhibit very high melting points.
★ The materials bonded in this manner typically have limited ductility because the
bonds tend to be directional.
★ The electrical conductivity of many covalently bonded materials (i.e., silicon,
diamond, and many ceramics) is not high since the valence electrons are locked
in bonds between atoms and are not readily available for conduction.
SECONDARY BONDING, or van der Waals (physical) bonds, are weak in comparison to the
primary or chemical bonds; bonding energies range between about 4 and 30 kJ/mol.

Hydrogen bonding

- secondary bonding between some molecules that have hydrogen as one of the constituents.

MOLECULES

IONIC BONDING - electronegativity difference >1.7

COVALENT BONDING- electronegativity difference >1.7

THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

➔ A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic
array
➔ lattice means a three-dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions (or
sphere centers)
➔ Polymorphism refers to the ability of a material to exist in multiple crystal structures or
solid forms. In other words, different crystal structures of the same chemical compound
are called polymorphs. For example, carbon can exist in multiple polymorphs such as
diamond, graphite, and fullerene, which have different crystal structures and physical
properties.

➔ Allotropy, on the other hand, refers to the ability of an element to exist in multiple forms
or allotropes, each with different physical and chemical properties. For example, oxygen
can exist as diatomic oxygen (O2) or ozone (O3), which have different molecular
structures and reactivity.