I.

History of cells
First to view cells:
- Robert Hooke
- He used a microscope to examine a thin slice of cork (dead plant cells)
- He saw small boxes
Responsible for naming cells:
- Robert Hooke
First to view organisms:
- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, 1673, Dutch microscope maker
- Used a simple, handheld microscope to view pond water and scrapings from his teeth
Concluded that plants were made of cells:
- Matthias Schleiden, 1838, German botanist
- Cofounder of cell theory
Concluded that animals are made of cells:
- Theodore Schwann, 1839, German zoologist
- Cofounder of cell theory
The medical doctor that observed under a microscope the cells dividing:
- Rudolph Virchow, 1855
- He reasoned that all cells come from other pre-existing cells by cell division
II. Cell theory
- All living things are made of cells
- Cells are the basic unit of life
- Cells come from the reproduction of existing cells (cell division)
III. Simple and Complex Cells
Simple cells:
- Prokaryotes
- First cell
- Lack nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
- Single, circular chromosome
- Ex: bacteria
Structure of Prokaryotic Cells:
- Its nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA
- Surrounded by cell membrane and cell wall (peptidoglycan)
- Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their cytoplasm to make proteins
Complex cell:
- Eukaryotes
- Has nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
- Ex: protists, fungi, plants, and animals
Structure of Eukaryotic Cells:
- Nucleus
- Cell membrane
- Cytoplasm with organelles
IV. Eukaryotic cells
Two main types of eukaryotic cells:
- Plant cell
 - Animal cell
V. Organelles
Structure of organelles:
- Microscopic
- Perform various functions for a cell
- Found in the cytoplasm
- May or may not be membrane-bound
Cell/Plasma membrane:
- Living layer
- Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins
- Surrounds outside of all cells
- Controls what enters or leaves the cell
Phospholipids:
- Heads are hydrophilic (loves water). Contains glycerol and phosphate
- Tails are hydrophobic (hates water). It’s made of fatty acids
- Make up a bilayer where tails point inward toward each other
- Moves laterally to allow small molecules (O2, CO2, H2O) to enter
Cell membrane proteins:
- Help move large molecules or aid in cell recognition
- Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface (inner or outer)
- Integral proteins are embedded completely through the membrane
Cell membrane (in plants)
- Lies immediately against the cell wall in plant cells
- Pushes out against the cell wall to maintain cell shape
Cell wall (only in plants)
- Nonliving layer
- Found outside of the cell membrane
- Supports and protects cell
- Found in plants, fungi, and bacteria
Cytoplasm
- Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell membrane
- Provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place
- Contains organelles to carry out specific jobs
Nucleus
- Also known as “control organelle”
- Controls the normal activities of the cell
- Contains DNA in chromosomes
- Bounded by a nuclear envelope (membrane) with pores
- Usually the largest organelle
Note: Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes that carry genes. Genes control cell characteristics.
Inside the nucleus:
- The genetic material (DNA) is found
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is spread out and appears as chromatin in non-dividing cells
- DNA is condensed and wrapped around proteins forming as chromosomes in dividing cells
Function of DNA:
- Hereditary material of the cell
 - Genes that make up the DNA molecule code for different proteins
Nuclear Envelope/Nuclear membrane
- Double membrane surrounding nucleus
- Contains nuclear pores for materials to enter and leave nucleus
Nucleolus
- Found inside the nucleus
- Disappears when cell divides
- Makes ribosomes that make proteins
Cytoskeleton
- Helps maintain cell shape
- Help move organelles around
- Made of proteins
- Microfilaments are threadlike and made of actin
- Microtubules are tubelike and made of tubulin
Centrioles
- Found in animal cells
- Paired structures near nucleus
- Made of bundle of microtubules
- Appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle
- Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite ends of the cell
Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria)
- Powerhouse of the cell
- Comes from cytoplasm in egg cell during fertilization
- Both plant and animal cells have mitochondria
- Generate cellular energy (ATP)
- Its interior is call matrix
- Active cells like muscle cells have more mitochondria
- Site of cellular respiration (burning glucose)
- Surrounded by a double membrane
- Has its own DNA
- Cristae (folded inner membrane) increases surface area for more chemical reactions
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
- Network of hollow membrane tubules
- Connects to nuclear envelope and cell membrane
- Functions in synthesis of cell products and transport
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
- Rough ER
- Smooth ER
Rough ER:
- Has ribosomes on its surface
- Makes membrane proteins and proteins for export out of cell
- On the ER surface, proteins are made my ribosomes which are threaded into the interior of the
Rough ER to be modified and transported
Smooth ER:
- Makes membrane lipids (steroids)
- Regulates calcium (muscle cells)
- Destroys toxic substances (liver)
Endomembrane System:
- Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER connected to cell membrane (transport)
Ribosomes:
- Made of proteins and rRNA (ribosome ribonucleic acid)
- Protein factories for cell
- Join amino acids to make proteins through protein synthesis
- Can be attached to Rough ER or be unattached in the cytoplasm
Golgi Bodies:
- Stacks of flattened sacs
- Has cis face (shipping side) and trans face (receiving side)
- Receive proteins made by ER
- Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch off the ends
Summary note: Modify, Sort, Package molecules from ER for storage or transport out of cell.
Materials are transported from Rough ER  Golgi  cell membrane by vesicles.
Lysosomes:
- Contain digestive enzymes
- Break down food, bacteria, and worn out cell parts for cells
- Programmed for apoptosis (cell death)
- Lyse and release enzymes to break down and recycle cell parts
Lysosome digestion:
- Cells take in food by phagocytosis
- Lysosome digest the food and get rid of wastes
Cilia and Flagella:
- Function in moving cells, in moving fluids, or in small particles across the cell surface
- Cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells
- Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on cells
Vacuoles
- Fluid filled sacks for storage
- Small or absent in animal cells
- Plant cells have a large central vacuole
- In plants, they store cell sap
- Includes storage of sugars, proteins, minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, water, and enzymes
Chloroplasts
- Surrounded by double membrane
- Outer membrane is smooth
- Inner membrane is modified into sacs called thylakoids
- Thylakoids in stacks are called grana and is interconnected
- Stoma is a gel-like material surrounding thylakoids
- Found only in organisms that contains chlorophyll (producers)
- Use energy from sunlight to make own food (glucose)
- Energy from sun stored in the chemical bonds of sugars
VI. Animal Tissues
Histology:
- Study of tissues
Tissues:
- Group of cells with similar structures and function
- Classified according to the shape of the cell, size, intracellular matrix
VII. Four types of human tissues
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscular tissue
- Nervous tissue
Epithelial Tissues:
- Closely connected cells
- Having very little intracellular substance
- Resting on a basement membrane
- Arise from the three germ layers
- No blood vessels enter between its cell but nerves do
- Covers body surfaces and form glands
Embryonic Tissues:
- All adult tissues are derived from one of the three embryonic tissues
VIII. Classification of Epithelium
- Covering epithelia
- Glandular epithelia
Covering Epithelia
- Its primary function of this type of epithelia is protection
- It’s classified according to the arrangement of the cell into simple epithelia and stratified
epithelia
Simple Epithelia
- Divided into four types according to the shape of cell and location of nucleus
- Consists of a single layer of cells that are in contact with the basement
1) Simple squamous epithelium
- Cells are flat with smooth edges
- They appear spindle-shaped in cross section
- Each cell contains a nucleus in the widest area
- Found in the lining of blood vessels, covering serosa
2) Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
- The cells in this epithelium are square-shaped in cross section
- Have central and round nucleus
- Lining the kidney tubules and follicles of thyroid gland
3) Simple Columnar Epithelium
- Built of long pillar-shaped cells
- Containing an oval nucleus
a) ciliated: bronchioles
b) non-ciliated: lining the ileum
4) Pseudo-stratified Epithelium
- Single layer of cells which rest on a basement membrane but do not all reach to the free surface
of the epithelium
- Their nuclei found at different levels giving a false stratified appearance
- Cells that reach the surface carry cilia at their free ends
- Lining the trachea
 a) Keratinized: the epithelium is covered with keratin layer which is formed by the dead
squamous cells (horny layer) Ex: Skin
b) Non-keratinized: esophagus
Transitional-stratified
- Found in the urinary bladder
- Rest on a non-clear and non-wavy basement membrane
- Its superficial cells are cuboidal in shape and may contain 2 nuclei
- The basal cell layer is formed of high cuboidal cell
- The intermediate layer are polyhedral cells
Glandular Epithelium
- The cells are specialized in secretion and thus form glands
- Formed from collections of epithelial cells
- Glands with ducts are termed exocrine
- Glands without ducts are termed endocrine
IX. Exocrine Glands
1) Unicellular
-formed of single cell present in the respiratory tract and intestinal tract
2) Multicellular gland
- Made of cells and each consist of a secretary portion and duct
- Either tubular, alveolar in form and may be simple or compound
Simple Tubular glands
- In the digestive glands, stomach, large intestine
Simple Alveolar
- Form of a flask with a round secretary portion and a narrow tubular duct
- Mucous and sebaceous gland skin
Nervous Tissue:
- Neuron (nerve cell): cell body, dendrite, axon. Glial cells support the neuron.
Schwann cells make up the myelin sheath. Impulse jumps from node to node.
X. Three types of muscle tissue:
- Skeletal, smooth, cardiac
XI. Blood
Red blood cells (erythrocytes):
- Hemoglobin carries oxygen
- No nucleus
- Made in bone marrow
White blood cells (leukocytes):
- Engulf bacteria and cellular debris (neutrophils)
- Hypersensitivity, release histamine (basophils)
- Parasitic infections, allergic response (eosinophils)
- Produce antibodies, regulate the immune response (lymphocytes)
- Engulf cellular debris, antigen processing (monocytes)
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
- Adheres to damaged cell
Blood composition:
- RBC (hematocrit) 40%
- WBC 1%
- Platelets 1%
- Plasma 58%
Cells and Tissues of the Plant Body
XII. Origin of Primary Growth
Primary growth:
- formation of primary tissues
XIII. Growth and Development
Development:
- the sum of total of events that lead to the formation of the plant body
Growth:
- an irreversible increase in size
- Ex: cell division, cell enlargement
Apical Meristems:
- Regions of tissue at the tips of shoots and roots that forms new cells
- Much of the plant undergoes unlimited or prolonged growth of the apical meristems. Therefore,
they are indeterminate.
- Ex: meristematic tissue
XIV. Morphogenesis and Differentiation
Morphogenesis:
- The development of form
Differentiation:
- A process by which a relatively unspecialized cell undergoes a progressive change to form a
more specialized cell
XV: Internal Organization of the Plant Body
Tissue:
- A group of similar cells organized into a structural and functional unit
Tissue System:
- A tissue or group of tissues organized into a structural and functional unit; larger units of the
plant body
XVI. Three types of Tissue Systems
1) Ground Tissue

Parenchyma:

- Polyhedral to round in shape

- Occur throughout the plant body
- Photosynthesis, storage, and secretion
Collenchyma:
- Elongate in shape
- Occur beneath the epidermis in young stems
 - Support young growing tissues
Sclerenchyma (fibers and sclereid):
- Long or stellate in shape
- Occur throughout the plant body
- Support (strengthen) and storage
2) Vascular Tissue #1

Xylem:

- Principal water-conducting tissue in vascular plants; dead at maturity; lignified

Tracheary Elements:
- Tracheid: elongate and tapering; pits, but no perforations; seedless vascular plants,
gymnosperms, and some angiosperms.

- Vessel element: elongate; pits and perforations; angiosperms

Vascular Tissue #2

Phloem:

- Principal food-conducting tissue in vascular plants; living at maturity; not lignified

Gymnosperm Sieve Elements:
- Sieve cell: elongate and tapering; with sieve areas

- Albuminous cell: elongate and tapering; delivers substances to sieve cells

Angiosperm Sieve Elements:

- Sieve-tube element: elongate and tapering; with a sieve plate

- Companion cell: variable; delivers substances to sieve-tube elements

3) Dermal Tissue

Epidermis:

- Outermost cell layer of the primary plant body

- Variable in shape; guard cells and trichomes

- Protective (cuticle and water loss) and aeration (stomata)

Periderm:
- Secondary protective tissues

- Rectangular in shape; cork cells

- Beneath the epidermis

- Protective and aeration (lenticels); replaces epidermis

CELL DIVISION
1) What is the structure of a prokaryotic chromosome and where is the DNA of prokaryotes
attached?
The structure is a one, circular chromosome. The DNA of prokaryotes are attached to the inside
of the cell membrane.
2) How many chromosomes are there in the body cells of eukaryotes?
10-20 chromosomes
3) How many chromosomes are there in the human body?
46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
4) Describe the eukaryotic chromosomes.
Eukaryotic chromosomes store all genetic materials. Each chromosome is composed of a single,
tightly coiled DNA molecule.
5) What do you call the chromosomes that’s still not dividing?
Chromatin
6) How does DNA compact into chromosomes?
The DNA is tightly coiled to proteins called histones.
7) What are sister chromatids?
It’s the identical copies formed by the DNA of a chromosome with both copies joined by a
common centromere.
8) Describe karyotype.
The first 22 pairs are called autosomes and the last pair are the sex chromosomes.
9) What is the last pair of chromosomes for male and female respectively?
XY for male and XX for female (the Y chromosome is shorter than X)
10) What are the 2 types of cell reproduction?
Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction
11) What is asexual reproduction? Give an example.
Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to make 2 new, identical daughter cells. Ex:
Mitosis, Binary fission
12) What is sexual reproduction? Give an example.
Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg and sperm) joining to make a new cell (zygote) that
is not identical to the original cells. Ex: Meiosis
13) What happens in the cell division of prokaryotes?
They divide into 2 identical cells by the process of binary fission. A single chromosome makes a
copy of itself and the cell wall forms between the chromosomes dividing the cell.
14) What are the 5 phases of cell cycle?
- G1 – primary growth phase
- S – synthesis
- G2 – secondary growth phase
These 3 are collectively called as INTERPHASE.
- M – mitosis
- C – cytokinesis
15) What happens in the G1 Stage (Interphase)?

This is the 1st growth stage after cell division. In this stage, the cells mature by making more
cytoplasm and organelles. The cells carry on its own metabolic activities.
16) What happens in the S stage (Interphase)?
In here, the DNA is copied/replicated.
17) What happens in the G2 Stage (Interphase)?
This is the 2nd growth stage. This occurs once the DNA is copied. Both organelles and proteins
are synthesized and all cell structures needed for division are made like centrioles.
18) What happens in mitosis?
Mitosis is also called as karyokinesis and it ONLY occurs on eukaryotes. This is the division of
nucleus. It has 4 stages and it doesn’t occur in brain cells.

19) List the 4 stages of mitosis.

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
20) What happens in EARLY prophase?
 Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible chromosomes and mitotic spindle forms from
fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles.

21) What happens in LATE prophase?

The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are broken down and chromosomes continues to
condense and are clearly visible. Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the centromere of
each chromosome. Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell.
22) Where do mitotic spindle form from?
From the microtubules in plants and centrioles in animals.
23) What happens in metaphase?
Chromosomes attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the center of the cell. Chromosomes
are now lined up at the equator.
24) What happens in anaphase?
This phase occurs rapidly. Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by
kinetochore fibers.
25) What happens in telophase?
When the sister chromatids are at opposite poles, spindle disappears. The nuclear envelope
forms around each set of sister chromatids and the nucleus reappears. Cytokinesis occurs and
chromosomes reappear as chromatin.
26) Define cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis means division of the cytoplasm. It’s the division of the cell into two, identical halves
called daughter cells.

In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide cell. In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms
to split cell.
27) Describe the daughter cells in mitosis.

The daughter cells have the same of chromosomes as each other and as the parent cell from
which they were formed are identical to each other but smaller than parent cell. They must
grow in size to become mature cells (G 1 of interphase).
28) What happens if mitosis is uncontrolled?

If mitosis is uncontrolled, unlimited cell division occurs causing cancerous tumors. Oncogenes
are special proteins that increase the chance that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell.

29) Define meiosis.

Meiosis is preceded by interphase which includes chromosome replication.

Original cell is called diploid (2n) and four daughter cells produced are called monoploid (1n).

Daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.

Produces gametes (egg and sperm).

Occurs in the testes in males called spermatogenesis.

Occurs in the ovaries in females called oogenesis.

Meiosis starts with 46 double stranded chromosomes (2n). after 1st division, it becomes 23
double stranded chromosomes and after 2 nd division, it becomes 23 single stranded
chromosomes. This occurs on our germ cells called gametes.

30) What are the two meiotic divisions?

 Meiosis I and Meiosis II

31) Why is meiosis important?

Meiosis is important because it is the fundamental basis of the sexual reproduction. Two haploid
(1n) gametes are brought together through fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote
32) What happens in the replication of chromosomes?
Replication is the process of duplicating a chromosome. It occurs prior to division. Replicated
copies are called sister chromatids and are held together at centromere.

33) What happens when meiosis forms haploid gametes?

Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by half. Then, fertilization then restores the 2n
number.
34) What are the stages of Meiosis I and describe them.
Early prophase I, Late prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
35) What happens in Prophase I?
Early prophase: homologs pair and crossing over occurs.
Late prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms, nuclear envelope
fragments
(when homologous chromosomes join to form a tetrad, it’s called synapsis)

36) What happens in crossing-over?

Homologous chromosomes in a tetrad cross over each other, pieces of chromosomes or genes
are exchanged, produces genetic recombination in the offspring.
37) What happens in Metaphase I?
Homologous pairs of chromosomes align along the equator of the cell
38) What happens in Anaphase I?
Homologs separate and move to opposite poles. Sister chromatids remain attached at their
centromeres.
39) What happens in Telophase I?

Nuclear envelopes reassemble, spindle disappears, cytokinesis divides cell into two.
40) Describe the process of Meiosis II.

Meiosis II produces gametes with one copy of each chromosome and thus one copy of each
gene.
41) Describe the process in Prophase II.

Nuclear envelope fragments, spindle forms

42) Describe the process of Metaphase II.

Chromosomes align along equator of cell.

43) Describe the process in Anaphase II.

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

44) Describe the process in Telophase II.

Nuclear envelope assembles, chromosomes decondense, spindle disappears, cytokinesis divides

cell into two.
45) What are the results of meiosis?

Gametes form, four haploid cells with one copy of each chromosome, one allele of each gene,
different combinations of alleles for different genes along the chromosome.
46) Define spermatogenesis.
 Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes. Two divisions produce 4 spermatids. Spermatids mature
into sperm. Men produce 250,000,000 sperm per day.

47) Define oogenesis.

Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries. Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies that die and 1 egg. Polar
bodies die because of unequal division of cytoplasm. Immature egg is called oocyte. Starting at
puberty, one oocyte matures into an ovum (egg) every 28 days.
STRUCTURE OF CELLS
1) Who was the first to view cells?

Robert Hooke. He used a microscope to examine a thin slice of cork.

2) Who was responsible for naming cells?
Robert Hooke
3) Who was the first to view organisms?

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, 1673, Dutch microscope maker. He used a simple, handheld
microscope to view pond water and scrapings from his teeth
4) Who concluded that plants were made of cells?

Matthias Schleiden, 1838, German botanist (cofounder of cell theory).

5) Who concluded that animals were made of cells?

Theodore Schwann, 1839, German zoologist (cofounder of cell theory)
6) Who was the medical doctor that observed under a microscope that cell divide?
Rudolph Virchow, 1855. He reasoned that all cells come from other pre-existing cells by cell
division.
7) What are the 3 main reasonings of cell theory?
All living things are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, cells come from the
reproduction of existing cells (cell division)
8) What are simple cells? Describe their structure.
Simple cells are prokaryotes. They are the first cells. They lack nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles. Their structure is a single, circular chromosome. Its nucleoid region contains the
DNA. It’s surrounded by cell membrane and cell wall ( peptidoglycan) and contains ribosomes
(no membrane) in their cytoplasm to make proteins. Ex: bacteria
9) What are complex cells? Describe their structure.
Complex cells are eukaryotes. The have nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, cell
membrane and cytoplasm with organelles. Ex: protists, fungi, plants, and animals
10) List the 2 main types of eukaryotic cells.
Plant cell, animal cell
11) What are organelles?
Organelles are microscopic. They perform various functions for a cell and are found in the
cytoplasm. They may or may not be membrane-bound.

12) Define cell/plasma membrane.

Cell/plasma membrane is a living layer. They’re composed of double layer of phospholipids and
proteins. They surround outside of all cells and controls what enters or leaves the cell.
13) Define phospholipids.
They have 2 parts: heads and tails. The heads are hydrophilic (loves water) which contains
glycerol and phosphate. The tails are hydrophobic (hates water) which contains fatty acids.
They move laterally to allow small molecules (O2, CO2, H2O) to enter.
14) What is the function of cell membrane proteins?
They help move large molecules or aid in cell recognition.
15) What is the difference between peripheral proteins and integral proteins?
 Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface (inner or outer). Integral proteins are
embedded completely through the membrane.
16) Describe the cell membrane in plants.
Lies immediately against the cell wall in plant cells. It pushes against the cell wall to maintain cell
shape.
17) What is a cell wall? What is its function?
Cell wall is a nonliving layer. It can be seen on plants, fungi, and bacteria. It’s found outside of
the cell membrane. It supports and protect cell.
18) What is cytoplasm and its functions?
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance enclosed by cell membrane. It provides a medium for
chemical reactions to take place. It contains organelles to carry out specific jobs.
19) What is nucleus and its functions?
Nucleus is also known as control organelle because it controls the normal activities of the cell. It
contains DNA in chromosomes bounded by a nuclear envelope (membrane) with pores. Nucleus
is usually the largest organelle.
20) Define genes.
Genes control cell characteristics. Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes that carry genes.
21) What can be found in nucleus?
It contains the genetic material, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This is spread out and appears as
chromatin in non-dividing cells. DNA is condensed and wrapped around proteins forming as
chromosomes in dividing cells.
22) What are the functions of DNA?
It’s a hereditary material of the cell. Genes that make up the DNA molecule code for different
proteins.
23) What is a nuclear envelope/membrane? List the function/s.
This is a double membrane surrounding nucleus. It contains nuclear pores for materials to
enter and leave nucleus.
24) Define nucleolus and list its function/s.
Nucleolus can be found inside the nucleus. This disappears when cell divides. It makes
ribosomes that produces proteins.
25) Define cytoskeleton and list its function/s.
Cytoskeleton helps maintain cell shape. It helps move organelles around and is made of
proteins. Microfilaments are threadlike and make of actin. Microtubules are tubelike and make
of tubulin.
26) Define centrioles and list its function/s.

Centrioles are found in animal cells. It’s found near nucleus and it’s made up of bundles of
microtubules. Centrioles appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle . This helps to pull
chromosome pairs apart to opposite ends of the cell.
27) Define mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria) and list its function/s.
Mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell. It comes from the cytoplasm in the egg cell during
fertilization. Both plants and animal cells have mitochondria which generate cellular energy
(ATP). Its interior is called matrix.
Active cells like muscle cells have more mitochondria. Mitochondria is the site of cellular
respiration (burning of glucose). It’s surrounded by a double membrane and has its own DNA.
Cristae (folded inner membrane) increases surface area for more chemical reactions.
28) Define Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and list its function/s.
ER is the network of hollow membrane tubules which connects to nuclear envelope and cell
membrane. It functions in synthesis of cell products and transport.
29) What are the types of ER?
Rough ER, Smooth ER
30) Describe Rough ER.
The Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface and make membrane proteins and proteins for
export out of cell. On the ER surface, proteins are made by ribosomes which are threaded into
the interior of the Rough ER to be modified and transported.
31) What is the function of the Smooth ER?
Smooth ER makes membrane lipids (steroids). It regulates calcium (muscle cells) and destroys
toxic substances (liver).
32) Define endomembrane system.
Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER connected to cell membrane (transport).
33) Describe ribosomes.
Ribosomes are made of proteins and rRNA (ribosome ribonucleic acid).
They are also known as protein factories for cell. They join amino acids to make proteins
through protein synthesis. Ribosomes can be attached to Rough ER or be unattached in the
cytoplasm.
34) Describe Golgi bodies.
Golgi bodies are stacks of flattened sacs. Its shipping side is called cis face and its trans face is
called receiving side. It receives proteins made by ER. Golgi bodies transport vesicles with
modified proteins pitch off the end.
35) Describe lysosomes.
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes. They break down food, bacteria, and worn-out cell
parts for cells. They’re programmed for apoptosis (cell death). Lyse and release enzymes to
break down and recycle cell parts.
36) What happens in lysosome digestion?
Cells take in food by phagocytosis. Lysosomes digest the food and get rid of wastes.
37) Define cilia and flagella. State their functions.
They both function in moving cells, in moving fluids, or in small particles across the cell
surface. Cilia are shorter and numerous in cells. Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on
cells
38) What are vacuoles?
Vacuoles are fluid filled sacks for storage. They are small or absent in animal cells while plants
have a large central vacuole which stores cell sap, sugars, proteins, minerals, lipids, wastes,
salts, water, and enzymes.
39) Describe chloroplasts and its functions.
Chloroplasts are surrounded by double membrane. The outer membrane is smooth and the
inner membrane is modified into sacs called thylakoids. Thylakoids in stacks are called grana
and is interconnected.

The stoma is a gel-like material surrounding thylakoids. Chloroplasts are found only in
organisms that contain chlorophyll (producers). They use energy from sunlight to make own
food (glucose).

The energy from the sun is stored in the chemical bonds of sugars.