Chapter 3: The Plant Cells

Methods to Study Cells Throughout History

- The microscope, the first method in studying cells, was invented in the late 1500s (they
weren’t good at the time)
- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1623 - 1723) perfected the art of grinding lenses &
used them in his own microscopes
- Robert Hooke, an english physicist and microscopist of the 1600s, made significant
discoveries with the compound microscope (microscope with only the eyepiece and
objective lenses)
- In 1665 Hooke used a microscope to examine a sliver of cork from the bark of a
tree and saw that it was composed of tiny boxes of compartments, which he
named cells. He recognized that he was looking at dead cells, of which all that
remained were the cell walls
- Biologists in the 19th century observed organelles
- In 1830 Robert Brown, a scottish botanist, first identified and named the cells
nucleus
- Two german biologists, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann published separate
appears in 1838 and 1839 that clearly stated that cells are the structural units of life
- This statement is now known as the cell theory
- German scientist Rudolf Virchow extended the cell throy in 1855 by stating that all cells
come form preexisitng cells
- In 1880 August Weismann pointed out that since cells come from preexisting cells, all
cells in existence today trace their origins back to ancient cells

Modern Day Methods to Study Cells

- The light microscope focuses a beam of visible light through a transparent sample
- They provide magnification of up to about 1000x; they also provide revolving
power, the ability to reveal fine detail, up to 500x that of the human eye
- The transmission electron microscope (TEM) has much greater revolving power than
a light microscope; it passes a beam of electrons rather than light through the sample
being studied
- This microscope can magnify an object 250,000x or more and has revolving
power up to 500,000x that of the human eye
- In a scanning electron microscope (SEM), the electron beam does not pass through
the specimen.
- The specimen is coated with a thin film of gold or some other metal. When the
electron beam striked various points of the surface of the specimen, secondary
electrons are emitted whos intensity varies with the contour of the surface.
- SEM provides information about the shape and external features of the specimen
that cannot be obtained with the TEM
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

- Cells consist of a small mass of jellylike living material called cytoplasm surrounded by a
plasma membrane, the outer boundary of the cell
- All cells contain genetic material, tha DNA that encodes instructions of the cell’s activities
- Prokaryote: greek pro “before” and kary “nucleus”
- Smaller and simpler
- Lacks nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles
- Archaea and bacteria
- Eukaryote: greek eu”true” and kary “nucleus”
- Larger and have more complex structures
- Genetic material of these cells are located in a membrane-bounded nucleus and
contains membrane-bounded organelles
- Algae fungi, plants, and animals

Structure of the Plant Cells

- Plasma (cell) membrane: the living surface membrane of the cells that acts as a barrier
to the passage of materials into and out of the cell
- Nucleus: a cellular organelle that contains dna and serves as the control center of the
cell
- It is separated from the rest of the cell by a double membrane, the nuclear
envelope, which contains pores lines with protein molecules
- Nucleoplasm: interior of the nucleus, contains the dna, which is associated with certain
protein molecules to form chromatic, a threadlike material
- Although chromatin is normally not visible under the light microscope, during cell
division it coils and thickens and become visible as distinct structures called
chromosomes
- Nucleoli: visible within the nucleus, are involved in making and assmebling the subuits
of ribosomes, important organelles in the cytoplasm
- Plastid: a group of membrane-bounded organelles occurring in photosynthetic
eukaryotic cells; includes choloroplasts, leucoplasts, and chromoplasts. Three types of
plastids are:
- Cholorplasts: usually disc shaped in plants but occur in a variety of shapes in
algae; have photosynthetic function and occur in certain leaf and stem cells and
contain the enzymes necessary for photosynethsis plus the green pigment
chlorophyll, a molecule with the vital role of absorbing light energy.
- Thylakoids: the interior of a chloroplast; contains membranous stacks of
thin, flat, and circular plates; a stack of thylakoids is called a granum
- The grana are embedded in a jellylike fluid, the stroma, which contains
azymes that catalyze the chemica reactions of photosynthesis that
convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrate
- Leucoplasts: colorless plastids that form and store starch, oils, or proteins
 - Chromoplast: third type of plastic that contains pigments that provide yellow,
orange, and red colors to certain flowers such as marigolds, and to ripe fruit such
as tomatoes and red peppers
- Mitochondrion: an intracellular organelle associated with respiration; provides the cell
with ATP
- Some of the enzymes for cellular respiration are arranged along the cristae;
other respiratory enzymes are found in the matrix, the fluid inside the inner
mitochondrial membrane
- Ribosome: a cellular organelle that is the site of protein synthesis. There are two types
of ribosomes: free and unbound
- Golgi body (apparatus) or Dictyosome: an organelle composed of a stack of flattened
membranous sacs that modifies, packages, and sorts of proteins that will be secreted or
sent to the plasma membrane or other organelles
- Vesicles: sacs from golgi body that bulge out and detach from it; it contains
cellular products
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): organelle composed of an interconnected network of
internal membranes within eukaryotic cells; rough ER is associated wiht ribosomes,
whereas smooth ER lacks ribosomes
- Rough ER: site of protein synthesis
- Smooth ER: associated with lipid synthesis
- Vacuole: fluid-filled, membrane-bound sac within the cytoplasm that contains a solution
of salts, ions, pigments, and other materials
- It helps the cell maintain its shape by making it turgid (swollen w plenty of water).
A turgid cell is one that is swolle of firm due to water uptake
- Cytoskeleton: network of fibers that extends throughout the cytoplasm and provides
structure to a eukaryotic cells; it is important in cell movement
- It includes two types of fibers, microtubules and microfilaments
- Microtubules: involved in the addition of cellulose to the cells wall; make
up the spindle, a special structure that moves chromosomes during cell
division
- Other microtubules are a part of flagella and cilia, hairlike
extensions of certain cells that aid in locomotion; flagella are
longer that cilia nad occur in smaller numbers
- Microfilaments: much thinner than microtubules, can contract and are
responsible for cytoplasmic streaming, the movement of cytoplasm
within the cell
- Cell wall: comparatively rigid supporting wall exterior to the plasma membrane;
composed largely of cellulose, a long-stranded polysaccharide that consists of many as
several thousand linked glucose molecules
- Cellulose forms bundles of fibers that are held together by other polysaccharids,
including pectin (the material that thickens jellies)
- There are layers within the cell wall:
- primary cell wall: stretches and expands as the cell increases in size
 - middle lamella: a layer of pectic compounds hardens the wall with pectin
and cements the primary cell wall of two cells together
- secondary cell wall: forms between the primary cell wall and the plasma
membrane; can be multiple layers and has a different chemical
composition; usually contains lignin, a hard substance in which the
cellulose fibers become embedded
- Cell signaling: when cells in a multicellular plant communicate amongst themselves
using chemical signals (either molecules or ions)
- Plant cells have connections called plasmodesmata (singular: pladmodesma),
tiny channels through adjacent cell walls that connect the cytoplasm of the
neighboring cells

Plant Cells and Animal Cells are more alike than different

- Plant and animal cell structure are fundamentally the same with the same organelles
since they are both eukaryotes. However, plant cells differ in several respects
- Plant cells have cells walls, plastids, and conspicuous vacuoles, whereas animal cells
don't
- Animal cells contain centrioles (function in cell division) and lysosomes (involved in
digestion), whereas plant cells don’t

Biological Membranes

- Fluid mosaic model: characterizes the plasma membrane and other cell membranes as
consisting of a double layer (bilayer) or lipid molecules. The different types of lipids are:
- Phospholipid: composed of a glycerol molecule to which are attached two fatty
acids and a moecule containing a phosphate group
- The polar head is hydrophilic (water loving)
- The nonpolar tail is hydrophobic (water hating)
- Membranes - particularly the plasma membrane - receive information from their
surroundings, including other cells

Passage of Material Across Biological Membrane

- Diffusion: the movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region

of lower concentration
- During diffusion, atoms and moelecules move along a concentration gradient -
that is, from where they are more concentration gradient - that is form where they
are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated
- Osmosis: a special kind of diffusion, the movement of water through a selectively
permeable membrane from a solution with a higher concentration of water to a solution
with a lower concentration of water
- In biological systems a solution is a mixture in whichs salts, sugars, and other materials
ae dissolved in water
 - The substances that are dissolved in water are referred to as solutes, and the water is
referred to as the solvent
- Types of solutions:
- Isotonic solution (Greek iso “equal”): where the solute concentration is equal to
that in the cell
- Hypertonic solution (greek hyper “over”): solution where the solute
concentration is higher than that within the cell
- Hypotonic solution (greek hypo “under”): solution where the solute
concentration is lower than that within the cell
- Tugor pressure: internal pressure of water against the cell wall
- As water moves into the cells, their cell walls enable them to withstand the
building pressure caused by the incoming water
- Facilitated diffusion: materials diffuse from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration through special passageways in the membrane
- These passageways are actually membrane proteins called carrier proteins,
which are channels ain the membrane that function as conveyor belts
- Active transport: assisted movement of a substance form a lower concentration to a
higher concentration of that substance; during active transport substances move against
the centration gradient

Chapter 4: Metabolism in Cells

- Metabolism: chemical processes that occur within the cell; there are many types of
chemical reactions occur in a cell’s metabolism
- Anabolic reactions (anabolism): chemical reactions in which energy is stored
in molecules
- Catabolic reactions (catabolism): chemical reactions in which energy is
released from molecules
- Oxidation: chemical reaction in which a substance loses electrons
- Reduction: chemical reaction in which a substance gains electrons
- When hydrogen atoms are removed form an organic compound, they take with them
some of the energy that was stored in there electrons
- Electron transport chain: when electrons are transferred to an electron
acceptor molecule, which temporarily accepts them until they move to the next
acceptor

The Photosynthesis Process

- Photosynthesis: the process of absorbing and converting light energy from the sun to
chemical energy
- Photosynthetic organisms include: plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes
- Takes carbon dioxide from the air and creates carbohydrates and oxygen
- Animals, including humans, depend on plants for food (energy) and oxygen
- Electromagnetic spectrum: a vast, continuous range of electromagnetic radiations
propagated through space and matter; light is only one portion of the spectrum
- Wavelength: the distance from one wave peak to the next
- Photons: the small particles of energy that light is composed of; the amount of
energy in a photon depends on the wavelength of light
- The shorter the wavelength, the more energy there is per photon and vice
versa
- When a molecule absorbs a photon, one of its electrons become energized aka it
is raised to a higher energy level
- That electrons may return to ground level by emitting a less energetic photon OR
be accepted by an electron acceptor molecule
- In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts, which lies inside
the leaf in the cells of the mesophyll, a layer with many air spaces and a high
concentration of water vapor (each mesophyll cell has 20 to 100 chloroplasts)
- The interior of the leaf exchanges gasses with the outside through the stomata
- The chloroplast is enclosed by outer and inner membranes
- Stroma: a fluid-filled region inside the chloroplast enclosed by the inner
membrane which contains most of the enzymes required to produce
carbohydrate molecules
- Thylakoids: found in the stroma, an interconnected set of flat, disc-like sacs
- Thylakoid lumen: a fluid-filled interior space that is enclosed by the thylakoid
membrane
- Thylakoid membranes contain several kinds of pigments, which are
substances that absorb visible light
- Grana (granum): arranged stacks of fo thylakoid sacs found in some regions of
the cloroplasts; each granum looks like a stack of coins, each coin being one
thylakoid
- Carotenoids: accessory photosynthetic pigments that plants and algae have that are
yellow and orange
- They absorb different wavelengths of light than chlorophyll, which expands the
spectrum of light that can provide energy for photosynythesis
- Two stages of photosynthesis
- Light-dependent reaction: captures light energy and turns it into chemical
energy; happens in association with the thylakoids
- Energized electrons is used to make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and
NADPH
- Carbon fixation reaction: produces carbohydrates using stored energy from
ATP and NADPH happens in the stroma
- Carbon fixation reactions depend on the products of the light-dependent
reactions
- Calvin cycle (dark reaction): most common carbon fixation pathway
named after Melvin Calvin
- Antenna complexes: units of organized chlorophyll molecules and accessory pigment
molecules with pigment-binding proteins in thylakoid membranes
 - Each antenna complex absorbs light energy and transfers it to the reaction
center, which consists of chlorophyll molecules and proteins that participate
directly in photosynthesis
- There are two light-harvesting unit of light-dependent reactions
- Photosystem 1 (P700): contains a pair of chlorophyll A molecules with an
absoroption peak of 700nm of light
- Photosystem 2 (P680): contains a pair of chlorophyll A molecules with an
absorption peak of 680 nm of light
- An electron transport chain links these two photosystems
- Noncyclic electron transport: continuous, one-way flow of electrons from water to
photosystem 2 and 1 to produce NADP, ATP and oxygen
- ATP synthase: an enzyme complex that synthesizes ATP from ADP, using the energy of
a proton gradient (the difference in concentration between the thylakoid lumen and the
stroma); located in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and in the inner
mitochondrial membrane
- Chemiosmosis: the synthesis of ATP using the energy of a proton gradient established
across a membrane; occurs during electron transport in both photosynthesis and aerobic
respiration
- Photorespiration: happens to plants during hot-periods that are water-stressed; they
close their stomata to conserve water, meaning that CO2 cannot enter, which means the
rubisco enzyme binds RuBP to O2 instead of CO2, which degrades some of the
- RuBPreduces the efficiency of the c3 pathway
- Many plants with tropical origins fix carbon using the C4 pathway: carbon fixation forms
a four-carbon compound, which is transported to bundle sheath cells that surround the
veins of the leaf. CO2 is removed form C4 molecules and fixed into sugar via the regular
calvin cycle way.
- Plants with tropical origans have the opposite problem of plants who need
photorespiration
- Many desert plants fix carbon using the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
pathway: collect and fix CO2 during the night by combining it with a C3 compouns to
form a C4 compound which is temporarily stored in the vacuoles of leaf cells. During the
day (when the stomata is closed to conserve water) CO2 is removed from the 4C
compound
- Cellular respiration: a series of chemical reactions that break apart fuel molecules and
transfer the energy stored in their bonds to ATP for use in cellular work
- Cells use three different catabolic pathways to extract energy from fuel molecules:
- Aerobic respiration: used by cells that live in places where oxygen is abundant;
occurs in three different stages
- Glycolysis: glucose molecule is split into 2 C3 molecules of pyruvate
whilst the electrons and protons of hydrogens combine with NAD to make
NADH and ATP; takes place in the cytoplasm
- Formation of acetyl coenzyme A: links glycolsis to the citric acid cycle;
each C3 molecule of pyruvate produced dyring glycolysis passes from the
cytoplasm into the mitochondrion where it is degraded into a C2 molecule
 (acetyl group) that combines with coenzyme A to make acetyl coenzyme
A. This step releases CO2 and NADH
- Citric Acid cycle (Krebs Cycle): occurs in the mitochondrion; each
acetyl CoA combines with a 4C molecule to form a 6C molecule (citrate)
which degrades into a 4C molecule + 2 molecules of CO2
- In summary: glucose turns into pyruvate, which turns into acetyl CoA,
which is then oxidized
- Anaerobic respiration: used by cells that live in polluted water/waterlogged soil
where oxygen in absent; unlike aerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor in
the electron transport chain is nitrate of sulfate instead of oxygen (inorganic
molecules)
- Fermentation (two types)
- Alcohol fermentation: because of the absence of O2, cells split CO2 off
from pyruvate after glycolysis, forming ethyl alcohol (ex: yeast & wine)
- Lactate fermentation: pyruvate is converted to lactate

Chapter 5 - Plant Tissues and Multicellular Body

- Root system: underground system of the plant

- Shoot system: aerial (aboveground) system of the plant
- Herbaceous plants do not develop persistent woody parts aboveground, whereas woody
plants do
- Types of plants by its life cycle:
- Annuals: herbaceous plants that’s life cycle is one year
- Biennials: plants that’s life cycle is two years
- Perennials: woody or herbaceous plants that live for more than two years
- Ground tissue system: all of the tisues of the plants body other than the vascular
tissues and the dermal tissues
- Functions: photosynthesis, storage, support
- Composed of three tissues
- Parenchyma cell: plant cell that is relatively unspecialized, is thin walled,
may contain chlorophyll, and is typically rather loosely packed
- Collenchyma cell: plant cell with moderately but unevenly thickened
primary walls
- Sclerenchyma cell: plant cell with extremely thick walls that provides
strength and suppor to the plant body
- Sclereids: short cells that are variable in shape, are common in
the shells of nuts and the stones of fruits, such as cherries and
peaches
- Fibers: long, tapered cells that often occur in groups of clumps,
are particularly abundant in the wood, inner bar, and leaf ribs of
flowering plants
 - Vascular tissue system: the tissue system that conducts materials throughout the plant
body
- Function: plumbing system that extends throughout the plant body that conducts
substances like water, dissolved minerals, and food (dissolved sugar),
strengthens and supports the plant body
- Composed of two tissues
- Xylem: conducts water and dissolved minerals throughout the plant body
- Tracheids: chief water-conducting cells in gymnosperms
- Vessel elements: water-conducting cells in flowering plants
- Phloem: conducts food (carbohydrates) throughout the plant body
- Dermal tissue system: the tissue system that provides an outer covering for the plant
body
- Function: covers the plant body
- Composed of two different tissues:
- Epidermis: outermost tissue layer, usually one cells thick, that covers the
primary plant body - that is, leaves and young stems and roots
- Periderm: outermost layer of cells covering a woody stem or root - that is,
the outer bark that replaces epidermis when it is destroyed during
secondary growth
- Organs: parts of a plant that is composed of all three tissue systems
- Primary growth: vertical growth (length/tallness)
- Secondary growth: horizontal growth (width/thickness)
- Apical meristem: an area of cell division at the tip of a stem or root in a plant; produces
primary tissues
- Lateral meristem: an area of cell division o n the side of a vascular plant; the two lateral
peristems (vascular and cork cambium) give rise to secondary tissues

Chapter 6: Roots

- Roots provide anchorage, absorption, conduction, and storage

- Two types of root systems:
- Taproot system: a root system consisting of one prominent main root with
smaller lateral roots branching from it
- Fibrous root system: a root system consisting of several adventitious roots of
approximately equal size that arise from the base of the stem
- Adventitious organs: occur in unusual locations, such as roots that
develop on a stem or buds that develop on roots
- The root system contains:
- Epidermis
- Cortex: the main bulk of the root, used for storage
- Stele: the core of the root; contains xylem and phloem
- Endodermis: innermost layer of the cortex
- Casparian strip: band of waterprood material around the radial and transverse
cells of the endodermis
 - Symplast: a continuum consisting of the cytoplasm, connected from one cells ot
the next by plasmodesmata
- Apoplast: a continuum consisting of the interconnected, porous plant cell walls,
along which water moves freely
- Pericycle: a layer of cells just inside the endodermis of the root; gives rise to
lateral roots
- The central tissue in some monocot roots is pith
- Roots with unusual functions
- Prop roots: adventitious roots that arises from the stem and provides addition
support for the plant
- Pneumatophore: a specialized aerial root produced by certain trees living in
swampy habitats; may facilitate gas exchange between the atmosphere and
submerged roots
- Contactrile root: often found on bulbs or corms, that contracts and pulls the
plant to a desirable depth in the soil
- Mycorrhiza: a mutually beneficial association between a fungus and a root that helps
the plant absorb essential minerals from the soil
- Nodule: a smal swelling on the root of a leguminous plant in which beneficial
nitrogen-fixing bacteria (rhizobium) live

Chapter 7: Stems

- Bud: an undeveloped shoot that contains an embryonic meristem; may be terminal or

axillary
- Node: the area on a stem where one or more leaves is attached; stems have nodes, but
roots do not
- Internode: the area on a stem between two successive nodes
- The stem system contains:
- Cuticle: usually covers the epidermis: roots do not have a cuticle
- Epidermis
- Cortex
- Vascular bundles: contains both xylem & phloem, and vascular cambium (a
lateral meristem that is responsible for secondary growth) which is in between the
xylem and phloem
- Pith: the core of the stem, takes up more space than the cortex; they are ground
tissue composed of large, thin-walled parenchyma cells that function primarily for
storage
- Vascular bundles are arranged in a circle around a central pith in eudicot stems,
whereas in monocot stems they are scattered throughout

Stems of Woody plants

 - Cells in the vascular cambium divide and produce two complex tissues: secondary
xylem (wood) that replaces primary xylem and secondary phloem (inner bark) that
replaces primary phloem
- Cork cambium: a lateral merisem that produces cork cells and cork parenchyma; cork
cambium and the tissues it produces make up the outer bark of a woody plane
- Sapwood: younger, lighter-colored wood closest to the bark
- Heartwood: the older wood in the center of the truck, is typically a brownish red
- Hardwood: wood of flowering plants (woody eudicots)
- Softwood: wood of conifers (cone-bearing gymnosperms)
- Dendrochronology: the study of both visible and microscopic details of tree rings
- Rhizome: a horizontal underground stem that often serves as a storage organ and a
means of sexual reproduction
- Tuber: the thickened end of a rhizome that is fleshy and enlarged for food
storage
- Types of stems:
- Sub-aerial stems: lower buds of the stem in some plants grow out into short
lateral branches (ex: runners, stolons, offset, & sucker)
- Aerial stem: stem tendrils, stem thorns, cladode
- stolons/runners: horizontally oriented stems that grow along the soil surface
(ex: strawberries, bermuda & crab grass, spider plant)
- tendrils/twining shoots: coil around objects & help support plant (ex:
honeysuckle, wisteria)
- cladodes/cladophylls: flat, leaf-like stems modified for photosynthesis (ex:
asparagus, orchids)
- Thorns: modified stems that protects from grazing animals (ex: bougainvillea,
hawthorn, grapefruit)
- Short & long shoot: distinguished by internodal elongation
- Rosette: plants whose stems do not elongate, short internodes, tightly packed
leaves (ex: succulents)
- Bulb: a rounded, fleshy underground bud that consists of a short stem with fleshy
leaves
- Corm: a short, thickened underground stem specialized for food storage and
asexual reproduction

Chapter 8: Leaves

- See ppt in phone files