FOUNDATION

ENGINEERING
 UNIT I
SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF
FOUNDATION
Methods of exploration – boring technology – Depth of boring
– Spacing of bore hole – Sampling – Methods -Thick, Thin wall
samplers, Stationery piston sampler – Penetration tests - Bore log
report – Data interpretation.
 SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF
FOUNDATION
Methods Of Exploration
 Boring Technology
 Depth Of Boring
 Spacing Of Bore Hole
 Sampling & Methods
Penetration Tests
 Bore Log Report
 Data Interpretation.
 WORK SEQUENCE
1. Site Investigation
To obtain necessary information about the soil and hydrological
conditions at the site and to know the engineering properties of the soil
2. Site Reconnaissance
An visual inspection of the site and study of topographical features
3. Site Exploration
To provide reliable, specific and detailed information about the soil
and ground water conditions at the site
 SITE INVESTIGATION
 To obtain necessary information about the soil and
hydrological conditions at the site and to know the engineering
properties of the soil.
 The process of determining the layers of natural soil
deposits that will underlie a proposed structure and their physical
properties is generally referred to as site investigation.
 The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the
necessary information about the sub soil characteristics including
the position of ground water table are termed as soil exploration.
Site investigation consists of:
 Preliminary survey
 Detailed investigation

Preliminary survey consists of:

 Site visit
 Local topography
 Drainage conditions
 Natural features like streams , lakes, wells etc., near by
 Adjacent constructions if any
Detailed site investigation consists of :
 Making of bore holes.

 Taking soil samples at different depths.

 Carrying out in-situ tests like penetration test, Plate load test
etc.,
 Testing of soil samples in the laboratory for physical and
engineering properties.
Objective of Soil Investigation
To obtain
 The sequence and the thickness of various soil layers.
 The physical and engineering properties of each of the soil
layers.
 Location of water table.

Purpose of Soil Investigation

To obtain the properties of soils required for:
 Selection of type of foundation
 Design of foundation
8
 CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLORATION
General Exploration
 To get an approximate picture of the sub-soil conditions at a relatively low
cost.
 It is opted for minor & routine engineering works.

Detailed Exploration
 It is followed as a supplement to general exploration which gives detailed
information's such as soil properties, ground water conditions.
 It is opted for large engineering works, heavy loads & costly foundations are
involved.
 METHODS OF SITE EXPLORATION
1. Open excavations
2. Borings
3. Sub-surface soundings
4. Geophysical methods
 OPEN EXCAVATIONS
 Test pits and trenches can be used for all types of soils
 Cost of open excavations increased rapidly with depth

 This method is ideal for shallow depth i.e. up to 3 metres

 BORING METHODS
Boring has several methods to explore the soil conditions. They
are,
1. Auger boring

2. Auger and shell boring

3. Wash boring

4. Percussion boring

5. Rotary boring
 AUGER BORING
 Augers are used in soft and cohesive soils
 Hand augers are used for depth up to 6 metres

 Mechanical augers are used for greater depths

 Recovered soil samples are badly

disturbed and so they are useful for

identification purpose only
 Auger boring is suitable for highway

explorations at shallow depth

 AUGER & SHELL BORING
 This method of boring is suitable for
soft to stiff clays and sandy soils
 Augers has shell with cutting edge on

teeth at the lower end can be used for hard clays

 Hand operated rigs are used for depths

up to 25 m and the mechanised rigs up to 50 m.

 WASH BORING
 It is a fast and simple method of boring for all types of soils except rocks
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
1. Driving a casing through which a hollow drill rod with a sharp chisel or chopping
bit at the lower end
2. Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which is alternatively raised,
dropped and rotated.
3. Chopping and jetting action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil

4. From which we can get soil-water slurry through the annular space b/w the drill rod
& the casing
5. We can guess the soil stratification from the rate of progress and the colour of wash
water
 PERCUSSION BORING
 This method is suitable for soil &
rock formations
 Repeated blows of heavy chisel or

chopping bit broke the rocks.

 Water is added to the hole during the

boring process
 From which we can collect the soil

sample
 ROTARY BORINGS
 It is a very fast method of boring suitable for both soils and
rocks
 A drill bit is fixed at the bottom of the drill rod and it is
rotated by a chuck and is always kept in firm contact with the
bottom of the hole
 Here we use bentonite solution along with water to soften
the rocks
 The mud returning upwards collected for testing
 So it is called Mud rotary drilling
 SUB-SURFACE SOUNDINGS
 This method is generally used for determining the consistency of
cohesive soils or relative density of cohesion less soils
COMMON PROCEDURE
1. A rod encased in a sleeve is forced into the soil and the resistance to
penetration or with drawl is observed.
2. Variations in this resistance shows dissimilar soil layers
ADVANTAGES
 faster and cheaper than boring
 In erratic soil conditions soundings can be used
LIMITATIONS
 Sounding gives no idea about the settlement characteristics of the soil
 Soundings alone cannot provide sufficient data for the final design
 METHODS OF SUB-SURFAFCE SOUNDING
There are two common types of Sub-Surface Soundings. They are,
1. Standard Penetration Test [ SPT ]
2. Cone Penetration Test [ CPT ] or Dutch Cone Test
 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
Concept:
 SPT is a common in situ testing method used to determine the
geotechnical engineering properties of subsurface soils.

 SPT are carried out in borehole.

 The test will measure the resistance of the soil strata to the penetration
undergone.
 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

 A penetration emphirical correlation is derived between the soil properties

and the penetration resistance.
 The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density and the
angle of shearing resistance of cohesion less soils.
 It can also be used to determine the unconfined compressive strength of
cohesive soils.
Tools for Standard Penetration Test
 Standard Split Spoon Sampler
 Drop Hammer weighing 63.5kg
 Guiding rod
 Drilling Rig.
 Driving head (anvil).
 The test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler.
 Once the drilling is done to the desired depth, the drilling tool is removed and
the sampler is placed inside the bore hole.
 By means of a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 750mm
at the rate of 30 blows per minute, the sampler is driven into the soil.
 The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150 mm is counted.

 Further it is driven by 150 mm and the blows are counted.

 Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150 mm and the number of blows
recorded.
 The number of blows recorded for the first 150 mm not taken into consideration.
 The number of blows recorded for last two 150 mm intervals are added to give the
standard penetration number (N).
N = No: of blows required for 150mm penetration beyond seating drive of
150mm.
 If the number of blows for 150mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and
the test is discontinued.
 The standard penetration number is corrected for dilatancy correction and
overburden correction.
 Before the SPT values are used in empirical correlations and in design charts,
the field ‘N’ value have to be corrected as per IS 2131 – 1981.
 Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water table develop pore water
pressure which is not easily dissipated.
The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration
number (N).
Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommend the following correction in the case of
silty fine sands when the observed value is N exceeds 15.

Where
Ne = Corrected value of overburden effect
N = actual values of blows
 From several investigations, it is proven that the penetration
resistance or the value of N is dependent on the overburden pressure.

 If there are two granular soils with relative density same, higher ‘N’ value will
be shown by the soil with higher confining pressure.
 With the increase in the depth of the soil, the confining pressure also increases. So
the value of ‘N’ at shallow depth and larger depths are underestimated and
overestimated respectively.
 CORRECTION FOR OVERBURDEN PRESSURE
1. For p0 <= 75 kPa

2. For p0 > 75 kPa

Where
 N’ = corrected N value

 N = observed N-value

 P0 = over burden pressure, (kPa) = γ x D

 D = depth of testing (m)

 γ = unit weight of soil at the time of testing

 Split spoon sampler must be in good condition.
 The cutting shoe must be free from wear and tear.
 The height of fall must be 750mm. Any change from this will affect the ‘N’ value.
 The drill rods used must be in standard condition. Bent drill rods are not used.
 Before conducting the test, the bottom of the borehole must be cleaned.
 The test is simple and economical.
 The test provides representative samples for visual inspection,
classification tests and for moisture content.

 Actual soil behaviour is obtained through SPT values.

 The method helps to penetrate dense layers and fills.
 Test can be applied for variety of soil conditions.
 The results will vary due to any mechanical or operator variability or
drilling disturbances.

 Test is costly and time consuming.

 The samples retrieved for testing is disturbed.
 The test results from SPT cannot be reproduced.
 The application of SPT in gravels, cobbles and cohesive soils are
limited.
The cone penetration test has become Internationally one of the
most widely used and accepted test methods for determining
Geotechnical soil properties.
 The results will vary due to any mechanical or operator variability or
drilling disturbances.

 Test is costly and time consuming.

 The samples retrieved for testing is disturbed.
 The test results from SPT cannot be reproduced
 The application of SPT in gravels, cobbles and cohesive soils are
limited
Apparatus
 Steel cone
 Friction jacket
 Sounding rods
 Sounding tubes/mantle tubes
 Driving and measuring instrument

Capacity of equipment available

 3 ton
 10 ton
 20 ton
THE CONE PENETRATION TEST HAS BECOME
INTERNATIONALLY ONE OF THE MOST
WIDELY USED AND ACCEPTED TESTMETHODS
FOR DETERMINING

GEOTECHNICAL SOIL PROPERTIES

 CONE PENETRATION TEST [ CPT ]

PROCEDURE
1. The test method consists of pushing an instrumented cone, with the tip facing down,
Into the ground at a controlled steady rate
2. A cone with base of 3.6 cm in diameter (10 sq.cm ) and an angle of 60 degree at the
vortex.
3. To find out the cone resistance, the cone alone is first forced down for a distance of
8cm and the maximum value of resistance is recorded.
4. Cone resistance qc (kg/sq.cm) is approximately equal to 10 times the penetration
resistance N.
5. This test is very useful in finding bearing capacity of pits in cohesion less soil
THE CONE PENETRATION TEST HAS BECOME
INTERNATIONALLY ONE OF THE MOST
WIDELY USED AND ACCEPTED TESTMETHODS
FOR DETERMINING

GEOTECHNICAL SOIL PROPERTIES

 GEO-PHYSICAL METHODS
 Boring and test pits provide definite results but they are time consuming and
expensive and Subsurface conditions are known only at the bore or test pit
location
 So we can use geo physical methods to provide thorough coverage of the
entire area.
 There are two methods of geophysical exploration. They are,
1. Seismic or Refraction method
2. Electrical Resistivity method
 SEISMIC OR REFRACTION METHOD
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 Elastic shock waves travel at different velocities in different materials.

 Shock waves are generated at a point on the ground surface, using a sledge hammer.

 These waves travel deep into the ground and get refracted at the interface of two
different materials and to the ground surface.
 The time of arrival of these waves at different locations on the ground surface are
recorded by geophones, which pick up the refracted waves.
 The geophones convert the ground vibrations into electrical impulses and transmit
them to a recording apparatus.
 When the distance between the vibration source and the geophone is short, the arrival
time will be that of a direct wave.
 When the distance exceeds a certain value, the refracted wave will be the first to be
detected by the geophone.
SEISMIC OR REFRACTION METHOD
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
 DEPTH OF BORING
Significant Depth of Boring
Exploration should be carried to a depth up to which the
increase in pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause
perceptible settlement or shear failure

Depth of boring Depends upon

 Type of structure

 Intensity of Loading

 Soil profile

 Physical characteristics of soil

DEPTH OF BORING ,DB
Should extend up to the significant depth below the base
of the foundation
DB Df + 2B for square / circular footings
Df + 6B for strip / continuous footings
In the case of pile foundations,
DB length of pile + significant depth below
the base of the pile group.
Df – Depth of footing
B – Width of footing
 NUMBER OF BORINGS OR TRIAL PITS
FOR SMALLER BUILDINGS
1 bore hole or test pit in the centre of the site
FOR LARGER BUILDINGS
1 bore hole at each corner and 1 in centre
FOR VERY LARGER BUILDINGS
Areas should be divided in a grid pattern and borings are carried out at every 100 metre
depends upon the soil
FOR DAM SITES
Borings are made at the intervals of 50 m spacing along the upstream.
FOR ROADS
Generally at the intervals of every 100 m, for uniform soil it is increased to every 500
m and it is decreased to 30 m for non uniform soil
HOW MANY BORE HOLES?

The number of bore holes depends on

 Type and size of the project

 Budget for site investigation

 Soil variability

Locate the bore holes where the loads are expected.

 SPACING OF BORINGS

Type of project Spacing (m)

Multistorey building 10-30
One – storey industrial 20-60
plants
Highways 250-500
Residential subdivision 250-500
Dams and dikes 40-80
 DEPTH OF EXPLORATION
FOUNDTION TYPE DEPTH
General 1.5 to 2 times of loaded area
Pile Foundation 10 to 30 metres or more
Retaining Wall 1.5 times of base width (or)
1.5 times of height of the wall
Dams 1.5 times of base width (or) up to bed rock

Roads(cuts & Fills) 1 metre for little cut or fill (or)

2 metres below the ground or equal to the ht. of
the fill or cut
 TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLES
Soil samples are obtained by
 Driving or pushing a sampling tube into the ground
 An open ended cylindrical tube is known as sampling tube

Types of Samples
Un disturbed Soil
Disturbed Soil Samples
Samples

Representative Non representative

Soil Samples Soil Samples
DISTURBED SAMPLES:-
Soil samples in which the natural water content or structure gets modified or
destroyed is known as disturbed samples.
NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES:
Mixture of soils from different layers/levels complete disturbance to soil
structure and properties can not be used for any test
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES:
Disturbance to soil structure water content may or may not be changed no
change in mineral constituents suitable for classification and identification tests
UNDISTURBED SAMPLES:-
Little or no disturbance to the soil structure natural structure and properties
will be preserved useful for important laboratory tests like shear test, consolidation
test etc.,
SOIL SAMPLER

Area ratio(Ar) = D22 – D12 X 100

D 12
Inside
clearance(Ci) = D3 – D1 X 100
D1
Outside
clearance(Co) = D2 – D4 X 100
D4
 AREA RATIO FOR THE SAMPLERS
 It is defined as the ratio of the volume of soil displaced by the
sampler tube in proportion to the volume of the sample.
 The disturbance to the sample depends on the dimensions of the
sampler.
 Area ratio(Ar) should be as small as possible to reduce sample
disturbance.
 If the ratio is less than 20 percent, it is generally agreed that the
sample is undisturbed.
 If the ratio is greater than 20 percent, it is generally agreed that the
sample is disturbed.
ROLES OF ‘ INSIDE CLEARENCE(Ci)’ AND ‘OUTSIDE
CLEARENCE(Co) ’
 Inside clearance(Ci) reduces friction between the soil sample and the
sampler wall when the sample enters the tube.
 Outside clearance(Co) reduces friction when the sampler is driven and
withdrawn after the sample is collected.
Limiting values of Ar, Ci, Co
IS recommends:
Ar < 20% in stiff soils
<10% in sensitive clays
Ci may be 1 to 3%
Co should be between 0 and 2%
‘RECOVERY RATIO’

Recovery ratio is the degree of disturbance of a soil during

extraction.
Recovery ratio Rf = Recovered length of sample (La)
Penetration length of the sampler (Lt)
Rf is an index of sample disturbance
Rf = 1 no disturbance
Rf < 1 the sample is compressed
Rf > 1 the sample has swelled.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Depending upon the mode of operation, the samplers can be classified as
1. Open Drive Sampler(Chunk Sample)

2. Split Spoon Sampler (Thick Wall Sampler)

3. Shelby Tube Sampler (Thin Wall Sampler)

4. Stationary Piston Sampler

 OPEN DRIVE SAMPLER(CHUNK SAMPLE)
 Obtained from open pit
Sampling steps:
 During excavation a block of soil is left undisturbed

 An open ended box is placed on the block of soil sample

 The sample is cut at the base and removed

 The open top is sealed using wax and transported to laboratory

This type of samples can be taken at shallow depths of 1 to 2m

OPEN DRIVE SAMPLER
SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER (THICK WALL SAMPLER)
This is an open ended cylindrical tube
It consists of
 A cutting shoe at the bottom

 A barrel (pipe) split longitudinally into two halves

 A coupling at the top for connection to drill rods

Sampling steps:
 Same as for thin walled open drive sampling.

 After the sample is taken the two halves of the tube can be seperated to expose the
sample
SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER (THICK WALL SAMPLER)
 SHELBY TUBE SAMPLER (THIN WALL SAMPLER)
 The sampler is a open end steel tube with a cutting edge
Sampling steps:
 The sampler is placed at the bottom of the bore hole

 The sampler is pushed into the ground

 The sampler pulled out and the sampler with the sample is transporter to the lab.

 This type of sampling is suitable in soils having some cohesion. Not suitable in hard
soils and gravels
SHELBY TUBE SAMPLER
 STATIONARY PISTON SAMPLER
This consists of:
 Sampler tube

 Piston

Sampling steps:
 Sampler tube with the piston is placed at the bottom of bore hole

 The sampler is pushed into the soil keeping the piston at the bottom of the bore hole

 Sampler along with the piston is lifted up

 Negative pressure is created if the soil tends to move downwards. This helps to
retain the sample
STATIONARY PISTON SAMPLER
 BORELOG REPORT
DEFINITION :
 Information on subsurface conditions obtained from the boring operation is
typically presented in the form of a boring record, commonly known as “boring log”
 It is a record, made by the driller or geologist, of the rocks penetrated in the
borehole. In the laboratory, a more detailed log is prepared giving particulars relating to
lithology, palaeontology, water analysis, etc.
DETAILS IN BORELOG PERIOD :
1. Description or classification of various soil and rock type
2. Ground water table details
3. Test data
 CHECKLISTS IN BORELOG REPORT
1. Introduction
2. Description of the proposed structure
3. Location and geological condition of the site
4. Methods of exploration
5. Number of borings, their depth and location
6. General description of sub-soil condition as obtained from the SPT and cone test
7. Details and results of the laboratory test conducted
8. Depth of ground water table and its fluctuations
9. Discussions of the results
10. Recommendation about allowable bearing pressure, depth and type of foundation
11. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
SAMPLE BORELOG REPORT
74
 DATA INTERPRETATION
 Data Interpretation refers to the process of determining the
significance of important information, such as survey results, experimental
findings, observations, narrative report.
Example: Bore hole data interpretation
 Borehole is small diameter vertical hole drilled into ground to take
samples for soil investigation and evaluation.
 Errors in borehole data interpretation for site investigation is discussed.
 Borehole data is used to specify suitable types of foundation for
structure.
 While boreholes are interpreted, certain errors are highly likely to be
made which could be fatal for the foundation and safety of the structure.
 ERRORS IN BOREHOLE DATA INTERPRETATION

Misinterpretations of boreholes include:

 Interpreting folded strata as straight strata

 Drift underlain by unexplored rock

 Overloading due to lack of dip assessment

 Bedrock misinterpretation

 Improper interpretation of strata formation

 Misinterpretation of soil profile

SELECTION OF TYPE OF FOUNDATION BASED ON SOIL
CONDITIONS

Type of foundation depends on:

 Soil conditions at the site
 Type of the super structure like buildings, water tanks , chimneys,
Bridges etc.,
 The magnitude of loads
 Type of load like vertical , lateral , static, dynamic , earthquake loads
etc.,
 Ground water conditions
 Environmental factors like structure in river beds , sea , hill slopes etc.,
 SELECTION OF FOUNDATION
S.No Soil Condition Preferable Foundation Type

1 Compact Sand Deposit To A Greater Depth Spread Footings

2 Firm Clay Or Silty Clay To A Greater 1. Spread Footings

Depth 2. Pile Foundation (If Uplift Forces Are Observed)
3 Soft Clay To A Greater Depth 1.Spread Footing For Low & Medium Loading
2. Deep Foundations For Heavy Loadings
4 Loose Sand Raft Foundation

5 Soft Clay But Firmness Increases With 1.Friction Piles Or Pier Foundations
Depth 2. Raft Or Mat Foundations Also Considered
6 Hard Clay Piers Or Pile Foundations

7 Rock Surface Foundations Directly Laid On Rock Surface

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF
FOUNDATION
1. Loads from building
2. Type of soil
3. Type of structures in neighbourhood
4. Type of foundations
LOADS FROM BUILDING
 In case of low rise building with large span, the extent of loading is relatively
modest, so shallow foundation is preferred in this case.
 While high-rise building with short span has high loads. Therefore, deep foundation
is required in such cases. Deep foundation is provided because ground at greater
depth are highly compacted.
 In case of framed structure multi-storey building, where loads are concentrated at the
point of application, the use of pads and piles are common. Where, loads of the
buildings are uniformly distributed, like from masonry claddings, the piles are not
needed.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF
FOUNDATION
TYPE OF SOIL :
 Where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure loads, shallow
foundations can be provided.
 Where the ground close to surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, hard
strata is searched for, and in some cases, it may be very deep, like in case of multi-
storey buildings, where loads are very high. So, deep foundations are suitable for
such cases.
 Field up ground have low bearing capacity, so deep foundation is required at that
place, whereas uniform stable ground needs relatively shallow foundation.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF
FOUNDATION
TYPE OF STRUCTURES IN NEIGHBOURHOOD:
 The selection of foundation for building construction can also be done based on the
type of foundation selected for the buildings in the neighbouring buildings for the
same types.
 Based on the success or failure of foundations for such buildings, decision can be
taken for the selection of foundation.
TYPE OF FOUNDATIONS:
 Types of foundation such as isolated foundations, combined footings, pile
foundations and raft or mat foundations etc.
 Based on the type of soils and loads from the buildings can be selected based on
suitability and requirement.
THANK
YOU…
 UNIT II
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Introduction – Location and depth of foundation –
Codal provisions – bearing capacity of shallow foundation
on homogeneous deposits – Terzaghi’s formula and BIS
formula – factors affecting bearing capacity – problems –
Bearing capacity from in-situ tests (SPT, SCPT and plate
load) Allowable bearing pressure – Seismic considerations in
bearing capacity evaluation. Determination of Settlement of
foundations on granular and clay deposits – Total and
differential settlement – Allowable settlements – Codal
provision – Methods of minimizing total and differential
settlements.
Introduction:
A foundation transfers the loads from the
superstructure to the soil safely. The foundations are
designed such that:
 The soil does not fail in shear and
 Settlement is within the safe limits

Foundations may be grouped into two categories:

 Shallow foundations
 Deep foundations
Shallow foundations
 The depth of foundation is small
 Df ≤ B
 (Df /B) ≤ 1 (for shallow foundation)
 1<(Df /B) ≤ 15 (for moderate shallow foundation)
 Construction in open excavations
 Isolated square, rectangular, circular footings, continuous wall footings,
raft or mat foundations are examples of shallow foundation

Deep foundations
 Loads are transmitted over large depth
 Pile foundation is an example
 Df > B
 (Df /B) >15
Types of shallow foundations

 Isolated footing, square , rectangular or circular

 Continuous or strip or wall footing

 Combined footing - rectangular or trapezoidal

 Strap footing

 Raft / mat foundation

1. SPREAD FOOTING:
A spread footing also called as
isolated footing, pad footing and
individual footing is provided to
support an individual column.
A spread footing is circular, square or
rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched
to spread the load over a large area.
2. CONTINUOUS FOOTING:
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing
wall.
A strip footing is also provided for a row of
columns which are so closely spaced that their
spread footings overlap or nearly touch each
other.
 In such a case, it is more economical to
provide a strip footing than to provide a
number of spread footings in one line.
A strip footing is also known as continuous
footing.
 3. COMBINED FOOTING:
A combined footing supports two columns.

It is used when the two columns are so close to each

other that their individual footings would overlap.

A combined footing is also provided when the

property line is so close to one column that a spread
footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept
entirely within the property line.

By combining it with that of an interior column, the

load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
4. STRAP FOOTING:
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated
footings connected with a structural strap.
The strap connects the two footings such that they
behave as one unit.
The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual
footings are so designed that their combined line of
action passes through the resultant of the total load.
A strap footing is more economical than a combined
footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively
high and the distance between the columns is large.
5. RAFT FOOTING:
A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a
number of columns and walls under the entire structure or
a large part of the structure.
A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low
or where the columns and walls are so close that individual
footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential
settlements on non-homogeneous soils or where there is a
large variation in the loads on individual columns.
Types of Deep Foundations:
(i) Pile foundation
(ii) Pier foundation
(iii) Well or cassion foundation
(i) Pile foundation:
Pile foundation is a long and slender structural element
which transfers the load of the structure to some firm stratum at
a considerable depth below ground surface.
(ii) Pier foundation:
Piers are large diameter piles which distributes the load of the
structure along the entire depth of soils in which it is located.
(iii) Well or cassion foundation:
Well or cassion is a large size hollow box or well which is sunk deep
into the ground to support heavy loads. The load carrying capacity of
such foundation is very large. It transfers the load of the structure to the
soil through end bearing and skin friction. Such foundations are
generally used in bridges.
Depth of foundation:
 At a depth where the soil is adequately strong
 Minimum depth = 50cm below ground level
 Below the depth of scour in foundations in river beds
 Below the zone of moisture change i.e ,below the zone of
seasonal variation of water content
 Below the zone of frost heave in areas where temperature goes
below zero.
General factors to be considered for determining depth of
foundation are:
 Load applied from structure to the foundation
 Bearing capacity of soil
 Depth of water level below the ground surface
 Types of soil and depth of layers in case of layered soil
 Depth of adjacent foundation
Rankine’s formula provides the guidance on minimum depth of
foundation based on bearing capacity of soil.

Where Ø is the angle of repose


Location of foundation:

a) Footings in sloping ground

b) Adjacent footings at different levels

c) Footings of new structures adjacent to old building

Footings in sloping ground:

When foundation is to be located on a sloping ground, the depth

of foundation should be such that a line drawn from the bottom edge
of the foundation at angle of 30° and at a horizontal distance of 90 cm
should not intersect, as shown in figure.
Adjacent footings at different levels

 If a construction is to be made near an adjacent property line, the foundation

should be so located that it should not extend into adjacent property line to avoid
legal disputes.

 If a new foundation is to be laid near a existing structure, then the bottom edge of
the near foundation must be at minimum distance ‘S’ away from the old
foundations where S is the larger of the two foundations widths.

 The depth of new foundation should be such that the line drawn from the
bottom edge of old foundation (at 30° for average soil and 45° for soft soil) should
not intersect the bottom edge of the new foundation as shown in the figure.
Foundations at different level:

In situations where bottom of the foundations of a structure are at different

level, BIS makes the following recommendations:

(a) For footing in granular soil, a line drawn between the lower adjacent edges of
adjacent foundations should not have a slope steeper than 2 H: 1 V, as shown
figure.
(b) For footing in clay soils, a line drawn between the lower adjacent
edge of the upper footing and upper adjacent edge of lower footing
should not have a slope steeper than 2H: 1 V as shown in figure.
Requirements of a safe / satisfactory foundation
A foundation must satisfy the following criterion
1. Location and depth criterion – Must be properly located and
founded at a proper depth as per codal provisions
2. Bearing capacity criterion – The loading pressure on the
foundation should be less than the bearing capacity by an
adequate margin. A factor of safety of 3 is usually adopted.
i e , loading pressure ,q < net bearing capacity / 3 (factor of safety)
3. Settlement criterion – The settlement of the foundation under
the applied load should be less than the permissible settlement
prescribed in building codes
BEARING CAPACITY

 Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement.

 When a foundation is loaded it settles. This settlement increase more or less

linearly with the increase in loading pressure

 Beyond a certain loading pressure, the foundation settles rapidly or sinks into
the ground causing rupture of the ground.

 This loading pressure at which the failure by rupture of the ground takes
place is termed as ‘Bearing capacity’ of the foundation.
BASIC DEFINITION
1. GROSS PRESSURE INTENSITY

Gross pressure intensity (q) is the intensity of pressure at the base of foundation due to load
from super structure, self weight of foundation and overburden, if any.

2. NET PRESSURE INTENSITY

Net pressure intensity (qn) is gross pressure intensity minus the over burden pressure at the
level of base of foundation prior to excavation.

qn = q – ϒD

Where,

ϒ = Effective unit weight of foundation soil

D = Depth of foundation
3. ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY

Ultimate bearing capacity (qf) is the minimum gross pressure intensity at which the soil
at the base of foundation fails by shear.

4. NET ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY

Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnf) is the minimum net pressure intensity at which the
soil at the base of foundation fails by shear.

qnf = qf − ϒD

5. NET SAFE BEARING CAPACITY

Net safe bearing capacity (qns) is the maximum net pressure intensity to which the soil at
the base of foundation can be subjected without risk of shear failure.

qns = qnf / F

Where, F= factor of safety against shear failure.

6. SAFE BEARING CAPACITY

Safe bearing capacity (qs) is the maximum gross pressure intensity to which the soil at the base
of foundation can be subjected without risk of shear failure.

qs = qf / F or more appropriately,

qs = qns + ϒD or,

qs = (qnf / F) + ϒD

7. ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE

Allowable bearing pressure (qa) is the maximum gross pressure intensity to which the soil at the
base of foundation can be subjected without risk of shear failure and excessive settlement detrimental
to the structure.

qa = qna + ϒD

Where,

qna = net allowable bearing pressure.

Types of shear failure of foundation soils
Depending upon the compressibility of soil and depth of footing with respect
to its breadth (i.e D/B Ratio).
When the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is reached, it may fail in one of
the following three failure mode depending upon the type of soil and depth to
width ratio of the footing (i.e. D/B)
 General shear failure
 Local shear failure
 Punching shear failure
General Shear Failure
 This type of failure occurs in stiff clay or dense sand.
 In this type of failure, failure takes place at a very small strain.
 The load settlement curve shows a well-defined peak.
 At failure entire soil mass within the failure wedge participates and well defined rupture surfaces
develop.
 The failure is accompanied by a considerable bulging of sheared mass of soil.
 There is only marginal difference between the load causing local shear failure and general Shear
failure.
 General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (e<5%) in a soil with considerable (ø>36o) and
large N (N > 30) having high relative density (ID> 70%).

The following are some characteristics of general shear failure

 Continuous, well defined and distinct failure surface develops between the edge of
footing and ground surface.

 Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.

 Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.

 Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.

 Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in curve.

 The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.

 State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and spreads gradually
downwards and outwards.
Local Shear Failure
 This type of failure occurs in medium dense sand with relative density between 35 – 70
%.

 In this type of failure, failure takes place at a very large strain.

 The load settlement curve does not show a well-defined peak.

 At failure only a small portion of soil underneath the footing participates and well-
defined rupture surfaces develop only at points directly below the footing.

 Bulging of soil at surface begins when strain exceeds about 8 %.

 The curve shows increase in resistance after failure.

 Local shear failure is accompanied by large strain (e> 10 to 20%) in a soil with
considerably low (ø<28) and low N (N < 5) having low relative density (ID> 20%).
The following are some characteristics of local shear failure

 A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial development of plastic
equilibrium is observed.

 Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.

 Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and slight bulging of soil around the
footing is observed.

 Failure surface is not well defined.

 Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.

 Well defined peak is absent in p - ∆ curve.

Punching Shear Failure
 This type of failure occurs in loose sand or soft clay with relative density less than
35 %.

 In this type of failure, footing penetrates into the soil without any bulging in the
soil at the surface.

 Increase in vertical load increases the vertical movement and compression in the
foundation soil.

 The failure is accompanied by vertical shear around the perimeter of the footing.

 At failure, soil outside the loaded area does not participate and there will be no
movement of soil on the sides of the footing.
The following are some characteristics of punching shear failure

 This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.

 Failure pattern is not observed.

 Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.

 Failure is characterized by very large settlement.

 Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed

in curve.
TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY ANALYSIS –
Terzaghi (1943) analysed a shallow continuous footing by making some
assumptions –
Mechanism of Failure
The shapes of the failure surfaces under ultimate loading
conditions are given in Fig. The zones of plastic equilibrium
represented in this figure by the area may be subdivided into
1 . Zone I of elastic equilibrium
2. Zones II of radial shear state
3. Zones III of Rankine passive state
Terzaghi’s formula for bearing capacity

Terzaghi’s theory for bearing capacity is based on the following assumptions:

 The footing is a long strip or continuous footing

 The footing rests on a homogeneous , isotropic soil having c and ø

 The ground surface is horizontal

 The load is vertical and concentric

 The soil fails by ‘general shear’

 The base of the footing is rough

 The soil mass above the footing base can be replaced by an equivalent surcharge
Based on the above assumptions, the ‘ultimate bearing capacity’ or the ‘gross ultimate
bearing capacity’ for a continuous footing qu is give as
qu gross = c Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5 γ B Nr
where,
c = cohesion
γ = unit weight of the soil
Df = depth of foundation / footing
B = width of footing
Nc ,Nq , Nγ - bearing capacity factors. These are function of ø ; these values are read
from the chart
qu net = qu gross - γ Df
qu gross = c Nc + γ Df (Nq – 1)+ 0.5 γ B Nr
Factors affecting bearing capacity:
c ,ø ,γ of the soil
Depth , Df and width,B of footing / foundation
(a) shape (square , rectangular , circular)
(b) mode of failure (general shear ,local shear)
(c) depth of water table
Shape of foundation
Modification for square , rectangular and circular footings
for square / rectangular footing
qu net = 1.2 c Nc + γ Df (Nq – 1) + 0.4 γ B Nγ
for Circular footing
qu net =1.2 c Nc + γ Df (Nq – 1) + 0.3 γ B Nγ
B = smaller size of the rectangular footing / diameter of the
circular footing
Mode of failure:( local shear failure )
The equation for bearing capacity is obtained based on
general shear failure. Local shear failure occurs in loose sand
and soft clays. In such cases the cohesion value is taken as 2/3 c
and the bearing capacity factors are read from the dotted line
curves of the chart.
Accordingly, the equate for bearing capacity is written as
for continuous footing
qunet = 2/3 c N’c + γ Df (N’q – 1) + 0.5 γB Nγ’
for square / rectangular footing
qunet = 1.2 * 2/3 c Nc’ + γ Df (N’q – 1) + 0.4γB N’γ
for circular footing
qunet = 1.2 * 2/3 c Nc’ + γ Df (N’q – 1) + 0.3 γB N’γ
Effect of water table
The position of W.T. affects the bearing capacity.
The effect of W.T is illustrated for a rectangular
footing. The effect is incorporated in the same
manner in all other cases.
when water table is more than ‘B’ below base
No effect of W.T on bearing capacity
BIS (IS) formula for bearing capacity
IS : 6403 – 1981 has recommended the following formula which accounts for
(i) shape of footing (ii) depth of footing (iii) inclination of load
qunet = c Nc Sc dc ic + γ Df (Nq – 1) Sq dq iq + 0.5 γ B Nγ Sγ dγ iγ
Sc , Sq , Sr ----------shape factors
dc , dq , dr -------------depth factors
ic , iq , ir ----------------inclination factors
consideration of W.T , local shear failure are done the sand way as in
Terzaghi’s eqn
FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING CAPACITY
 Total and differential settlements
 Location of ground water
 Initial stresses
 Nature of soil
 Physical and engineering properties of soil
 Nature of proposed foundation
 Size and shape of the foundation
 Depth of foundation below the ground surface
 Rigidity of the foundation structure
PLATE LOAD TEST
 Plate load test is performed to determine the ultimate load bearing capacity of soil over the in-
situ conditions.

 The plate load test is mandatory in case of designing foundation over the sandy and clayey soil.

 This test gives the highest rate of accuracy determining the safe bearing capacity of soil in case
of shallow foundations.

 This test determines the Ultimate Bearing capacity of Soil, Settlement of foundation & Allowable
bearing pressure of soil.

 Plate load test is suitable for Cohesion less soil as in case of Cohesion soil the settlement takes
place in longer duration which this test is not suitable.
 In this test, the square rigid plate having dimensions 300mm x 300mm or Circular rigid plate
having dia 300mm (larger dia plates may also used if the soil is in very loose condition) is placed
on a foundation and load is applied in increments on the plate with the help of hydraulic jack.
 Then the settlement per each load increment is recorded to calculate the bearing capacity of the
soil.
Varieties in Plate load test and their durations:-
Plate load test is performed under two variations:
1) Gravity load test (Reaction Loading method)
2) Reaction truss method
 The total duration required to perform a complete test varies from 6-7 days which includes
installations, test, dismantling.
 The results of the test in case of soft strata can be obtained within a few hours whereas in case of
hard strata it might take close to a couple of days.
1.Gravity load test

 In this type of method, a rigid platform is utilized to transfer loads

through loading of sandbags or concrete blocks.

 These blocks and sandbags act as a dead weight, and whole

arrangement rests upon vertical columns.

 The hydraulic jack is provided in between the rigid plate and top of
the column to transfer the load properly.
2.Reaction truss method

 In this method, the reaction generated through jack is borne by

reaction truss installed over it.

 The undesirable movement of truss is controlled by soil anchors or

nails fixed into the soil with the help of hammers.

 The most commonly observed truss is made of mild steel sections.

 In order to curb later movement, truss is locked with guy ropes.

PLATE LOAD TEST APPARATUS / EQUIPMENT

 Excavating tools
 Hydraulic jack (ball socket type with 50 T capacity)
 Mild steel plate (25 mm thickness & (30*30) cm)
 Dial gauges (minimum 3)
 Reaction beam and reaction truss with soil nails
 Plum Bob ( To determine center)
 PLATE LOAD TEST PROCEDURE
 The pit is excavated over the site of test with the size of 1.5×1.5m and to the depth of proposed foundations.

 One needs to find the centre of excavated pit and portion to the size of the plate is eroded to the depth 1-2 cm.

 Ensure that the foundation area must be 5 times the area of plate and the seating load of 0.07Kg/cm² is applied
to prevent undulations below the plate.

 The eroded portion is filled with rock dust in order to counter undulations and that of plate installed is
completely horizontal which on later is checked by tube level.

 Spacers are installed over the hydraulic plate on which hydraulic jack is installed.

 The hydraulic jack in order to counter the load applies pressure which in result leads to transmission of
pressure over the plate.

 Setting load of 7kN/m² is applied for some time and released. This is followed by the application of safe load
with an increment of 30%.

 In case of loading through truss, both free sides are anchored with soil nails with uniformly loading at the
ends.
Results recording:

 Dial gauges arranged at the bottom of the pit record are used to
record settlement at every 5 minutes for first 30 minutes and every 10
minutes for rest 30 minutes.

 The observation are made until 25 mm settlement is observed which

can take few hours for clayey and soft soil or even up-to couple of
days for hard strata.
CALCULATION OF BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

The whole process of calculating bearing capacity of soil using plate

load test data consists of the following 4 primary steps.

Step-1 (Plotting a Load-Settlement Curve)

Step-2 (Finding Ultimate Bearing Capacity)

Step-3 (Calculating Safe Bearing Capacity)

Step-4 (Calculating Settlement of Proposed Footing)

STEP-1 (PLOTTING A LOAD-SETTLEMENT CURVE)
After performing the plate load test, plot a load settlement curve on arithmetic scale, with
applied pressure in kN/m2 in x-axis and corresponding settlement (in mm) in y-axis.
STEP-2 (FINDING ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY)
​After drawing the load settlement curve, the next step is to identify the failure point on
the load settlement curve.
STEP-3 (CALCULATING SAFE BEARING CAPACITY)
In order to calculate safe bearing capacity of the soil, divide the ultimate bearing capacity
of soil by a suitable factor of safety.
Safe bearing capacity of soil = Ultimate bearing capacity / Factor of safety
The values of factor of safety normally used are 2, 2.5 or 3 depending upon the site
condition and importance of the structure.
STEP-4 (CALCULATING SETTLEMENT OF PROPOSED FOOTING)
The following formula as suggested by Terzaghi and Peck is used to calculate the settlement of footing for
granular soil.
Sf = Sp[Bf (Bp + 0.3)/Bp(Bf + 0.3)]²

For clayey soil the following equation can be used.

Sf = Sp*(B/Bp)

Where,
Sp = Settlement of plate, mm
Sf = Settlemnt of footing, mm
Bp = Width or dia of plate, m
B = Width of footing, m
 Allowable bearing pressure (or) stress and loadand resistance
factor design:
There are two design procedures used in practice in North
America.
 Allowable stress design (ASD

 Load and resistance factor design (LRFD).

In ASD, the ultimate load (stress) resistance is determined,

and then this is divided by a factor of safety (FS) to obtain the
allowable load (stress).
 LRFD is based on reliability methods considering the
uncertainties in loads, soil resistance, method of analysis,
and construction.
 The loads are multiplied by load factors, usually greater than
one in different combinations, and the ultimate soil
resistance is multiplied by a factor, called the performance
factor, usually less than one.
 The governing equation for design based on LRFD is

∑iρiPi <φiRi
 COMPONENTS OF SETTLEMENT:

1. Elastic settlement (Si)

2. Consolidation settlement (Sc)
3. Secondary consolidation settlement (Ss)

Total settlement = Immediate Settlement + Consolidation Settlement

 Immediate settlement or elastic settlement takes place during or

immediately after the construction of the structure.
Consolidation Settlement occurs over a period of time. Consolidation settlement
occurs in cohesive soils due to the expulsion of the water from the voids.

SConsolidation = Sprimary + Ssecondary

Primary Consolidation

Volume change is due to reduction in pore water pressure

Secondary Consolidation

Volume change is due to the rearrangement of the soil particles

Uniform settlement

When all points settle with equal amount, then the settlement is called uniform
settlement
 ALLOWBLE SETTLEMENT:
Average settlement ranging from 20 mm to 300 mm have been
permitted in engineering practice ,depending on the type of soil,
structure, construction type.
According to IS 1904 permits tolerable settlement S as under,

Sand clay
(a) Isolated 60 mm 75 mm
foundations
(b) Raft foundations 65 mm 100mm
According to British code permits tolerable settlement S as
under,

Sand clay
(a) Isolated 50 mm 75 mm
foundations
(b) Raft foundations 75 mm 125 mm
 Methods of minimizing settlement and differential settlement:
 Preloading or pre-compaction to decrease compressibility.
 Decreasing the effective load by floating foundation effect.

 Increasing the depth of foundation (in sandy soils) to take advantage

of increasing modulus of soil.
 Use of piles or piers.

 In-situ reinforcement of bearing layer.

 UNIT III
FOOTINGS AND RAFTS
Types of footings – Contact pressure distribution:
Isolated footing – Combined footings – Types and
proportioning – Mat foundation – Types – Proportioning of
footing – Floating foundation.
TYPES OF FOOTINGS

 Spread or isolated or pad footing

 Strap footing

 Combined footing

 Strip or continuous footing

 Mat or raft footing

SPREAD FOOTING OR ISOLATED OR PAD FOOTING

 It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform

thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped to spread the load
over a larger area.

 When footing is provided to support an individual

column, it is called “isolated footing”.
STRIP FOOTING OR CONTINUOUS FOOTING
 A strip footing is another type of spread footing which is provided for a
load bearing wall.
 A strip footing can also be provided for a row of columns which are so
closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each
other.
 In such cases, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to
provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also
known as continuous footing.
COMBINED FOOTING
 It supports two columns as shown in figure below. It is used when the two
column are so close to each other that their individual footings would overlap.
 A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one
column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely
within the property line.
 By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed.
A combine footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
 Trapezoidal footing is provided when the load on one of the column is larger
than the other column.
STRAP FOOTING
 It consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural
strap or a lever, as shown in figure below.
 The strap connects the footing such that they behave as one unit.
The strap simply acts as a connecting beam.
 A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing
when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and distance
between the columns is large.
MAT OR RAFT FOOTING
 It is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under entire
structure or a large part of the structure.
 A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the
columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap
or nearly touch each other.
 Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on
non-homogeneous soils or where there is large variation in the loads on
the individual columns.
CONTACT PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

Contact Pressure
On the underside of the footing, the soil reaction produce a
upward pressure which is assumed uniform in deriving
different relationship for soil-structure interaction problem.
This pressure is called contact pressure.
FACTORS INFLUENCING CONTACT PRESSURE
The actual distribution of contact pressure depends upon a
number of factors such as

1) Elastic properties of footing

2) Elastic properties of soil

3) Thickness of footing
 Different characteristics of contact pressure distribution
under flexible and rigid footings are described below:

Contact Pressure On Saturated Clay

1. Flexible Footing

2. Rigid Footing
 CONTACT PRESSURE ON SATURATED CLAY
Flexible Footing

When a footing is flexible, it deforms into shape of bowel, with the maximum deflection at the
center. The contact pressure distribution is uniform.

Rigid Footing

When a footing is rigid, the settlement is uniform. The contact pressure distribution is
minimum at the center and the maximum at the edges. The stresses at the edges in real soils can
not be infinite as theoretically determined for an elastic mass. In real soils, beyond a certain
limiting value of stress, the plastic flow occurs and the pressure becomes finite.
CONTACT PRESSURE ON SATURATED CLAY
CONTACT PRESSURE ON SAND

Flexible footing
 In this case, the edges of flexible footing undergo a large
settlement than at the centre.
 The soil at the centre is confined and, therefore, has a high
modulus of elasticity and deflects less for the same contact
pressure. The contact pressure is uniform.
CONTACT PRESSURE ON SAND

Rigid footing
 If the footing is rigid, the settlement is uniform. The contact
pressure increases from zero at the edges to a maximum at
the centre.
 The soil, being unconfined at edges, has low modulus of
elasticity. However, if the footing is embedded, there would
be finite contact pressure at edges.
CONTACT PRESSURE ON SAND
CONSEQUENCE OF ASSUMING UNIFORMITY IN
PRESSURE
 For convenience, the contact pressure is assumed to be uniform for all types of
footings and all types of soils if load is symmetric.

 The above assumption of uniform pressure distribution will result in a slightly

unsafe design for rigid footing on clays, as the maximum bending moment at
centre is underestimated.

 It will give a conservative design for rigid footings on sandy (cohessionless) soils,
as the maximum bending moment is overestimated.
UNIFORM PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
TYPES OF RAFT FOUNDATION:
FLAT TYPE:
 In this type of mat foundation a mat of uniform thickness is
provided.
 This type is most suitable when the column loads are relatively
light and the spacing of columns is relatively small and uniform.
FLAT PLATE THICKENED UNDER COLUMN:
 When the column loads are heavy this column is thickened to
provide enough thickness for negative bending moment and
diagonal shear.
 Sometimes instead of thickening a slab, a pedestal is provided
under each column above the slab to increase the thickness.
BEAM AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION:
 In this type of construction, the beams run in two perpendicular
directions and a slab is provided between the beams. The
columns are located at the intersection of beams.
 This type is suitable when the bending stresses are high because
of large column spacing and unequal column loads.
BOX STRUCTURES:
 In this type of mat foundation, a box structure is provided in
which the basement walls acts as a stiffeners for the mat.
 Boxes may be made of cellular construction or rigid frame
consisting of slabs and basement walls. This type of mat
foundation can resist very high bending stresses.
MATS PLACED ON PILES:
 The mat is supported on the piles in this type of construction.
This type of mat is used where the soil is highly compressible
and the water table is high.
 This method of construction reduces the settlement and also
controls buoyancy.
ADVANTAGES:
 The foundation and ground floor slab is poured at the same time
so which reduces our construction time and material.
 It requires less excavation.
 It is provided where the shallow foundation is possible but the
condition of the soil is poor.
 Reduces the cost of constructing a floor slab (But not fully
economical).
 It helps in the transferring of loads over a wide area.
 It shows good resistance and cannot slide during the flood.
 We can handle more heavy loads as compared to other types of
foundation.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Raft foundation requires a large quantity of steel and
concrete.
 This foundation is costly (Volume of footing was increasing).
 It is not suitable and used for domestic home construction.
 Special measurement is needed in case of concentrated loads.
 In the mat foundation, skilled laborers are required.
FLOATING FOUNDATION
 A building support on soft soil that consists of a stiff reinforced concrete slab
which distributes the concentrated loads by columns to the soil so that the
pressure intensity on the soil is nowhere more than the acceptable amount.

 The weight of the building approximately equal to the full weight of soil and
water removed from the site of the building.

 The water level has not changed the neutral pressure are therefore
unchanged.

 Settlements are caused by an effective vertical pressure

 When the soil is so soft that even friction piles will not
support the building load, the final option is the use of a
floating foundation, making the building like a boat
that obeys Archimedes’ principle—it is buoyed up by
the weight of the earth displaced in creating the
foundation.
 Floating foundations consist of flat reinforced concrete
slabs or mats or of reinforced concrete tubs.
 UNIT IV

PILE FOUNDATION
Types of piles and their function – Factors influencing the selection of
pile – Carrying capacity of single pile in granular and cohesive soil – static formula
– dynamic formulae (Engineering news and Hileys) – Capacity from insitu tests
(SPT and SCPT) – Negative skin friction – Group capacity and efficiency (Feld’s
rule, Converse – Labarra rule and block failure) – Settlement of pile groups –
Interpretation of pile load test (routine test only) – Under reamed piles – Capacity
under compression and uplift.
PILES

PILES
 Piles are the long slender members either driven or cast in situ
 Piles are subjected to vertical or lateral loads or a combination of
vertical and lateral loads
 Piles are also used to take up uplift loads
 Piles may be used as a single pile or a group of piles
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE FUNCTION

a. Friction piles
b. End bearing piles
c. Compaction piles
d. Anchor piles
e. Tension piles
f. Fender & Dolphin piles
g. Batter piles
h. Sheet piles
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIALS USED &COMPOSITION
1. Concrete piles
i. precast piles
ii. Cast in situ piles
a. Driven cast in situ piles
b. Bored cast in situ piles
2. Timber piles
3. Steel piles
4. Composite piles
i. Steel & Concrete piles
ii. Timber & Concrete piles
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
FRICTION PILES
Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carrying
material by means of skin friction along the length of the piles
END BEARING PILES
End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a
suitable bearing stratum
COMPACTION PILES
Compaction piles are used to compact loose granular soil, thus increasing
their bearing capacity
Compaction piles themselves do not carry any load. Hence it is used to
compact the soil
The pile tube driven to compact the soil is gradually taken out and sand is
filled in its place. Thus forming a “Sand Pile”
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
TENSION PILES
Tension piles anchor down the structures subjected to uplift due to
hydrostatic pressure or due to overturning moment and hence it is also called
as “Uplift piles”

ANCHOR PILES
Anchor piles provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling
or other pulling forces

FENDER PILES & DOLPHINS

Fender piles & Dolphins are used to protect water front structures against the
impact from ships or other floating objects
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
SHEET PILES
Sheet piles are commonly used as bulkheads or as impervious cut-off to
reduce seepage and uplift under hydraulic structures
BATTER PILES
Batter piles are used to resist large horizontal or inclined forces
CONCRETE PILES
Concrete piles are either precast or cast in situ piles. These piles are cast
and cured in a casting yard and the piles are transported to the site of work for
driving
i. Precast piles
ii. Cast in situ piles
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
PRECAST PILES
 Precast piles may be made of uniform sections with pointed tips
 Tapered piles may be manufactured when greater bearing resistance is
required
 Normally square or octagonal sections are manufactured
CAST IN SITU PILES
 The cast in situ piles are generally used for maximum design load of 75
tonnes
 They are installed by pre excavation thus eliminating vibrations due to
driving and handling stresses
 They are further classified as
a. Driven cast in situ piles
b. Bored cast in situ piles
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
DRIVEN CAST IN SITU PILES
Driven cast in-situ concrete piles are constructed by driving a closed-
ended hollow steel or concrete casing into the ground and then filling it with
concrete
The casing may be left in position to form part of the pile, or withdrawn
for reuse as the concrete is placed
BORED CAST IN SITU PILES
Bored cast in situ pile is constructed by digging a hole in the ground by
suitable means such as percussive or rotary method with the use of temporary
or permanent casing or drilling mud.
After that, the construction is finalized by filling the hole with reinforced
concrete.
CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IN SITU PILES

SIMPLEX PILE
It is a tube of cast of diameter 40 cm, has an underneath heel, it is banged
underground by an automatic hammer until reaching the arable land for the
establishment, then concrete is poured inside it and banged by another hammer
This pile can bear about 40 – 50 ton.
FRANKIE PILE
It is a number of tubes entering each other in order to easily access to
great depths within the earth
This pile can carry a load of 50 – 80 ton.
CLASSIFICATION
SIMPLEX PILE
OF CAST IN SITU PILES
FRANKIE PILE
CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IN SITU PILES

VIBRO PILE
It is a steel pipe of diameter 40 cm, has a conical heel with a separate
flange, it is banged underground by an automatic hammer until reaching the
arable land for the establishment, then the heel is removed and put into a tube,
after that concrete is poured
This pile can bear about 60 ton.
UNDER REAMED PILE
This pile is used at black clayey soil and lands of non residual soil, so this
soil is very dangerous to be established on it.
Piles with open tubes without heel, then concrete are poured inside the
tube
The pipe has a diameter of 40 cm and an average concrete well of 12 to 15
meters depending on the level of land to be established
CLASSIFICATION
VIBRO PILES
OF CAST IN SITU PILES
UNDER REAMED PILES
CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IN SITU PILES

STRAUSS PILE
Which is very similar to the Simplex pile but without a heel
Soil can be removed from the tubes by special devices and concrete
is poured instead of soil
The maximum load that can be carried by these piles is from 20 –
25 ton.
RAYMOND PILE
Which consists of cylindrical chips inside each other with a
diameter of 40 – 60 cm at the top of the pile and 20 – 28 cm at the bottom.
It is banged inside by a Mandrill and the cylindrical chips are
leaved in the soil and filled with concrete.
CLASSIFICATION
STRAUSS PILE
OF CAST IN SITU PILES
RAYMOND PILE
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
TIMBER PILES
 Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the branches trimmed off which should
be of sound quality and free of defects
 The length of the pile may be of 15m or more
 Diameter at the butt end may varies from 30 to 40 cm
 Diameter at the tip end should not be less than 15cm
STEEL PILES
 Steel piles are usually rolled H-Shapes or Pipe piles.
 H-piles are proportioned to withstand large impact stresses during hard driving
 The optimum load range on steel piles is 400 to 1200KN
COMPOSITE PILES
The upper and lower portions of composite piles are made of different materials
1. Steel and Concrete
2. Timber and Concrete
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

STEEL-CONCRETE PILE TIMBER-CONCRETE PILE

 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
BUTT END OF THE TIMBER PILE
TIP END OF THE TIMBER PILE
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

PIPE STEEL PILES H STEEL PILES

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF PILES

 Type, size, and weight of the structure to be supported.

 Physical properties of the soil at the site.
 Depth to a stratum capable of supporting the piles.
 Possibility of variations in the depth to a supporting stratum.
 Availability of materials for piles.
 Number of piles required.
 Facilities for driving piles.
 Comparative costs in place.
 Durability required.
 Types of structures adjacent to the project.
 Depth and kind of water, if any, above the ground into which the piles will
be driven.
 PILE SPACING
46

 The center to center distance of successive piles is known as pile

spacing.
 It has to be carefully designed by considering the following factors,
 Types of piles and Material of piles
 Length of piles S
 Grouping of piles
 Load coming on piles
 Obstruction during pile driving
 Nature of soil through which piles are passing.
 The spacing between piles in a group can be assumed based on
the following:
 1- Friction piles need higher spacing than bearing piles.
 2- Minimum spacing (S) between piles is 2.5.
 3- Maximum spacing (S) between piles is 8.0.
 5
4
Piles
Piles
S

2 3
S
Piles Piles

7
Piles
47 S 6 S
Piles S S
 GROUP OF PILES
 Most pile foundations contain group of
piles instead of single pile.
 The piles forming the group of piles may be arranged in
square, rectangular, triangular or circular as per the
requirement.
 The bearing capacity of pile group may not be
necessarily equal the sum of the bearing capacity of
individual piles forming a group.
 EFFICIENCY GROUP OF PILES
49
 The efficiency of a pile group is define as the ratio of the load carrying
capacity of the pile group to the sum of the load carrying capacities of the
individual piles.

 Factors of Group Efficiency:

 The number, length, diameter, and spacing of the piles
 The load transfer mode (friction vs. bearing)
 The sequence of installation
 The soil type
 The interaction, if any, between the pile cap and the soil
 The direction of the applied load
PILE DRIVING
 The process of forcing the piles into the ground
without excavation is termed as the pile driving.
 The piles should be driven vertically.
 However, a tolerance of eccentricityof 2 % of
the pile length is permissible.
 The eccentricity is measured by means of plumb
bob.
 The hammer is guided between two parallel steel
members known as leads.
Lead
Boom
Hammer

Helmet
Crane

Pile

Stabbing
Pile Gate Points
PILE HAMMER

 Drop hammer.
 Single acting hammer.

 Double acting hammer.

 Diesel hammer.

 Vibratory hammer.
 Drop Hammer Hammer
Guide

Pile (pre cast/cast in situ)

Soil

Driving
53 shoe
DROP HAMMER
 Low operation
 Low equipment cost
 Simple
 DROP HAMMER
 A hammer (or ram or monkey) is raised by winch and
allowed to fall or drop by gravity on the top of the pile.
 The drop hammer is provided with lugs so that it can
slide in the leads.
 A lifting eye or hook is provided to tie it with the rope.
 The weight of drop hammer varies from 0.5 to 2 tones (5
to 20 kN).
 The height of fall may vary from 1.5 to 3 meters.
 The number of blows that can be imparted varies from 4
to 8 per minute.
 SINGLE ACTING HAMMER
 If the hammer is raised by steam, compressed air or internal combustion,
but is allowed to fall by gravity along, it is called a single acting hammer.
 The energy of such hammer is equal to the weight of the ram times the
height of fall.
 The weight of single acting hammer is about 2 tonnes (20kN).
 The fall is about 1 meter.
 the number of blows of the hammer may vary from 50 to
60 per minute.
 SINGLE ACTING
HAMMER

Piston

57
DOUBLE ACTING HAMMER
 The double acting hammer employs steam or air for lifting
the ram and for accelerating the downward stroke.
 The weight of the hammer is only 500 kg (5 kN) but because of accelerating
effect of steam (or air) pressure, it has an effect of a weight of 3 tonnes (30. kN).
 It operates with succession of rapid blows, the number varying from 100 to 200
blows per minute.
 For light hammers, the number of blows may be even as high as 300 per
minute.
 The pile driving is very quick.
 These hammers are very useful for driving piles under water.
59
 DIESEL HAMMER
60

 The diesel hammer is a

small, light weight self-
contained and self-acting
type, using gasoline for fuel.

 The total driving energy is the sum

of the impact of the ram plus the
energy delivered by explosion.
VIBRATORY HAMMER
PILE HAMMER
 If the driving has to be carried out by hammer,
then following factors should be take into
consideration.
 The size and weight of the pile.
 The driving resistance which has to be overcome to achieve the
desired penetration.
 The available space and head room in the site because the hammer has
to be dropped from certain height.
 The availability of cranes.
 The noise restrictions which may be in force in the locality.
 PILE DRIVING FORMULAS
 The ultimate load carrying capacity, or ultimate bearing capacity (Qf) of a pile is
defined as the maximum load which can be carried by a pile and at which the pile
continues to sink without further increase of load.
 The allowable load Qa is the safe load which the pile can
carry safely and is determined on the basis of
 Ultimate bearing, resistance divided by appropriate factor of safety.
 The permissible settlement,
 Overall stability of the pile foundation.
 The load carrying capacity of a pile can be determined by the following methods.
 Dynamic formulae
 Static formulae
 DYNAMIC FORMULAE
64

 Used for precast concrete piles.

 When a pile hammer hits the pile, the total driving energy is equal to the
weight of hammer times the height of drop or stroke.
 In addition to this, in the case of double acting hammers, some energy is
also imparted by the steam pressure during the return stroke.
 The total downward energy is consumed by the work done in
penetrating the pile and by certain losses.
 The various dynamic formulae are essentially based on this assumption.
 DYNAMIC FORMULAE
Engineering New Formula:
Qa = allowable load
W = weight of hammer (KG)
H = height of fall (CM)
F = factor of safety = 6
S = final set (penetration) per blow,
(Usually taken as average penetration, cm per blow for the last 5 Blows of hammer or
last 20 blows for steam hammer.)
C = empirical constant.
= 2.5 cm for drop hammers, and
= 0.25 cm for single or double acting
hammers.
For drop hammer For single acting steam For double acting
hammer hammer

a= effective area of piston (cm2)

P=mean effective steam pressure (kg/cm
 DYNAMIC FORMULAE
Hiley's Formula (IS formula):
 Indian standard IS: 2911 (Part I) : 1964 gives the following formula
based on original expression by Hiley :

Qf = ultimate load on pile.

W = weight of hammer in kg
H = height on drop of hammer, in cm
S = penetration or set, in cm, per blow
C = total elastic compression= C1 + C2 + C3
C1,C2, C3 = temporary elastic compression of dolly and packing, pile and soil
respectively.
h = efficiency of hammer, variable from 65 percent for same double acing steam hammers to 100 percent for drop hammers
released by trigger.
b = efficiency of hammer blows (i.e. ratio of the energy after impact to striking energy of ram).
STATIC FORMULAE FOR PILE CAPACITY
Pile capacity is the sum of the side resistances, Qs and the
base resistance, Qp and is given by,
Qu = Qs + Qp
Qu = fs As + qp * Ap
fs – unit side resistance ie side resistance / unit area
qp – base resistance / unit area
As – lateral surface area of the pile
Ap – base area of the pile
FOR PILES IN CLAY

fs = άc
qp =1.2 C Nc = 9c
(as piles are long , accounting for the depth Nc =7.5)
ά – adhesion factor or shear mobilization factor
c – cohesion
FOR PILES IN SAND

fs = k γ L/2 * tan δ (average resistance in a homogeneous soil)

where,
k - coefficient of lateral earth pressure( k = 1 to 2 for driven
piles ; 0.4 for bored piles)
γ – unit wt . of soil
L – length of pile
δ – angle of wall friction = 1/3 to 2/3 ø
FOR A C – Ø SOIL

fs = άc + k γ L/2 tan δ-----------------(1)

qp = γL (Nq – 1 ) (neglecting the Nγ term as ‘B’ is small)
PILE CAPACITY BASED ON PENETRATION TEST DATA:
Applicable in driven piles in sand. Tip resistance, qp is obtained using ‘SPT’, ‘N’ values as
qp = 40N (L/D) kN/m2
N – observed SPT ‘N’ value at the pile tip
Average skin resistance is obtained as:
fs = 2 Nav kN/m2
fs = qc / 2 kN/m2
Nav – average SPT ‘N’ over the length of pile
qc – average cone resistance over the length of pile. Ultimate pile capacity is obtained as
Qu = fs As + qp * Ap
Piles in layered soils
Qu = Qs1 + Qs2 + Qs3
Uplift capacity of piles in clay
Quplift = fs As / F + Weight of pile
Negative skin friction:
 Negative skin friction is the downward drag on the pile surface
 In highly compressible soils, the soil moves downward relative
to the pile. This causes a downward drag force. This is called
negative skin friction.
Negative skin friction Fn on a single pile in clay, is given by,
Fn = ά C As in clays
Negative skin friction in pile groups Fng in clays
Fng = c As + γ L Ap
Group capacity
Pile are used in a group as foundation. A typical pile group. Piles are
usually spaced at 2 to 3 times the pile diameter.
Group action
Settlement of the group > settlement of the single pile for the same
load / pile. It is because, the stressed zone in a group extends to a
larger depth as shown in Fig. Therefore, a larger depth of soil gets
compressed.
Group capacity may not be the sum of the individual pile capacity. The
group capacity is obtain using group efficiency, Eg which is given
as,
Eg = Qug / nQu
Qug = Group capacity
n = number of piles
Qu = single pile capacity
Group capacity can be obtained using
 Group efficiency formulae

 Block failure criteria

Group efficiency formulae:

Converse – Labarre formula
θ [ (n-1)m + (m-1)n ]
Where, m – number of column in a group
n – number of rows
θ – tan-1 d/s in degrees
d – dia of piles
s – c/c spacing of piles
Feld’s – Rule:
For every adjoining pile, (including a diagonal one) the capacity of the pile is
reduced by 1/16.
Block failure criteria
Group efficiency for piles in sand is usually more than one. In clays, the
group capacity is obtained as:
Qug = C Nc Ap + C As
where,
Ap = Area of the base of the pile group
Nc = 9
C = Cohesion
As = Lateral surface area of the pile group.
Group capacity is the minimum of:
Qug – group capacity as a block = n * Qu
Qu – Single pile capacity ; n – number of piles
Load test on piles:
Load tests are of two types:
Initial load test : Test on a pile which does not become a part of the foundation.
Routine test : A test on a pile which is a part of foundation
Pile load test consists of :
 An arrangement to take the reaction
 Jack for loading
 Dial gauge for measurement of settlement
Test procedure:
 Load is applied in increments
 Load increment is above 1/5th of Qsafe
 Settlement is noted from dial gauge readings
 Loaded up to failure
Test results:
A load Vs settlement plot is made
Estimation of allowable load
Allowable load on pile is obtained as minimum of the following ;
1. 2/3 of the load at 12mm settlement
2. 50% of the load at which the settlement is 10% of the pile diameter
Settlement of the pile Group
Pile Group in clays;
Friction piles in clay.
Load is assumed to be transferred
on an equivalent raft at2/3 L from
the top. Settlement is computed
as for the rafts.

Point bearing in clays.

Load is assumed to be transferred
on an equivalent raft at the base
of the piles.
UNDER REAMED PILES
 Under reamed piles are bored cast-in-situ
concrete piles having one or more number of bulbs formed
by enlarging the pile stem. These piles are best suited in soils
where considerable ground movements occur due to seasonal
variations, filled up grounds or in soft soil strata.
 The under-reamed piles are connected by a reinforced
concrete beam, known as capping beam or grade beam.
 Provision of under reamed bulbs has the advantage of
increasing the bearing and uplift capacities. It also provides
better anchorage at greater depths. These piles are
efficiently used in machine foundations, over bridges,
electrical transmission tower foundation sand water tanks.
Piles Group in sand:
Equivalent rafts are assumed as above. Settlement is
computed in the same manner as for rafts/ footings using
SPT or SCPT values.
Settlement of the pile group is also found from pile load test
data as below,
Sg / Si =[( 4B + 2.7 ) / (B+3.6)] 2
where,
Sg – Settlement of pile group;
Si = Settlement of single pile for the same load / pile in group
B = Width of pile group in meters
Features and Details of Under Reamed Piles:
Diameter of the pile = 20 to 50cm
Bulb Diameter = 2 to 3 times of dia. of the pile
Pile Length = 3 to 8m
Space between 2 piles = 2 to 4m
Spacing between 2 bulbs = 1.25 to 1.5 times of bulb dia.
The load-carrying capacity = 20 to 40 ton
Increasing load-carrying capacity:
1. By putting more bulbs
2. By increasing the dia. of the bulb
3. By increasing the length of the pile
4. By providing proper reinforcement
PILE CAP
 A pile cap is a thick concrete mat that rests on concrete or
timber piles that have been driven into soft or unstable
ground to provide a suitable stable foundation.
 It usually forms part of the deep foundation of a building,
typically a multi-story building, structure or support base for
heavy equipment, or of a bridge. The cast concrete pile cap
distributes the load of the building into the piles. A similar
structure to a pile cap is a "raft", which is a concrete
foundation floor resting directly onto soft soil which may be
liable to subsidence.
 Piles are used to carry the load of the structure deep into the
ground, and pile caps form the solid foundation on which
the piers are then built.
 UNIT 5
RETAINING WALLS
Plastic equilibrium in soils – active and passive states –
Rankine’s theory – cohesionless and cohesive soil – Coulomb’s
wedge theory – Earth pressure on retaining walls of simple
configurations – Culmann Graphical method – Stability
analysis of retaining walls.

246
 RETAINING WALLS
 Structures that are built to retain vertical or nearly vertical earth banks
or any other material are called retaining walls. Retaining walls may be
constructed of masonry or sheet piles.

 Gravity walls resist movement because of their heavy sections. They are
built of mass concrete or stone or brick masonry.

 In all these cases, the backfill tries to move the wall from its position.
The movement of the wall is partly resisted by the wall itself and partly
by soil in front of the wall.
247
248
VARIOUS TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

249
Earth pressure
A soil mass retained by a wall exerts a pressure on the wall.
This pressure P is called ‘earth pressure’. The magnitude of
this earth pressure depends on the movement of the wall.
Earth pressure at rest-
 When there is no movement of wall, the soil is in a state of
rest, ie., there is no strain in the soil. The pressure
corresponding to zero lateral strain is called ‘earth pressure
at rest’ and is given by,
 p0 = k0 pv
 Where, po – earth pressure at rest at depth ‘z’ below G L

 ko - coefficient of earth pressure at rest

 pv -effective vertical pressure at depth ‘z’
 Example situation : A basement wall ; Lateral movement of
the wall is prevented.
251
Active earth pressure
When a wall moves away from the back fill, the earth
pressure reduces. Beyond certain movement, the earth
pressure reaches a minimum value. This minimum pressure
is known as ‘active earth pressure’, and is given by
pa = ka pv
Where, pa – active earth pressure
ka – coefficient of active earth pressure
Ex : Retaining wall on a hill slope; Bridge abutments

252
Passive earth pressure
When a wall moves towards the back fill, the earth
pressure increases. Beyond certain movement, it reaches a
maximum and is known as ‘passive earth pressure’.
Ex: Anchored sheet pile walls ; Anchors are subjected to
passive pressure.
Passive earth pressure is given by,
pp = kp * pv
Where, pp – passive earth pressure
kp – coefficient of passive earth pressure

253
254
255
The coefficients, k0, ka , kp are obtained as:
k0 = 1- sin ø or μ/ (1- μ)
ka = (1-sin ø) / (1+ sin ø)
kp =( 1+ sin ø)/( 1- sin ø)
Where ø – angle of shearing resistance
States of plastic equilibrium:
A soil mass is in a state of plastic equilibrium if every part of
it is at the verge of failure
This is illustrated with the help of Mohr’s stress diagram
I – Earth pressure at rest condition
II – Active earth pressure condition - Active state of plastic
equilibrium
III – Passive earth pressure condition - Passive state of plastic
equilibrium
Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory
Assumptions:
 The soil mass is a semi – infinite, homogeneous ,dry cohesion
less soil
 The ground surface is plane and horizontal

 The back of the wall is vertical and smooth

 The soil mass is in a state of plastic equilibrium

Limitation of Rankine’s Theory
1)The wall surface is assumed smooth. But in masonry walls,
the surface is rough. The error due to this assumption is
very large.
2)Wall back is taken as vertical. But in most retaining walls, the
wall back is inclined. In such cases, Rankine’s theory is not
applicable
 COULOMB'S WEDGE THEORY

 COULOMB'S(1776) developed a method for the determination of

the earth pressure in which he considered the equilibrium of the
sliding wedge which is formed when the movements of the
retaining wall takes place.
 The active case the sliding wedge moves downward and outward
relative to the backfill.
 In passive case the sliding moves upwards.
 The lateral pressure on the wall is equal and opposite to the
relative forces extended by the wall in order to keep the sliding
wedge in equilibrium

261
ASSUMPTIONS :
1. The soil is isotropic and homogeneous
2. The rupture surface is a plane surface
3. The failure wedge is a rigid body
4. The pressure surface is a plane surface
5. There is wall friction on the pressure surface
6. Failure is two-dimensional and
7. The soil is cohesionless

262
COULOMB'S -ACTIVE STATE-COHESIONLESS

263
 COULOMB'S - ACTIVE STATE
 In Fig AB is the pressure face
 The backfill surface BE is a plane inclined at an angle ß with
the horizontal
 α is the angle made by the pressure face AB with the
horizontal
 H is the height of the wall
 AC is the assumed rupture plane surface, and
 θ is the angle made by the surface AC with the horizontal
 The weight of the wedge W length of the wall may be written
as
 W = γA, where A = area of wedge ABC
264
 As the pressure face AB moves away from the backfill, there will
be sliding of the soil mass along the wall from B towards A.
 The sliding of the soil mass is resisted by the friction of the
surface.
 The direction of the shear stress is in the direction from A
towards B.
 lf Pn is the total normal reaction of the soil pressure acting on face
AB,
 The resultant of Pn and the shearing stress is the active pressure
Pa making an angle δ with the normal.
 Since the shearing stress acts upwards, the resulting Pa dips
below the normal.
 The angle δ for this condition is considered positive.
265
 As the wedge ABC ruptures along plane AC, it slides along
this plane.
 This is resisted by the frictional force acting between the soil
at rest below AC, and the sliding wedge.
 The resisting shearing stress is acting in the direction from A
towards C.
 If Wn is the normal component of the weight of wedge W on
plane AC, the resultant of the normal Wn and the shearing
stress is the reaction R.
 This makes an angle ϕ with the normal since the rupture
takes place within the soil itself.
266
 CULMANN'S METHOD
 The active earth pressure based on Coulomb’s earth pressure theory can be
obtained using Culman’s graphical procedure

 The procedure consists of following steps

 Draw the wall to a chosen scale and the surface of the back fill

 Draw a line AF making an angle ø with horizontal

 Draw AD making an angle of (90 – δ – ά) with AF

 Choose trial sliding surfaces AC1, AC2, etc

 Compute the weight of sliding wedges, BAC1, BAC2, etc and mark the
same as 1, 2, 3 etc choosing an appropriate weight scale (ie.eg 1 cm =
10kN) 267
 Draw lines parallel to AD from 1, 2, 3 etc to cut AC1, AC2, AC3 etc at E1,
E2, etc
 Join E1, E2, E3 etc by a smooth curve. This is called Culman’s curve
 Draw a tangent to the Culman’s curve parallel to AF. Let it touch the
curve at E
 Draw a line parallel to AD from E to obtain EP
 The length EP multiplied by the weight scale gives the active earth
thrust.
CULMANN'S METHOD- GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

269
 ACTIVE PRESSURE BY CULMANN'S METHOD FOR
COHESIONLESS SOILS
Culmann's (1866) method is the same as the trial wedge method. In Culmann's
method, the force polygons are constructed directly on the ϕ-line AE taking
AE as the load line.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Draw ϕ -line AE at an angle ϕ to the horizontal.
2. Lay off on AE distances, AV, A1, A2, A3, etc.
to a suitable scale to represent the weight of wedges ABV, A51, AS2, AS3,
etc. respectively.
3. Draw lines parallel to AD from points V, 1, 2, 3 to intersect assumed rupture
lines AV, Al,A2, A3 at points V", I',2', 3', etc. respectively. 270
4. Join points V, 1', 2' 3' etc. by a smooth curve which is the pressure
locus.
5. Select point C‘ on the pressure locus such that the tangent to the
curve at this point is parallel to the ϕ-line AE.
6. Draw C'C parallel to the pressure line AD. The magnitude of C'C
in its natural units gives the active pressure Pa.
7. Join AC" and produce to meet the surface of the backfill at C. AC
is the rupture line. For the plane backfill surface, the point of
application of Pa is at a height of H/3 from the base of the wall.

271
 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS

1. Check for sliding

2. Check for overturning

3. Check for bearing capacity failure
4. Check for base shear failure
The minimum factors of safety for the stability of the wall are:
1. Factor of safety against sliding =1.5
2. Factor of safety against overturning = 2.0
3. Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure = 3.0

272