HIGH-LEVEL PROGRAMMING I

Intro to Algorithms by Prasanna Ghali

 Outline
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 What is an Algorithm?
 Algorithm characteristics
 Elements of an algorithm
 Expressing algorithms
 Pseudocode
 Flowcharting
 Examples
 What is an Algorithm?
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 Step-by-step method for solving a problem

 Similar in concept to a cook’s recipe
 Algorithm Example: Recipe for
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Brownies
½ cup butter 1 tsp vanilla extract
1 cup sugar ½ cup cocoa
2 eggs ½ cup flour

1. If butter not soft, then melt butter

2. Blend melted buffer and sugar until mixture has
creamy consistency
3. Add eggs and vanilla; stir
4. Add cocoa and flour; mix until well blended
5. Pour into greased round glass cake pan
6. Microwave for 9-10 minutes
 Examples of Algorithms
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 Putting together IKEA furniture

 Going from airport to hotel in new city

 Solving Rubik’s cube

 Playing board games such as Chess, Go, …

 Solving a maze

 Choosing a TV cable plan

 Choosing a cell phone subscription plan

 Oldest Algorithm?
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 First documented algorithm was presented by

Greek mathematician Euclid in 300 B.C. to
compute Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
1. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be integers such that 𝐴 > 𝐵 ≥ 0
2. If 𝐴 = 0, then GCD is 𝐵 and algorithm ends
3. If 𝐵 = 0, then GCD is 𝐴 and algorithm ends
4. Write quotient remainder format: 𝐴 ← 𝐵 ∙ 𝑄 + 𝑅
5. Set 𝐴 ← 𝐵 and 𝐵 ← 𝑅
6. Go to 2
 Formal Definition
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 Procedure to solve well-specified problem

 Must have following characteristics

 Input

 Output

 Precision

 Finiteness

 Uniqueness

 Generality
 Algorithm Elements (1/4)
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 Mid-60s, mathematicians proved that any logic

problem, no matter how complicated, can be
constructed using one or more of only three
structures or elements
 Think of an element as basic unit of logic

 What are these three elements?

 Sequence

 Selection

 Iteration
 Algorithm Elements (2/4)
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 Euclid’s Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

algorithm
1. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be integers such that 𝐴 > 𝐵 ≥ 0
2. If 𝐴 = 0, then GCD is 𝐵 and algorithm ends
3. If 𝐵 = 0, then GCD is 𝐴 and algorithm ends
4. Write quotient remainder format: 𝐴 ← 𝐵 ∙
𝑄+𝑅
5. Set 𝐴 ← 𝐵 and 𝐵 ← 𝑅
6. Go to 2
 Algorithm Elements (3/4)
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 Elements an be combined in infinite ways

 Every element has single entry and single exit point
 Elements can be stacked or connected to one
another only at their entry or exit points
 Any element can be nested within another element
 Algorithm Elements (4/4)
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 We’ll add two additional elements

 Input

 Sequence

 Selection

 Iteration

 Output
 Expressing Algorithms
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 Need notation for expressing algorithms

 Options range from natural to programming

languages
 Two tools commonly used

 Pseudocode

 Flowchart
 Pseudocode
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 Pseudo means false

 Code a problem means to put it into
programming language
 Pseudocode means false code

 Sentences that appear to be written in

programming language but don’t necessarily
follow syntax rules of any specific language
 Flowcharting
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 Combination of graphical
input/output
symbols that represent
logical flow of data thro’
solution sequence

decision

terminal

flowline
 Pseudocode: Input
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 Can write reading of input from user as:

1: read x input x

1: read a, b, c input a, b, c
 Pseudocode: Output
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 Writing of output to user represented as:

1: print x output x

output
1: print “your speed is: “, x
“your speed is: “, x
 Sequence (1/2)
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 Computational statements executed

in order, one after another
 Once you start series of steps in

sequence, you must continue step by step 1

step until sequence ends
1: step 1 step 2
2: step 2
3: …
⋮ step n
n: step n
 Sequence (2/2)
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x = 10
1: x = 10
2: y = ax2+bx+c y=ax2+bx+c
3: z = y
z=y
 Statements, Expressions, … (1/4)
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 Statement made up one or more expressions

 Expression consists of one or more operands

and zero or more operators

 Operand can be constant or variable

assignment operator

variable x = 10 constant

operand
 Statements, Expressions, … (2/4)
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 How many expressions in following statements?

3 1: x = 10
5 2: y = x*x
7 3: z = x + y * y
 Statements, Expressions, … (3/4)
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 Every expression evaluates to a value of

certain type
 Type represents set of values and set of

operations that can be applied on these values

1: z is integer assignment
2: z = 10 = operator

type is
z 10 integer
 Statements, Expressions, … (4/4)
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 Numbers without fractions (such as 10, 33, …)

are called integers
 Digital systems cannot represent infinite set of

fractional values on real number-line

 Instead, they represent a finite set of floating-
point values with each floating-point value
being an approximation of real values
 Assignment Operator
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variable = expression

 Copy value of expression into variable, or

 Replace current value of variable by value of
expression

variable expression
 Arithmetic Operators
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variable = operand1 operator operand2

 +, -, *, /, %
=

op
variable

operand1 operand2
 Relational Operators
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 Used to compare two operands or values or

expressions
 ==, !=, >, >=, <, <=

 Expression involving relational operators

always evaluates to either 1 (true) or 0 (false)
 Value 0 means false
 Any non-zero value means true
 Logical Operators
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 Used to control sequencing of steps; combine

simple relational expressions into more
complex expressions
 &&, ||, !

 Expression involving logical operators always

evaluates to either 1 (true) or 0 (false)
 a = x < y || x > z

 b = x >= y && x <= z

 Selection Element (1/4)
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 Alters sequential flow of control by taking one

of two courses of action based on result of
evaluation of condition
 How to assign letter grades?
 Should I take an umbrella?
condition
 Overtime pay? true false
 Cable billing
action1 action 2
 Selection Structure (2/4)
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condition condition
true true false
false
action action 1 action 2

if (condition) then if (condition) then

action action 1
endif else
action 2
endif
 Selection Structure (3/4)
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𝒂% Letter Grade
𝑎 ≥ 93 A
𝑎 ≥ 93 90 ≤ 𝑎 < 93 A−
true false 87 ≤ 𝑎 < 90 B+
83 ≤ 𝑎 < 87 B
print ‘A’ print not ‘A’ 80 ≤ 𝑎 < 83 B−
77 ≤ 𝑎 < 80 C+
73 ≤ 𝑎 < 77 C
70 ≤ 𝑎 < 73 C−
60 ≤ 𝑎 < 70 D
𝑎 < 60 F
 Selection Structure (4/4)
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𝑎 ≥ 93
true false
print ‘A’ 𝑎 ≥ 90
true false
print ‘A-’ 𝑎 ≥ 87
true false
print ‘B+’ 𝑎 ≥ 83
true false

print ‘B’ ⋮
true false
 Iteration Element
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 Repeat actions while a condition remains true

condition true action

while (condition)
action false
endwhile
 start

First Algorithm input 𝑁

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 Compute 𝑥 2 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 1, 𝑁 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 0
𝑥=1
 1: read 𝑁
 2: 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 0
𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝑥≤𝑁
 3: 𝑥 = 1 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
 4: while (𝑥 <= 𝑁)
𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 + 𝑥 2
 5: 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 + 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 𝑥 =𝑥+1

 6: 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1

 7: endwhile
output 𝑠𝑢𝑚

 8: print 𝑠𝑢𝑚 end

 Traveling on a Subway
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 Algorithm: Subway
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 Input: Source station 𝐴 and destination station 𝐵

 Output: Directions to go from 𝐴 to 𝐵 using maximum of single transfer
 if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are on same line 𝐿 then
 travel on line 𝐿 from 𝐴 to 𝐵
 else [𝐴 and 𝐵 are on different lines]
 find all pairs of lines (𝐿𝑖 , 𝐿𝑗 ) s.t 𝐴 is on 𝐿𝑖 & 𝐵 is on 𝐿𝑗
and two lines have common station
 if there is only one such pair then
 take 𝐿𝑖 to a station also on 𝐿𝑗 , get off, and then take 𝐿𝑗 to station 𝐵
 else [more than one possible pair of them]
 use pair (𝐿𝑖 , 𝐿𝑗 ) which requires fewest stops
 endif
 endif
 Summary
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 What is an Algorithm?
 Algorithm characteristics: inputs, outputs, precision,
finiteness, uniqueness, generality
 Elements of an algorithm: sequence, selection, iteration
 Expressing algorithms: Pseudocode, flowcharting
 Sequence: operator, operand, expression, variable,
constant, type, integer and floating-point values,
assignment operator, arithmetic operator, relational
operators
 Examples
 Things to do: Read handout, complete assignment